In 1969, a couple of years after Israel seized East Jerusalem from Jordan, seventy of the world’s leading writers, philosophers, theolo- gians, artists, architects, and urban planners accepted Mayor Teddy Kollek’s invitation to join the Jerusalem Committee, an internation- al urban think tank that would supervise Is- rael’s unilateral unification of the city. Accord- Frontier Jerusalem: ing to architect Moshe Safdie, “such figures as Louis I. Kahn, Buckminster Fuller, Sir Nicholas The Holy Land Pevsner, Bruno Zevi, Lewis Mumford, Dennys Lasdun and Lawrence Halprin” agreed to do- as a Testing Ground nate their time because of “the aura of Jerusa- 1 for Urban Design lem and the Mayor’s personal commitment.” There was, however, an even more compelling reason: Jerusalem offered an irresistible test- Alona Nitzan-Shiftan ing ground for a discipline in crisis. The Western concept of urban beauty as an objective of modern planning had been established in Jerusalem by the British Man- date’s colonial regime. Its commitment to the “visual idea” of Jerusalem emanated from a Western imagination linking the city’s Orien- talist physical beauty to its spiritual virtuous- ness. Escaping contemporary Euro-American urban renewal, inner-city highways, and sprawling suburbia, late-twentieth-century architects sought in Jerusalem’s Orientalist authenticity salvation from a familiar and ubiquitous modernity. Israel represented a new frontier, an opportunity to gain what the West had already lost: the production of “the first 20th-century urban place.”2 Lewis Mumford, the famed author of The Culture of Cities, also wrote Kollek. Long disillusioned with the modern movement’s approach to cities, Mumford believed its ad- vocacy of order, zoning, and scientific urban form accelerated rather than ameliorated the fragmentation of the metropolis. Hence he sought in Jerusalem, in “its [indisputable] pres- ence and person,” the key for a renewed sense of urban unity which, “[d]espite all present 46 divisions and antagonisms,” could be found in district during the British Mandate. The 1949 “the structure of the city, its topography, its soil, armistice cut off Mamilla from East Jerusalem its ancient walls, its historic sites.” Mumford and the Old City, which were awarded to Jordan, confessed, “I feel that in Jerusalem not merely leading to degeneration into a dilapidated the fate of Israel, but the destiny of the world in neighborhood of small businesses and auto- the centuries to come may actually be at stake.”3 repair shops. In 1965, the Israeli government The salient questions for Mumford signaled its intention to rehabilitate Mamilla’s and his colleagues were these: How can cities 28 acres with an architectural competition.4 become and / or remain identifiable entities A bird’s-eye view of the winning proposal, by manifesting distinct personae? How can a Michael Kuhn, reveals an array of modernist city’s spatial and material presence alleviate forms — low- and high-rise, neatly designed the alienation associated with modern urban rectangular buildings — arranged along a main life? Their decade-long preoccupation with thoroughfare with elevated walkways and sepa- these issues had given rise to the nascent rate traffic systems for pedestrians and vehicles. discipline of urban design. Charging Jerusa- The main street spans the valley leading to lem with the mission to safeguard the “pres- the Old City, whose silhouette skims the sky.5 ence and character” of an exemplary city via Kuhn’s proposal came under attack modern development, architects and planners soon after the war ended. National officials turned the newly unified city into their testing wanted the Mamilla area to accommodate the ground for the new discipline. historic character of the Old City and tourists Urban design promised to take into seeking an authentic, Orientalist Jerusalem. account the efficient, sustainable, and profit- Architects condemned the proposal’s obvious able city that modern architects and planners modernity, a blatant obstacle to the “unity” envisioned without neglecting the emotional, they earnestly sought with age-old East Jeru- aesthetic, and symbolic needs of individuals salem. In 1972, Moshe Safdie, a member of the and communities that modernists allegedly Jerusalem Committee, was commissioned to ignored. Thus they focused attention on the create a new plan for Mamilla. urban place as a locus of formal, spatial, and Safdie proposed a megastructure built social identity. Places would induce a feeling of into the landscape, with major transportation belonging and social connectedness, urban de- facilities and several parking floors hidden be- signers argued, only if professionals addressed neath terraced gardens, part of a park leading specific human senses in three-dimensional from the Hinnom Valley to the Old City’s walls. spaces. This approach demanded new skills Projecting over major roads, the paved landing rooted in design methodology and encour- at the top of the park would lead eastward to aged architects to return to the rudimentary the nearby Jaffa Gate, or westward to a sunken functions of their discipline — designing form, pedestrian path bisecting the terraced gar- space, light, and movement — while imbuing dens and leading to Mamilla Street. The latter their aesthetics with moral conviction. would turn into a pedestrian mall punctuated The Mamilla neighborhood provided by several openings overlooking the majestic an excellent case study. Located at the top of vistas of the Hinnom Valley and the Old City. the Hinnom Valley next to the Jaffa Gate — a An adjacent residential village and a major ho- main entrance to the ancient Old City — it tel would follow the contours of a vernacular had been Jerusalem’s most vital commercial Palestinian village. Incorporating open green 47 Michael Kuhn, Mamilla commercial center, 1965. Moshe Safdie, Mamilla complex, 1970s. spaces and a handful of existing buildings Who would be the ultimate narrator slated for preservation, this project disguised of Jerusalem’s story? Mayor Teddy Kollek or the and thus suppressed the visually and politically residents of the city, Jews and Arabs? The Jeru- problematic seam between old and new.6 salem Committee or the Israeli government? The transition from Kuhn’s Mamilla The answer was neither simple nor clear. The project to Safdie’s exemplifies the evolution of government was interested primarily in territo- the urban design debate in Jerusalem and its rial politics, the possession and demographic political implications. Kuhn conceptualized judaization of the Old City. Kollek was invested Mamilla as an extension of West Jerusalem’s in cultural politics: legitimization of Israeli rule central business district. But the very moder- over the entire city by “beautifying” it, thus nity of his plan — its focus on efficiency, func- securing for the international community its tionality, and profit, and its indifference to the “visual idea” of Jerusalem. Jewish residents de- character, forms, materials, spaces, and activi- sired functional urban infrastructure and sym- ties of the ancient city — caused its downfall bolic connection to the city’s Biblical past. Arab after the city’s unification. It was unfit for the residents refused to participate in any planning story that Western critics and Israeli preserva- debates as long as East Jerusalem was occupied tionists wanted Jerusalem’s post-1967 “places” — a condition they considered temporary. to tell about their past. The Jerusalem they After 1967, a return to colonial ideas desired was an Orientalist, place-bound city about the city meant that one particular history in a late-twentieth-century built landscape would have to be chosen to guide contempo- that would solve their anxieties about mod- rary town planning. Why was the Orientalist ernist cities. Seizing this opportunity for both narrative chosen over more recent ones — their beautiful, sensual, beloved city, and their those of the multicultural Ottoman Empire or professional crisis, architects and planners the British Mandate, or the ruling Israeli state’s? accepted responsibilities of urban designers The answer can be found in the words to mitigate the alienating forces of modern- of the American architect Louis Kahn, who ism, confirm their “visual idea” of Jerusalem, declared, at the Jerusalem Committee’s first and tell the story of an antiquated, mysterious, meeting, that “Jerusalem deserved the aura symbolic, and pristine Jerusalem. of the immeasurable.”7 When he and his col- 48 leagues arrived in Jerusalem, though, their 1 Moshe Safdie, “The New search for its urban aura was already colored Jerusalem: Planning and Politics,” Book Review, Journal of the Society by their own Eurocentric concepts of Jerusa- of Architectural Historians, 36:2 lem as a “visual idea” expressing the city’s (May 1977), pp. 130–133. virtuous spirituality. Urban design, which for 2 Philip Johnson, “An Open Letter Kahn was architecture at its best, was the to Mayor Kollek,” New York Times, means to give this idea an appropriate form. February 26, 1971. Introducing what Safdie called the 3 Lewis Mumford to Teddy Kollek, “world of visual and aesthetic determinants,” December 1970, quoted in Arthur Kutcher, The New Jerusalem: Planning architects became complicit, indispensable and Politics (London: Thames & agents in the “beautification of Jerusalem,” Hudson, 1973), p. 9. the quintessence of Kollek’s cultural poli- 4 The Government and the Jerusa- tics. Safdie’s Mamilla project exemplified this lem Municipality announced in 1965 phenomenon. It attempted to situate East a competition for the rehabilitation of what was then considered East Jerusalem in modernity while confirming the Jerusalem, i.e., the area spanning relevance of its built forms, in-between spaces, from Mamilla in the North to Abu and topography, and their overall relationship Tur in the South, and bounded by the City Walls to the East and King to the city’s landscapes and contemporary David Street to the West. Mamilla architecture. Simultaneously, it helped Kollek was the only area of the competi- maintain the Western world’s traditional tion that was subjected to a massive erasure and new construction.