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12/5/2014 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Entheogen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An entheogen ("generating the divine within")[4] is a chemical substance used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context[5] that may be synthesized or obtained from natural species. The chemical induces altered states of , psychological or physiological (e.g. bullet ant venom used by the Satere-Mawe people). can supplement many diverse practices for , and , including , , and , psychedelic and visionary art, chanting, and including song and psytrance, traditional and , , , and .

Entheogens have been used in a ritualized context for thousands of years; their religious significance is well established in anthropological and modern evidences. Examples of traditional entheogens include psychedelics like peyote, , and , psychedelic- like , atypical psychedelics like , quasi-psychedelics like and tricolor, like muscaria. Traditionally a , Flowering San Pedro, an entheogenic admixture, or like ayahuasca or have been compounded that has been used for over through the work of a shaman or . 3,000 years.[1] Today the vast majority of extracted is With the advent of organic chemistry, there now exist many synthetic from columnar cacti, not vulnerable with similar psychoactive properties, many derived from these peyote.[2] . Many pure active compounds with psychoactive properties have been isolated from these respective organisms and chemically synthesized, including mescaline, psilocybin, DMT, , , , and . Semi-synthetic (e.g. LSD used by the New American Church) and synthetic drugs (e.g. DPT used by the Temple of the True Inner Light and -B used by the Sangoma) have also been developed.[6] Cannabis is considered a quasi-psychedelic but modern cannabis strains (e.g. Sharkberry Cream) have been bred to intensify the psychedelic characteristics. Cannabis is the world's most widely used and part of the cannabis , while have contributed to the development of modern like the vaporizer used by hospitals.

More broadly, the term entheogen is used to refer to any psychoactive drugs when used for their religious or spiritual effects, whether or not in a formal religious or traditional structure. This terminology is often chosen to contrast with recreational use of the same drugs. Studies such as 's and Roland Griffiths' psilocybin studies at Johns Hopkins (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3537171/) have documented reports of mystical/spiritual/religious from participants who were administered psychoactive drugs in controlled trials. Ongoing research is limited due to widespread drug prohibition; however, some countries have legislation that allows for traditional entheogen use.

Contents

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 1/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1 2 Entheogens 2.1 Biota 2.2 Chemicals 3 Controversial entheogens 3.1 Religious use 3.1.1 3.1.2 culture 4 Usage 4.1 Use and abuse 4.2 Cultural use 4.2.1 4.2.2 Americas Laboratory synthetic mescaline. 4.2.3 Asia Mescaline was the first psychedelic compound to be extracted and 4.2.4 isolated from (from peyote).[3] 4.2.5 Middle East 4.2.6 4.3 Religious use 4.3.1 Prohibition 4.3.2 and 5 Archaeological record 6 Classical mythology and cults 6.1 Assassins 7 Research 8 Legal status of entheogens 8.1 Australia 8.2 United States 9 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

Etymology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 2/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The neologism entheogen was coined in 1979 by a group of ethnobotanists and scholars of mythology (Carl A. P. Ruck, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, , and R. Gordon Wasson). The term is derived from two words of , ἔνθεος (entheos) and γενέσθαι (genesthai). The adjective entheos translates to English as "full of the , inspired, possessed", and is the root of the English word "." The used it as a term of praise for poets and other artists. Genesthai means "to come into being." Thus, an entheogen is a drug that causes one to become inspired or to feelings of inspiration, often in a religious or "spiritual" manner.[7]

Entheogen was coined as a replacement for the terms and psychedelic. Hallucinogen was popularized by 's experiences with mescaline, which were published as The Doors of in 1954. Psychedelic, in contrast, is a Greek neologism for "mind manifest", and was coined by psychiatrist ; Huxley was a volunteer in experiments Osmond was conducting on mescaline.

Ruck et al. argued that the term hallucinogen was inappropriate owing to its etymological relationship to words relating to delirium and insanity. The term psychedelic was also seen as problematic, owing to the similarity in sound to words pertaining to and also due to the fact that it had become irreversibly associated with various connotations of 1960s pop culture. In modern usage entheogen may be used synonymously with these terms, or it may be chosen to contrast with recreational use of the same drugs. The meanings of the term entheogen were formally defined by Ruck et al.:

In a strict sense, only those vision-producing drugs that can be shown to have figured in shamanic or religious rites would be designated entheogens, but in a looser sense, the term could also be applied to other drugs, both natural and artificial, that induce alterations of consciousness similar to those documented for ingestion of traditional entheogens.

— Ruck et al, 1979, Journal of Psychedelic Drugs[8]

Entheogens

Biota

In essence, all psychoactive drugs that are biosynthesized in nature by cytota (cellular life), can be used in an entheogenic context or with entheogenic intent. To exclude non-psychoactive drugs that sometimes also are used in spiritual context, the term "entheogen" refers primarily to drugs that have been categorized based on their historical use. Toxicity does not affect a drug's inclusion (some can kill humans), nor does effectiveness or potency (if a drug is psychoactive, and it has been used in a historical context, then the required dose has also been found).

High consumption has been linked to an increase in the likelihood of experiencing auditory hallucinations. A study conducted by the La Trobe University School of Psychological Sciences revealed that as few as five cups of a day could trigger the phenomenon.[9]

Common Psychoactive Fauna Regions/ of use constituent(s) Colorado 5-MeO-DMT and Controversial interpretation of Mesoamerican httRp:/i/vene.rw iktiopeaddia.org/wikBi/Eunfthoe oaglevnarius art. 3/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia River toad Bufo alvarius bufotenin art.

Paraponera Used by the Satere-Mawe people in their Bullet ant Poneratoxin clavata initiation rites 20 times. Hallucinogenic Primary Siganus Unknown fish spp. Common Psychoactive Flora Regions/Cultures of use name constituent(s) African Possibly triterpenoid Silene capensis Xhosa people of South Africa. root saponins South America; people of the Amazon Banisteriopsis Ayahuasca Harmala Rainforest. UDV of and United States. caapi Use within ayahuasca. Nymphaea Blue lily and aporphine Possibly ancient Egypt and South America. caerulea 's South America, sometimes used as part of spp. Tropane alkaloids trumpet ayahuasca. Bolivian torch lageniformis syn. Mescaline South America cactus Trichocereus bridgesii THC and other movements and other groups (see Cannabis Cannabis spp. entheogenic use of cannabis) Diplopterys DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and as part of Chaliponga cabrerana bufotenin ayahuasca. Harmal Harmala alkaloids Turkey and the Middle East. Hawaiian Psychoactive, but may not have been used as baby Argyreia nervosa Ergoline alkaloids an entheogen. Native to . Traditional usage woodrose possible but mainly undocumented. Ancient Greece and witches of the Middle Henbane Tropane alkaloids Ages. Echinopsis Peruvian torch peruviana syn. Mescaline Pre-Incan Chavín in Peru. cactus Trichocereus peruvianus

Tabernanthe of West Central Africa. Used by Iboga Ibogaine iboga Western nations to treat . Morning glory Ipomoea tricolor Ergoline alkaloids Morning glory Ipomoea violacea Ergoline alkaloids [10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wikDi/Eanthueorgaen Native Americans: Algonquian and Luiseño. 4/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Native Americans: Algonquian and Luiseño. Jimson weed Tropane alkaloids stramonium of India. Táltos of the Magyar (Hungary). DMT and harmala alkaloids-ott claims to have Jurema Northeastern Brazil syn. M. hostilis taken bark alone and is active Lophophora Peyote Mescaline , Oshara Tradition williamsii UDV of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Chacruna DMT Brazilian church. have used it as part of ayahuasca. Ska María Salvia divinorum Salvinorin A Mazatec Pastora Echinopsis San Pedro pachanoi syn. Mescaline South America cactus Trichocereus pachanoi Turbina Christmas corymbosa syn. Ergoline alkaloids Mazatec[10] vine Rivea corymbosa DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and Virola Virola spp. South America bufotenin Anadenanthera DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and Vilca South America colubrina bufotenin Anadenanthera DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and Yopo South America peregrina bufotenin Common Psychoactive Fungi Regions/Cultures of use name constituent(s) Amanita Siberian . Scandinavia. Possibly the Fly agaric and muscimol muscaria[11] drink of India. Psilocybin and ; Magic primarily and Mazatec mushrooms spp. (some species)

Chemicals

Many man-made chemicals with little human history have been recognized to catalyze intense spiritual experiences, and many synthetic entheogens are simply slight modifications of their naturally occurring counterparts. Some synthetic entheogens like 4-AcO-DMT are theorized to be prodrugs that metabolize into the natural psychoactive, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 5/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia similar in nature to how the synthetic compound is deacetylated by esterase to the active . While synthesized DMT and mescaline is reported to have identical entheogenic qualities as extracted or based sources, the experience may wildly vary due to the lack of numerous psychoactive alkaloids that constitute the material. This is similar to how pure THC is very different than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such as and .

Some drugs including , PCP, and DXM are known to cause clinical psychological dependence, chemical dependence, and NMDA receptor antagonist (NAN), when used chronic. To the contrary, ibogaine, another dissociative drug found in Tabernanthe iboga, is a notorious exception that does not produce those side-effects, it has, in fact, been used as a treatment for chemical dependence. Also, ketamine psychedelic therapy (KPT) have been used for preparation for death (thanatological, death-rebirth )[12] chemical treatment against alcoholism, pain therapy, and to increase intelligence.

Common Synthesis Full name name process Semi- Lysergic acid LSD New American Church believed "LSD is the true Christ".[13] synthetic diethylamide 2C-B is used by the Sangoma over their traditional plants.[6] Although acting strongly as an empathogen-entactogen, 2C-B 2,5-dimethoxy-4- is notably psychedelic in a unique way. Although some users 2C-B Synthetic bromophenethylamine feel the 2C-x series are better suited for recreational purposes, 2C-B is consistently excluded as an exception and is an exceptional example for its class.[14] DPT is used as a religious by the Temple of the DPT Synthetic True Inner Light who that DPT and other entheogens are physical manifestations of God.[15]

3,4-methylenedioxy- Small doses of MDMA are used as an entheogen to enhance MDMA Synthetic N- prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners.[16] methylamphetamine The Mazatec curandera María Sabina was celebrating a Psilocybin Synthetic - velada with pills of synthetic psilocybin named Indocybin synthesized by .[17]

Yohimbine is an naturally found in Pausinystalia yohimbe (Yohimbe), Rauwolfia serpentina (Indian Snakeroot), and Alchornea floribunda (Niando), along with several other active alkaloids. There are no references to Synthetic or these species in traditional use to induce past memories, most Yohimbine - extracted likely because their alkaloid content is too low; However, laboratory extracted yohimbine, now commonly sold as sport supplement, may be used in psychedelic therapy to facilitate recall of traumatic memories in the treatment of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[18] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 6/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Controversial entheogens

L. E. Hollister's criteria for establishing that a drug is hallucinogenic is:[19]

in proportion to other effects, changes in thought, perception, and mood should predominate; intellectual or memory impairment should be minimal; stupor, narcosis, or excessive stimulation should not be an integral effect; autonomic nervous system side effects should be minimal; and addictive craving should be absent.

Common recreational drugs that cause chemical dependence have a history of entheogenic use. Perhaps because they could not access traditional entheogens as shamans were very secret with their who regarded non- visioning sacraments as hedonistic. The drugs mentioned here have occasionally been used by some shamans but they are psychoactive drugs that are not classified as (psychedelic, dissociative or ). These drugs are not researched chemicals for psychedelic therapy as they have low therapeutic index.

Common Psychoactive Source Regions/Cultures of use Problematic use name constituent(s) Used in rituals and worshipped by the Alcoholic Ethanol Primarily ethyl Egyptians and the Greeks. Used (in the beverages Physical dependence fermentation alcohol form of Communion ) by Catholics (e.g. wine) and other Christian . The alkaloid content of leaves is low, between 0.25% and 0.77%.[21] Coca has been a vital part of the religious of the Andean This means that peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, chewing the leaves or Colombia, northern Argentina, and drinking coca tea Erythroxylum Chile from the pre-Inca period through does not produce the coca & the present. In addition, coca use in intense high Coca Erythroxylum Primarily shamanic rituals is well documented (, novogranatense wherever local native populations have megalomania, spp. cultivated the plant. For example, the depression) people Tayronas of Colombia's Sierra Nevada experience with de Santa Marta use to chew the plant cocaine. However, before engaging in extended meditation even if it would produce such effect, and prayer.[20] the next problem would be cocaine dependence.

http://en.wikipedia.org/Pwikiip/Eenrtheogen Kava cultures are the religious and 7/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Kava Piper Kava cultures are the religious and methysticum cultural traditions of western Oceania which consume kava. can produce mild-to-moderate For centuries, religious leaders have psychological Khat Catha edulis consumed the leaves to stay awake [22] dependence (less during long nights of prayer. than or alcohol).[23] Mapacho (South Comparatively America) Uncured tobacco Nicotiana high levels of A common admixture of Ayahuasca in and thuoc contains rustica MAOI beta- some parts of the Amazon. lao (thuốc which is addictive carbolines lào) (Vietnam) Papaver The opium poppy was a magical ritual Morphine Physical dependence poppy somniferum plant among the Germanic tribes.[24]

Religious use

Drugs, including some that cause physical dependence, have been used with entheogenic intention, mostly in ancient times.

Alcohol

Alcohol has sometimes been invested with religious significance. al-ġawl, properly meaning اﻟﻐﻮل The present day word for alcohol appears in The Qur'an (in verse 37:47) as "" or "", in the sense of "the thing that gives the wine its headiness."[25] The term ethanol was invented 1838, modeled on German äthyl (Liebig), from Greek aither (see ether), and hyle "stuff". Ether in late 14c. meant "upper regions of space," from Old French ether and directly from aether, "the upper pure, bright air," from Greek aither "upper air; bright, purer air; the sky," from aithein "to burn, shine," from PIE root *aidh- "to burn" (see edifice).[26]

Celtic

In ancient Celtic religion, Sucellus or Sucellos was the god of agriculture, forests and alcoholic drinks of the Gauls.

Ancient Mesopotamian religion

Ninkasi is the ancient Sumerian tutelary of .[27]

Dionysian Mysteries

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 8/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In the ancient Greco-Roman religion, Dionysos (or Bacchus) was the god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, of ritual madness and , of merry making and theatre. The original rite of is associated with a wine cult and he may have been worshipped as early as c. 1500–1100 BC by Mycenean Greeks. The Dionysian Mysteries were a ritual of ancient Greece and Rome which used intoxicants and other -inducing techniques (like dance and music) to remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the individual to return to a natural state. In his Laws, said that alcoholic drinking parties should be the basis of any educational system, because the alcohol allows relaxation of otherwise fixed views. The Symposium (literally, 'drinking together') was a dramatised account of a drinking party where the participants debated the nature of .

Osiris

Egyptian pictographs clearly show wine as a finished product around 4000 BC. Osiris, the god who invented beer and brewing, was worshiped throughout the country. The ancient Egyptians made at least 24 types of wine and 17 types of beer. These beverages were used for pleasure, Dionysos, or Bacchus, was nutrition, rituals, medicine, and payments. They were also stored in the known as the god of wine and [28] tombs of the deceased for use in the . The Osirian Mysteries ritual madness in Greek paralleled the Dionysian, according to contemporary Greek and Egyptian mythology ("Bacchus" by observers. involved liberation from 's rules and Michelangelo 1497). constraints. It celebrated that which was outside civilized society and a return to the source of being, which would later assume mystical overtones. It also involved escape from the socialized personality and ego into an ecstatic, deified state or the primal herd (sometimes both).

Other

Some scholars have postulated that pagan actively promoted alcohol and drunkenness as a means of fostering fertility. Alcohol was believed to increase sexual desire and make it easier to approach another person for sex. For example, Norse considered alcohol to be the sap of Yggdrasil. Drunkenness was an important fertility rite in this religion.

Many Christian denominations use wine in the Eucharist or Communion and permit alcohol consumption in moderation. Other denominations use unfermented grape juice in Communion; they either voluntarily abstain from alcohol or prohibit it outright.

Judaism uses wine on Shabbat and some holidays for Kiddush as well as more extensively in the Passover ceremony and other religious ceremonies. The secular consumption of alcohol is allowed. Some Jewish texts, e.g. the , encourage moderate drinking on holidays (such as Purim) in order to make the occasion more joyous.

Kava culture

Kava cultures are the religious and cultural traditions of western Oceania which consume kava. There are similarities in the use of kava between the different cultures, but each one also has its own traditions. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 9/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Usage

Use and abuse

Entheogens have been used by individuals to pursue spiritual goals such as , , egolessness, healing, psychedelic therapy and spiritual formation.

There are also instances where people have been given entheogens without their knowledge or consent (e.g. tourists in Ayahuasca),[29] as well as attempts to use such drugs in other contexts, such as cursing, psychochemical weaponry, psychological , brainwashing and mind control; CIA experiments with LSD were used in Project MKUltra, and controversial entheogens like alcohol are often mentioned in context of bread and circuses.

Cultural use

Entheogens have been used in various ways, e.g. as part of established religious rituals, as aids for personal ("plant teachers"),[30][31] as recreational drugs, and for medical and therapeutic use. The use of entheogens in human cultures is nearly ubiquitous throughout recorded history.

Naturally occurring entheogens such as psilocybin and DMT (in the preparation ayahuasca), were, for the most part, discovered and used by older cultures, as part of their spiritual and religious life, as plants and agents that were respected, or in some cases revered for generations and may be a tradition that predates all modern religions as a sort of proto-religious rite.

One of the most widely used entheogens is cannabis, entheogenic use of cannabis has been used in regions such as , Europe, and India, and, in some cases, for thousands of years. It has also appeared as a part of religions and cultures such as the Rastafari movement, the Sadhus of , the , Sufi , and others.

Africa

The best-known entheogen-using culture of Africa is the Bwitists, who used a preparation of the root bark of Tabernanthe iboga.[32] Although the ancient Egyptians may have been using the blue lily plant in some of their religious rituals or just symbolically, it has been suggested that Egyptian religion once revolved around the ritualistic ingestion of the far more psychoactive mushroom, and that the Egyptian White Crown, Triple Crown, and Atef Crown were evidently designed to represent pin-stages of this mushroom.[33] There is also evidence for the use of psilocybin mushrooms in Côte d'Ivoire.[34] Numerous other plants used in shamanic ritual in Africa, such as Silene capensis sacred to the Xhosa, are yet to be investigated by western science. A recent revitalization has occurred in the study of southern African psychoactives and entheogens (Mitchell and Hudson 2004; Sobiecki 2002, 2008, 2012).[35]

Americas

Entheogens have played a pivotal role in the spiritual practices of most American cultures for millennia. The first American entheogen to be subject to scientific analysis was the peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii). For his part, one of the founders of modern ethno-botany, the late-Richard Evans Schultes of documented the ritual use of peyote cactus among the Kiowa, who live in what became Oklahoma. While it was http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 10/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia used traditionally by many cultures of what is now , in the 19th century its use spread throughout , replacing the deadly toxic mescal bean (Calia secundiflora) who are questioned to be an entheogen at all. Other well-known entheogens used by Mexican cultures include psilocybin mushrooms, morning glories (Ipomoea tricolor and Turbina corymbosa), and Salvia divinorum.

Indigenous peoples of South America employ a wide variety of entheogens. Better-known examples include ayahuasca (most commonly and Psychotria viridis) among indigenous peoples (such as the Urarina) of Peruvian Amazonia. Other entheogens include San Pedro cactus (, syn. Trichocereus pachanoi), Peruvian torch cactus (Echinopsis peruviana, syn. Trichocereus peruvianus), and various DMT-snuffs, such as epená (Virola spp.), vilca and yopo (Anadenanthera colubrina and A. peregrina, respectively). The tobacco plant, when used uncured in large doses in shamanic contexts, also serves as an entheogen in South America. Also, a tobacco that contains higher nicotine content, and therefore smaller doses required, called was commonly used.

Entheogens also play an important role in contemporary religious movements such as the Rastafari movement and the .

Datura wrightii is sacred to some native Americans and has been used in ceremonies and rites of passage by Chumash, Tongva, and others. Among the Chumash, when a boy was 8 years old, his mother would give him a preparation of momoy to drink. This supposed spiritual challenge should help the boy develop the spiritual wellbeing that is required to become a man. Not all of the boys undergoing this ritual survived.[36] Momoy was also used to enhance spiritual wellbeing among adults . For instance, during a frightening situation, such as when seeing a coyote walk like a man, a leaf of momoy was sucked to help keep the in the body.

Asia

The indigenous peoples of (from whom the term shaman was borrowed) have used as an entheogen.

In Hinduism, and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies, although the religious use of datura is not very common, as the primary alkaloids are strong deliriants, which causes serious intoxication with unpredictable effects.

Also, the ancient drink Soma, mentioned often in the , appears to be consistent with the effects of an entheogen. In his 1967 book, Wasson argues that Soma was Amanita muscaria. The active ingredient of Soma is presumed by some to be , an alkaloid with and (somewhat debatable) entheogenic properties derived from the soma plant, identified as pachyclada. However, there are also arguments to suggest that Soma could have also been Syrian rue, cannabis, , or some combination of any of the above plants.

Europe

Fermented honey, known in Northern Europe as , was an early entheogen in Aegean civilization, predating the introduction of wine, which was the more familiar entheogen of the reborn Dionysus and the . Its religious uses in the Aegean world are bound up with the mythology of the bee.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 11/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia were known to use cannabis in their religious and important life ceremonies, proven by discoveries of large clay pots with burnt cannabis seeds in ancient tombs and religious shrines. Also, local oral and tell of ancient priests that dreamed with and walked in the smoke. Their , as transmitted by Herodotus, were "kap-no-batai" which in Dacian was supposed to mean "the ones that walk in the clouds".

The growth of Roman Christianity also saw the end of the two-thousand-year-old tradition of the , the initiation ceremony for the cult of and involving the use of a drug known as . The term '' is used in in a way that is remarkably similar to the Soma of the as well.

A theory that natural occurring gases like ethylene used by inhalation may have played a role in divinatory ceremonies at in received popular press attention in the early 2000s, yet has not been conclusively proven.[37]

Mushroom consumption is part of the culture of Europeans in general, with particular importance to Slavic and Baltic peoples. Some academics consider that using psilocybin- and or muscimol-containing mushrooms was an integral part of the ancient culture of the Rus' people.[38]

Middle East

It has been suggested that the ritual use of small amounts of Syrian rue is an artifact of its ancient use in higher doses as an entheogen (possibly in conjunction with DMT containing acacia).

Philologist John Marco Allegro has argued in his book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross that early Jewish and Christian cultic practice was based on the use of Amanita muscaria, which was later forgotten by its adherents. Allegro's hypothesis that Amanita use was forgotten after primitive Christianity seems contradicted by his own view that the Plaincourault Chapel shows evidence of Christian amanita use in the 13th century.[39]

Oceania

In general, are thought not to have used entheogens, although there is a strong barrier of secrecy surrounding Aboriginal , which has likely limited what has been told to outsiders. A plant that the Australian Aboriginals used to ingest is called Pitcheri, which is said to have a similar effect to that of coca. Pitcheri was made from the bark of the shrub Duboisia myoporoides. This plant is now grown commercially and is processed to manufacture an eye . There are no known uses of entheogens by the Māori of aside from a variant species of Kava.[40] Natives of are known to use several species of entheogenic mushrooms (Psilocybe spp, Boletus manicus).[41]

Kava or kava kava (Piper Methysticum) has been cultivated for at least 3000 years by a number of Pacific -dwelling peoples. Historically, most Polynesian, many Melanesian, and some Micronesian cultures have ingested the psychoactive pulverized root, typically taking it mixed with water. Much traditional usage of kava, though somewhat suppressed by Christian in the 19th and 20th centuries, is thought to facilitate contact with the spirits of the dead, especially relatives and ancestors.[42]

Religious use

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 12/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Prohibition

Some religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic beverages for various reasons. These include: Islam, , the Bahá'í Faith, The Church of Christ of Latter-day (LDS Church), the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Church of Christ, Scientist, the United Pentecostal Church International, , most schools of , some Protestant denominations of Christianity, some sects of ( (Taoism) and Ten Precepts (Taoism)), and Hinduism.

The Canon, the scripture of Theravada Buddhism, depicts refraining from alcohol as essential to moral conduct because intoxication causes a loss of mindfulness. The fifth of the Five Precepts states, "Surā-meraya-majja- pamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi." In English: "I undertake to refrain from fermented drink that causes heedlessness." Technically, this prohibition does not include other mind-altering drugs. The Canon does not suggest that alcohol is , but believes that the carelessness produced by intoxication creates bad . Therefore, any drug (beyond tea or mild coffee) that affects one's mindfulness be considered to be covered by this prohibition.

Judaism and Christianity

Many Christian denominations disapprove of the use of most illicit drugs. The early history of the Church, however, was filled with a variety of drug use, recreational and otherwise.[43]

The primary advocate of a religious use of cannabis plant in early Judaism was , also called Sara ֹ mentioned five times ְקנֵה-בֶשׂם Benetowa, a Polish anthropologist, who claimed in 1967 that the plant kaneh bosm in the Hebrew , and used in the holy oil of the , was in fact cannabis.[44] The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church confirmed it as a possible valid interpretation.[45] The lexicons of Hebrew and dictionaries of plants of the Bible such as by Zohary (1985), Hans Arne Jensen (2004) and James A. Duke (2010) and others identify the plant in question as either or Cymbopogon citratus.[46] Kaneh-bosm is listed as an incense in the . It is generally held by academics specializing in the archaeology and paleobotany of Ancient Israel, and those specializing in the lexicography of the that cannabis is not documented or mentioned in early Judaism. Against this some popular writers have argued that there is evidence for religious use of cannabis in the Hebrew Bible,[47] although this hypothesis and some of the specific case studies (e.g., John Allegro in relation to , 1970) have been "widely dismissed as erroneous, others continue".[48]

According to The Living , cannabis may have been one of the ingredients of the mentioned in various sacred Hebrew texts.[49] The herb of interest is most commonly known as kaneh-bosm (Hebrew: This is mentioned several times in the Old Testament as a bartering material, incense, and an ingredient in .(קנה-בֹשׂם ְֵ ֶ holy anointing oil used by the high priest of the temple. Although Chris Bennett's research in this area focuses on cannabis, he mentions evidence suggesting use of additional visionary plants such as henbane, as well.[50]

The translates kaneh-bosm as calamus, and this translation has been propagated unchanged to most later translations of the old testament. However, Polish anthropologist Sula Benet published etymological arguments that the word for can be read as kannabos and appears to be a cognate to the modern word 'cannabis',[51] with the root kan meaning reed or hemp and bosm meaning fragrant. Both cannabis and calamus are fragrant, reedlike plants containing psychotropic compounds. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 13/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In his research, Professor Dan Merkur points to significant evidence of an within the Jewish mystical tradition recognizing as an entheogen, thereby substantiating with rabbinic texts theories advanced by the superficial biblical interpretations of Terence McKenna, R. Gordon Wasson and other ethnomycologists.

Although philologist John Marco Allegro has suggested that the self-revelation and healing abilities attributed to the figure of Jesus may have been associated with the effects of the plant , this evidence is dependent on pre- Septuagint interpretation of Torah and Tenach. Allegro was the only non-Catholic appointed to the position of translating the Dead Sea scrolls. His extrapolations are often the object of scorn due to Allegro's non-mainstream theory of Jesus as a mythological personification of the essence of a "psychoactive sacrament". Furthermore, they conflict with the position of the with regard to transubstantiation and the teaching involving valid matter, form, and drug — that of bread and wine (bread does not contain psychoactive drugs, but wine contains ethanol). Allegro's book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross relates the development of language to the development of myths, religions, and cultic practices in world cultures. Allegro believed he could prove, through etymology, that the roots of Christianity, as of many other religions, lay in fertility cults, and that cult practices, such as ingesting visionary plants (or "psychedelics") to perceive the mind of God, persisted into the early Christian era, and to some unspecified extent into the 13th century with reoccurrences in the 18th century and mid-20th century, as he interprets the Plaincourault chapel's fresco to be an accurate depiction of the ritual ingestion of Amanita muscaria as the Eucharist.

The historical picture portrayed by the Entheos journal is of fairly widespread use of visionary plants in early Christianity and the surrounding culture, with a gradual reduction of use of entheogens in Christianity.[52] R. Gordon Wasson's book Soma prints a letter from art historian Erwin Panofsky asserting that art scholars are aware of many "mushroom trees" in Christian art.[53]

The question of the extent of visionary plant use throughout the history of Christian practice has barely been considered yet by academic or independent scholars. The question of whether visionary plants were used in pre- Theodosius Christianity is distinct from evidence that indicates the extent to which visionary plants were utilized or forgotten in later Christianity, including so-called "heretical" or "quasi-" Christian groups,[54] and the question of other groups such as elites or laity within "orthodox" Catholic practice.[55]

Daniel Merkur at the University of Toronto contends that a minority of Christian hermits and mystics could possibly have used entheogens, in conjunction with , meditation, and prayer. Archaeological record

R. Gordon Wasson and Giorgio Samorini have proposed several examples of the cultural use of entheogens that are found in the archaeological record.[56][57] Evidence for the first use of entheogens may come from Tassili, Algeria, with a cave painting of a mushroom-man, dating to 8000 BP. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus. Classical mythology and cults

Although entheogens are taboo and most of them are officially prohibited in Christian and Islamic societies, their ubiquity and prominence in the spiritual traditions of various other cultures is unquestioned. "The spirit, for example, need not be chemical, as is the case with the ivy and the olive: and yet the god was felt to be within them; nor need http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 14/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia its possession be considered something detrimental, like drugged, hallucinatory, or delusionary: but possibly instead an invitation to knowledge or whatever good the god's spirit had to offer."[58]

Most of the well-known modern examples, such as peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, and morning glories are from the native cultures of the Americas. However, it has also been suggested that entheogens played an important role in ancient Indo-European culture, for example by inclusion in the ritual preparations of the Soma, the "pressed juice" that is the subject of Book 9 of the Rig Veda. Soma was ritually prepared and drunk by priests and initiates and elicited a paean in the Rig Veda that embodies the nature of an entheogen:

Splendid by Law! declaring Law, truth speaking, truthful in thy works, Enouncing faith, King Soma!... O [Soma] Pavāmana (mind clarifying), place me in that deathless, undecaying world wherein the light of heaven is set, and everlasting lustre shines.... Make me immortal in that realm where and transports, where joy and felicities combine...

The kykeon that preceded initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries is another entheogen, which was investigated (before the word was coined) by Carl Kerényi, in Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter. Other entheogens in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean include the opium poppy, datura, and the unidentified "lotus" (likely the sacred blue lily) eaten by the Lotus-Eaters in the and .

According to Ruck, Eyan, and Staples, the familiar shamanic entheogen that the Indo-Europeans brought knowledge of was Amanita muscaria. It could not be cultivated; thus it had to be found, which suited it to a nomadic lifestyle. When they reached the world of the Caucasus and the Aegean, the Indo-Europeans encountered wine, the entheogen of Dionysus, who brought it with him from his birthplace in the mythical , when he returned to claim his Olympian birthright. The Indo-European proto-Greeks "recognized it as the entheogen of Zeus, and their own traditions of shamanism, the Amanita and the 'pressed juice' of Soma — but better, since no longer unpredictable and wild, the way it was found among the Hyperboreans: as befit their own assimilation of agrarian modes of life, the entheogen was now cultivable."[58] Robert Graves, in his foreword to The Greek Myths, hypothesises that the ambrosia of various pre-Hellenic tribes was Amanita muscaria (which, based on the morphological similarity of the words amanita, and ambrosia, is entirely plausible) and perhaps psilocybin mushrooms of the genus.

Amanita was divine food, according to Ruck and Staples, not something to be indulged in or sampled lightly, not something to be profaned. It was the food of the gods, their ambrosia, and it mediated between the two realms. It is said that 's crime was inviting commoners to share his ambrosia.

The entheogen is believed to offer godlike powers in many traditional tales, including immortality. The failure of in retrieving the plant of immortality from beneath the waters teaches that the blissful state cannot be taken by force or guile: When Gilgamesh lay on the bank, exhausted from his heroic effort, the came and ate the plant.

Another attempt at subverting the natural order is told in a (according to some) strangely metamorphosed , in which natural roles have been reversed to suit the Hellenic world-view. The Alexandrian Apollodorus relates how Gaia (spelled "Ge" in the following passage), Mother Earth herself, has supported the Titans in their battle with the Olympian intruders. The Giants have been defeated:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 15/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

When Ge learned of this, she sought a drug that would prevent their destruction even by mortal hands. But Zeus barred the appearance of Eos (the Dawn), Selene (the Moon), and Helios (the Sun), and chopped up the drug himself before Ge could find it.[59]

Assassins

The legends of the Assassins had much to do with the training and instruction of Nizari fida'is, famed for their public missions during which they often gave their lives to eliminate adversaries.

The tales of the fida’is’ training collected from anti-Ismaili historians and orientalists writers were confounded and compiled in Marco Polo’s account, in which he described a "secret garden of paradise". After being drugged, the Ismaili devotees were said be taken to a paradise-like garden filled with attractive young maidens and beautiful plants in which these fida’is would awaken. Here, they were told by an "old" man that they were witnessing their place in Paradise and that should they wish to return to this garden permanently, they must serve the Nizari cause.[60] So went the tale of the "Old Man in the Mountain", assembled by Marco Polo and accepted by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1774–1856), a prominent orientalist writer responsible for much of the spread of this legend. Until the 1930s, von Hammer’s retelling of the Assassin legends served as the standard account of the Nizaris across Europe. Research

Notable early testing of the entheogenic experience includes the Marsh Chapel Experiment, conducted by physician and doctoral candidate, , under the supervision of Timothy Leary and the Harvard Psilocybin Project. In this double-blind experiment, volunteer graduate school students from the Boston area almost all claimed to have had profound religious experiences subsequent to the ingestion of pure psilocybin. In 2006, a more rigorously controlled experiment was conducted at , and yielded similar results.[61] To date there is little peer-reviewed research on this subject, due to ongoing drug prohibition and the difficulty of getting approval from institutional review boards.

Legal status of entheogens -like round window above the altar at 's Marsh Australia Chapel, site of Marsh Chapel Experiment Between 2011 and 2012, the Australian Federal Government was considering changes to the Australian Criminal Code that would classify any plants containing any amount of DMT as "controlled plants".[62] DMT itself was already controlled under current laws. The proposed changes included other similar blanket bans for other substances, such as a ban on any and all plants containing Mescaline or Ephedrine. The proposal was not pursued after political embarrassment on realisation that this would make the

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 16/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia official Floral Emblem of Australia, (Golden Wattle), illegal. The Therapeutic Goods Administration and federal authority had considered a motion to ban the same, but this was withdrawn in May 2012 (as DMT may still hold potential entheogenic to native and/or religious peoples).[63]

United States

In 1963 in Sherbert v. Verner the Supreme Court established the Sherbert Test, which consists of four criteria that are used to determine if an individual's right to religious free exercise has been violated by the government. The test is as follows:

For the individual, the court must determine

whether the person has a claim involving a sincere religious , and whether the government action is a substantial burden on the person’s ability to act on that belief.

If these two elements are established, then the government must prove

that it is acting in furtherance of a "compelling state interest," and that it has pursued that interest in the manner least restrictive, or least burdensome, to religion.

This test was eventually all-but-eliminated in Employment Division v. Smith 494 U.S. 872 (1990), but was resurrected by Congress in the federal Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) of 1993.

In City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507 (1997) and Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418 (2006), the RFRA was held to trespass on state sovereignty, and application of the RFRA was essentially limited to federal law enforcement.

As of 2001, Arizona, Idaho, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Texas had enacted so-called "mini- RFRAs." Literature

Many works of literature have described entheogen use; some of those are:

The drug melange (spice) in 's universe acts as both an entheogen (in large enough quantities) and an addictive geriatric medicine. Control of the supply of melange was crucial to the Empire, as it was necessary for, among other things, faster-than-light (folding space) navigation. Consumption of the imaginary mushroom anochi [enoki] as the entheogen underlying the creation of Christianity is the premise of Philip K. Dick's last novel, The Transmigration of Timothy Archer, a theme that seems to be inspired by John Allegro's book. Aldous Huxley's final novel, Island (1962), depicted a fictional psychoactive mushroom — termed " medicine" — used by the people of Pala in rites of passage, such as the transition to adulthood and at the end of life. Bruce Sterling's Holy Fire novel refers to the religion in the future as a result of entheogens, used freely by http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 17/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia the population. In Stephen King's The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger, Book 1 of The Dark Tower series, the main character receives guidance after taking mescaline. The Alastair Reynolds novel Absolution Gap features a moon under the control of a religious government that uses neurological viruses to induce religious faith. A critical examination of the ethical and societal implications and relevance of "entheogenic" experiences can be found in Daniel Waterman and Casey William Hardison's book Entheogens, Society & Law: Towards a Politics of Consciousness, Autonomy and Responsibility (Melrose, Oxford 2013). This book includes a controversial analysis of the term entheogen arguing that Wasson et al. were mystifying the effects of the plants and traditions it refers to.

See also

Betty Eisner Entheogenic use of cannabis Heffter Research Institute Sacred herbs

References

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Retrieved 2011-02-03. 62. ^ "Consultation on implementation of model drug schedules for Commonwealth serious drug offences" (http://www.ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Consultationsreformsandreviews_Consultationonimplementationof modeldrugschedulesforCommonwealthseriousdrugoffences). Australian Government, Attorney-General’s Department. 24 June 2010. 63. ^ http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/79564875/aussie-dmt-ban

Further reading

Harner, Michael, The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing, Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980 http://en.wikRipäetdsiac.ohr,g /Cwihkir/Eisnthiaeong; e"nThe Psychoactive Plants, Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications"; Park Street Press; 21/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Rätsch, Christian; "The Psychoactive Plants, Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications"; Park Street Press; Rochester Vermont; 1998/2005; ISBN 978-0-89281-978-2 Roberts, Thomas B. (editor) (2001). Psychoactive Sacramentals: Essays on Entheogens and Religion San Francisco: Council on Spiritual Practices. Roberts, Thomas B. (2006) "Chemical Input, Religious Output—Entheogens" Chapter 10 in Where God and Science Meet: Vol. 3: The of Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood. Roberts, Thomas, and Hruby, Paula J. (1995–2003). Religion and Psychoactive Sacraments: An Entheogen Chrestomathy http://www.csp.org/chrestomathy [Online archive] Stafford, Peter. (2003). Psychedelics. Ronin Publishing, Oakland, California. ISBN 0-914171-18-6. Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth 1994. Introductory excerpts (http://www.csp.org/chrestomathy/world_of.html) , Cleansing : The Religious Significance of Entheogenic Plants and Chemicals, 2000, Tarcher/Putnam, ISBN 1-58542-034-4 ,"Ten Years of Therapy in One Night" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2003/sep/20/booksonhealth.lifeandhealth), The Guardian UK (2003), describes Daniel's second journey with Iboga facilitated by Dr. Martin Polanco at the Ibogaine Association clinic in Rosarito, Mexico. Giorgio Samorini 1995 "Traditional use of psychoactive mushrooms in Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)?" in Eleusis 1 22-27 (no current url) M. Bock 2000 "Māori kava (Macropiper excelsum)" in Eleusis n.s. vol 4 (no current url) Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and Hallucinogenic Powers by Richard Evans Schultes, Albert Hofmann, Christian Ratsch - ISBN 0-89281-979-0 John J. McGraw, Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul, 2004, AEGIS PRESS, ISBN 0-9747645-0- 7 J.R. Hale, J.Z. de Boer, J.P. Chanton and H.A. Spiller (2003) Questioning the Delphic Oracle, 2003, Scientific American, vol 289, no 2, 67-73. (http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0009BD34-398C-1F0A- 97AE80A84189EEDF) The Sacred Plants of our Ancestors by Christian Rätsch, published in TYR: Myth—Culture—Tradition Vol. 2, 2003–2004 - ISBN 0-9720292-1-4 Yadhu N. Singh, editor, Kava: From Ethnology to Pharmacology, 2004, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-415-32327-4

External links

The Vaults of Erowid (http://www.erowid.org/) (Erowid) Entheogenreview.com (http://www.entheogenreview.com) Quarterly publication that served as a clearinghouse for current data about the use of visionary plants and drugs. Council on Spiritual Practices Entheogen Project (http://www.csp.org/about.html) Religion and Psychoactive Sacraments: An Entheogen Chrestomathy (http://csp.org/chrestomathy/a_title.html) Manual for Ibogaine Therapy (http://www.ibogaine.desk.nl/manual.html) Contributing Authors : Marc http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen 22/23 12/5/2014 Entheogen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Emery, Geerte Frenken, Sara Glatt, Brian Mariano, Karl Naeher, Dr. Martin Polanco, Marko Resinovic, Nick Sandberg, Eric Taub, Samuel Waizmann and Hattie Wells Trips Beyond Addiction (http://jari.podbean.com/2013/01/14/trips-beyond-addiction-special-program-for- living--w-jari-chevalier-radio-show-at-wgdrorg/) (Jan 2013) Living Hero Radio Show and Podcast special. The voices of ex-addicts, researchers from MAPS and Ibogaine/Iboga/Ayahuasca treatment providers sharing their experiences in breaking addiction with native medicines Cross-cultural Perspectives on the Uses of as Entheogens (http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=NHbA_uTrRHE) Des Tramacchi's lectures in Entheogenesis Australis 2010 symposium.

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Categories: Entheogens Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants and experience Shamanism

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