IO The Portraits of the Palmyrene Royalty

M. Gawlikowski THE . .H N A I.D SC I must warn from the beginning that I cannot offer male bust without any distinctive traits. The head in

ROYAL any new spectacular discovery to add to the extremely Copenhagen has been later analyzed in detail by

DANISH

poor iconography of Septimius Odainat and his fam­ Gunhild Ploug,5 who confirmed the dating of both 4

• ily. The brilliant career of this Roman senator and Ü heads ca. 230-250. Ingholt thought that they were • A

HE TH CA

military commander, who became the leader of his na­ parts of honorific statues which could represent DEM

WORLD

tive city, taking the enigmatic title of exarch of Pal­ Odainat’s father or grandfather of the same name; in Y

OF myra with his son Hairan, attested in 251 and 252, has fact, this Odainat the Elder never existed.6 While the SCIENCES

OF

left very few traces in the visual records. After receiv­ oak leaves could of course suggest the Roman corona ing the dignity of from the emperor, usu­ civica, they are also shown on some Palmyrene funer­ AND ally applied to provincial governors, and of ary sculptures where such meaning is excluded. The LETTERS totius Orientis, which probably meant having the con­ small busts often accompanied wreaths (laurel, olive

■ trol over several provinces of the , Odainat or oak)7 laid around priestly headgear or sometimes 0 2 1

defeated the invading Persian army of Shahpür in 260 crowning bareheaded men on their tombstones. The 6 and assumed, again with Hairan (also called Herodi- exact meaning of these distinctions remains unclear. an), the resounding style of .11 believe Moreover, there is no reason to see the Ny Carlsberg their crowning was a direct challenge to the Sasanian head and its counterpart in Istanbul: as two likenesses shahanshah who boasted exactly the same title.2 Both of the same person. While they are very similar in­ father and son were assassinated in 267/8 and re­ deed, they are certainly not individual realistic por­ placed by the widow and her minor son Wah- traits allowing such conclusion. ballat, both represented on coins only.3 As already observed by Klaus Parlasca8 many of­ At the first international conference dealing spe­ ten oversize heads, in various museums, were part of cifically with Palmyra, held in Strasbourg in 1973, funerary banquet scenes, on which reclining figures Harald Ingholt presented two Palmyrene heads in his have, as in this case, thickened necks, while the back files, one in Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek and the other in side is treated cursorily. Such heads were often cut off Istanbul.4 Both are broken at the neck, both about 40 from the huge slabs originally set on the front edge of cm high, and very similar to each other. Both repre­ sarcophagi, either for ancient reuse or for modern art sent men with a full beard and moustache, wearing market. As far as we know, most if not all honorific wreaths of oak leaves adorned in the front with a small statues in the second and third century Palmyra were of bronze and set on column brackets. All are now lost

1. On the career of Odainat, cf. recently Sartre 2001, 975; Potter 2004, 259-260; Hartmann 2008. 5. Ploug 1995, 227-230 2. Gawlikowski 2010a. Suggested already by Will 1992,179- 6. Gawlikowski 1985, 257. 180; Young 2001, 237. 7. Stucky 1973,173-177. 3. See e.g. Parlasca 1989; Equini Schneider 1993, 87-99. 8. Parlasca 1989, 206, note 17; Parlasca 1995,313, note 16, on 4. Ingholt 1976,115-119, pl. 3. false attribution to Odainat.

126 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 6 THE PORTRAITS OF THE PALMYRENE ROYALTY and the brackets only remain. It seems doubtful whether such brackets could support stone figures of natural size. Stone honorific statues did exist in Pal­ myra, but those found are all dated in the first century and were placed on bases standing on the ground. The funerary character of the two heads is strik­ ingly confirmed by a fairly recent discovery in Palmy­ ra of three other heads very much alike though small­ er, also wearing oak crowns. Found by Khaled As'ad in the same tomb of the northern necropolis, they dif­ fer from the heads in Istanbul and Copenhagen main­ ly by their snail locks of hair (fig. i). The tomb itself is unique in Palmyra by being hexagonal, but too dam­ Fig. 1: Three heads from funerary banquets, Palmyra Mu­ aged to make any precise reconstruction possible. It seum (Photo K. Gawlikowska, with thanks to Kh. As'ad). seems quite clear that the corresponding banquet slab or slabs have been removed together with the build­ ing blocks, leaving in place only these detached heads of three members of a third century family. There can be no question in this case of honorific statues, wheth­ er of Odainat or anybody else. Some years ago, Jean-Charles Baity recognized a portrait of Odainat in a fragmentary marble head found in 1940 near the Agora of Palmyra, probably together with five headless marble statues, two of to­ gati and three of women.9 The statues were found abandoned in a building close to the Agora, confus­ ingly known as “Senate”, while the exact find spot of the head is unknown. According to Baity, they could represent the royal family: Odainat, Zenobia, and the younger generation. This cannot be proven, but the very use of marble in Palmyra, where practically all sculptures are made in the local limestone, is very re­ markable. The statues are manifestly the work of a Western artist, not a local hand, and were most likely on display as a group before being dumped, already incomplete, in the building where they were found. The fragmentary male head is, in the words of Baity, “d’un travail remarquable, et d’une grande noblesse d’expression”. It is now apparently lost, but good photographs are kept in the IFAPO archives (fig. 2). The head shows a mature man with a beard and a moustache, wearing a cap covering his hair and a Fig. 2: The marble head from the Agora (courtesy IFAPO 9. Baity 2005. and J.-Ch. Baity).

127 M. GAWLIKOWSKI SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 6

Fig. 3: The Herodian tessera (after Equini-Schneider 1993, courtesy of L’Herma di Bretschneider). headgear of which only a large, plain band remains. hesitated to identify the fragment with Odainat, The top of the head is flat and provided with a mortise thinking that it could be rather Septimius Worod, a once fixing another piece of stone within the slightly prominent member of his court." However, the fron­ protruding circular band. Baity convincingly pro­ tal band seems to be nothing else than a Greek royal posed that this attribute should have been a high ta­ diadem, and so the head belonged to another statue pering , perhaps provided with a crest of small of Odainat as king. appendices above the front and around the top, such Whether two of the marble statues could be attrib­ as we know from coins of many Parthian kings, but uted to the same personage is another matter. One of also of some Oriental dynasts more or less dependent them represents clearly a Roman senator, such as Sep­ on them, for instance of the kings of and timius Odainat indeed was, but the other togatus, Characene. Even the founder of the , proudly displayed a portrait of an ancestor, while not , favoured the headgear of this form, but all showing marks of senatorial rank. Baity thinks he his successors adopted different crowns. If the Palmy­ could be Odainat in an earlier phase of his career, and ra head was indeed crowned with such a tiara, one can this is of course possible, but we are still left with hardly think about any other royalty as Odainat him­ three statues of anonymous ladies found together and self after he had assumed the title of King of Kings. offering no hint of their identity. We do not know of A fragmentary oversize marble head in the Palmy­ any royal women in Palmyra except Zenobia. We ra Museum, published by Klaus Parlasca," shows a should also remember that other Roman citizens are bearded man wearing a plain, large band over anoth­ shown in toga on two sarcophagi of roughly the same er piece of cloth covering the hair entirely. It seems date, wearing wreaths and sacrificing, while a modius, that this head is just yet another portrait of Odainat. the mark of the local priesthood, is displayed in the It is not sure, however, that this second head was once background.12 They are obviously Palmyrene notables crowned with a tiara, too. Because of this doubt, Baity

11. Baity 2005,333, note 38. 10. Parlasca 1985,347, pl.145, 2-3. 12. Schmidt-Colinet 2001.

128 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 6 THE PORTRAITS OF THE PALMYRENE ROYALTY and proud Romans in the same time, and they must recognizable for Westerners and for the former sub­ remain anonymous to us. jects and vassals of the fallen . Much earlier, Henri Seyrig has described two lead Septimius Hairan, son of Odainat, styled “exarch tesserae allegedly found in . Both are kept in of Palmyra”, and “Head of Tadmor” in , is the National Museum in Damascus/3 Good photo­ known from an honorific inscription of 251.17 He long graphs of both tesserae were published by Eugenia passed for the father or a brother of Odainat, but Equini-Schneider. One of them is also known from since the discovery of an inscription of Odainat from another copy kept in the Cabinet des Médailles in 252 with the same titles and, for the first time, a gene­ Paris and features Queen Zenobia, so named in Greek, alogy; it became clear that he was his son/8 We know under the guise of a Tyche wearing a corona muralis, and now that Odainat’s father was a Hairan son of Wah- a Nike standing on a globe on the reverse/4 The other, ballat (and not of another Odainat). Nothing is unique tessera is more remarkable/5 On each side, known about him, but it is clear that it was him who there is a right profile image of the same person, iden­ obtained the Roman gentilicium of Septimius and not tified by the inscription around it as HPQAIANOZ O his son who must have been very young when the em­ BAZIAEYZ, “King Herodian” (fig. fi). It looks as if peror died in 211. The father, most they were imprints of moulds made from gems, one probably, made his career in the Roman army and re­ oval, the other nearly round. mained far from his native city in 212 when the Consti­ The young Herodian is represented each time in a tutio Antoniniana was applied there in a particular way, different way. On one side, he wears a royal diadem making all free Palmyrenes Julii Aurelii/9 even those with his long hair tied in a bun on his neck; his traits who enjoyed the before. Indeed, look rather feminine and only the inscription identi­ Hairan, and his son after him, have retained the nomen fies him as Odainat’s son. The sensibly different face Septimius. If there ever was another Odainat in the on the reverse is surrounded by the same inscription. family who could be called “Odainat the Elder”, he The king wears this time a high tiara provided with a left no trace in the surviving record. crest and two flying loose ends of the diadem, practi­ King Herodian was also celebrated as “King of cally identical with that of the kings of Edessa and of Kings” in a Greek inscription in the main passage of other petty Mesopotamian dynasts on their coins, the so-called triumphal arch in Palmyra.20 The text is who imitated their Arsacid suzerains/6 The bun of seriously damaged and several authors have strived to hair is bigger and shown unconvincingly as if it were complete it and use as a historical source, most nota­ attached to the tiara. The royal style is entirely differ­ bly Daniel Schlumberger, who has recognized a men­ ent from the contemporary one adopted by the Sasa- tion of Herodian’s crowning for the victory over the nian Shahpür with his mural crown surmounted by Persians.211 have recently attempted a more complete his korymbos, a large bundle of hair in a net. reading of the inscription, including a restored date.22 Remembering the two marble heads treated above The material reading of the numeral is AO[d>], the it appears, then, that both father (probably) and son lambda standing of course for a partly preserved A or (certainly) were using Hellenistic and Oriental attri­ A, the Seleucid year being either [5]7i or [5)74. This butes of royalty in the same time. They have found corresponds, if the reading is accepted, to 259/260 or their inspiration in both traditions that were easily

17. Yon 2002,144-145 (CIS 3944). i3- Seyrig 1937; Seyrig 1963,168, fig. 5. 18. Gawlikowski 1985, 257. 14. Equini-Schneider 1993, 98-99, fig. 18; cf. Milik 1972, 318. 19. Schlumberger 1942/19433, 54-56. 15. Parlasca 1989, fig. 1; Equini-Schneider 1993, 22, 98, fig. 20. Yon 2012, 73, no 61, with full bibliography. 16-17. 21. Schlumberger 1942/19436. 16. Cf. e. g. Vardanyan 2001. 22. Gawlikowski 2007.

129 M. GAWLIKOWSKI SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 6

Fig. 4: Tesserae of Herodian and Odainat (after RTP 5) and of Odainat and Heracles (after RTP 4)

262/263 AD. I favour the earlier date which would tes. If so, the crown of victory would be separated make the crown of victory being acquired immediate­ from the accession to royalty of Herodian and no ly after the Shahpür’s expedition in and the re­ doubt of his father in the same time: it is true that verse the Sasanian had suffered at the hands of the Odainat is called “King of Kings” only posthumous­ Palmyrenes. ly, but then we do not have any mention of him at all In another development, Daniel Feissel has shown in the sixties of the third century. This is not a reason that it is not necessary to retain the old reading by to set with Jean-Baptiste Yon the acquisition of the Schlumberger 7tpo; ['OpJovTip and so the victorious en­ royal dignity in 267/268, that is in the year of the as­ counter (or the crowning ceremony that followed) sassination of both Odainat and Herodian/4 did not necessarily take place on the banks of that riv­ However this might have been I think that the fa­ er/3 He translated the relevant words as “a preamble ther and son were styled “Kings of Kings” in prepara­ to his kingship” (7tpooi|iiov rfj[c, auroü ßaJmXsia/); this tion to their expedition against . This new restoration remains hypothetical, but has the advan­ dynasty in the making would be intended to replace tage of removing the awkward mention of the Oron- the fallen Arsacids and the Sasanian usurpers, no

23. Bull.ép. 2007, 504. 24. Yon 2012, 75.

13° SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 6 THE PORTRAITS OF THE PALMYRENE ROYALTY

Fig. 5: Tessera of Herodes/ Herodian (after RTP 989)

doubt as clients of the . It makes sense image is, we can be sure that the maker attempted to to suppose that they started their attempt already in show the same tiara and the same chignon as on the possession of the full array of titles needed to occupy lead tessera of Herodian. The RTP proposed to iden­ the . Their expedition to Mesopotamia failed, tify the personage as “probablement Odainat ou un however, under the walls of Ctesiphon.25 prince de sa famille”. I cannot see, however, the beard Henri Seyrig has supposed that Hairan son of mentioned in the description, while the ball of hair Odainat, mentioned in a series of inscriptions,26 was a and the youthful face must remind us of Herodian. brother of Herodian (also called Herodes by Historia The other side of this tessera was once marked with Augusta). It is simpler to suppose that they were one another imprint of a head, completely worn now. On and the same person, using interchangeably the na­ closer observation, we can observe that the obliterat­ tive name and the Graeco-Roman one. While there is ed head should have been identical to the one shown no formal proof of their identity, this seems also more on the tessera R.TPg. In particular, a feeble outline of likely: I think that Hairan, the exarch sharing the title a triangular earring can be seen on both in the corre­ with his father Odainat, was the same as Herodian, sponding place. The better preserved head wears a made king together with his father and murdered diadem with flyers behind, and the face seems to be of with him.27 His career appears thus strictly parallel to a mature man, perhaps bearded. The bun of hair at Odainat’s, who was the only recipient of the imperial the neck is missing. favours as consularis and later corrector, but who was Quite clearly, this time it is not just Herodian with careful to associate his son to his self-appointments as a different headgear. If the imprint on RTP 5 was in­ exarch and later King of Kings. deed from the same matrix, as it seems, we have two I believe we can add some more tesserae to this royals, one in a tiara and the other wearing a diadem, modest lot. I have already presented two of them in a one young and the other older. There is no mistake tribute volume.28 Both are kept in Damascus National that Odainat and Herodian were meant. Museum and each is unique (fig. 4). The tessera RTP^ The other side of RTP 4 bears still another head. It presents a head in right profile wearing a pointed cap is bigger, taking the entire available surface, and rath­ with a huge ball attached at the back. Awkward as the er heavily built, with a full beard and a thick uniform mass of hair. It seems possible that the hair was not meant at all, but rather that something was covering 25. Gawlikowski 2010a, 474-475; against Hartmann 2008, 353. it. Though there are no details shown to confirm this 26. Yon 2012, 69-72, nos 58-60. 27. Kaizer 2005 impression, I wonder whether this is not the lion’s 28. Gawlikowski 2010b. head of Heracles. If so, coupled with the diademed

131 M. GAWLIKOWSKI SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 6

Fig. 6: Tessera of Odainat, Hairan and Wahballat (after 7?rp736)

Odainat, the presence of the hero would glorify the Odainat’s son.29 To the right and left of the head, the Persian victory of the king. editors of /?77Jhavc read the letters E and G, the latter All these imprints are made from seals or gems. with an interrogation mark; could this mean the date Such stones with portraits of royalty, used to mark in­ “Year 3”? If so, and accepting my dating of the Hero- vitations for feasts or distribution tokens, as tesserae dian inscription in the Triple Arch in 260, the tessera in general are commonly understood to be intended would be issued in 262 for an anniversary of the acces­ for, could be hardly issued in the name of anyone but sion to the kingship. the persons represented, especially without any writ­ Finally, yet another tessera (RTP 736,fig. ff) known ten explanation. It seems that we see here admission in at least seven copies appears to be also related to tickets to official celebrations of Odainat and his son, the royal family, as Henri Seyrig has already suggest­ perhaps at their very accession. The lead tesserae said ed.30 It shows on each side the banal image of two to be found in Antioch should be in the same case. men reclining on a couch, both wearing the cylindri­ Another tessera, also unique and in Damascus, is cal priestly headdress. Under the couch, we read, very described as representing “perhaps a mask” (ÄZP989, clearly, on one side the name Hairan, on the other Wah­ fig. 5). It looks indeed as a rather clumsy head enfiace, ballat, while vertically to the left of the priests the wearing a crested tiara. The image is indistinct and I name Odainat is inscribed on both sides. Of course would not dare to join this object to this small collec­ this could be a coincidence, but one can reasonably tion of royal portraits, were it not for the inscription on the reverse, clearly saying H PDA HZ in Greek. This 29. SHA, XXX Tyranni 15. form of the name is used by for 30. Seyrig 1940, 56, pl. Ill 1.

US SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 6 THE PORTRAITS OF THE PALMYRENE ROYALTY suppose that the great Odainat and his two sons are meant: Hairan who became King of Kings with his father, and Wahballat, the son of Zenobia, who inher­ ited the paternal titles after the assassination of his father and his step brother. Bearing in mind that Wahballat was a minor at his succession, the tessera should have been issued not very long before Odain- at’s demise; the lack of any allusion to the royalty can suggest the late , but this is of course speculative. In spite of her posthumous fame, Zenobia has left few contemporary monuments. While Odainat never Fig. 7: Bronze medalion of Salonina, Palmyra Museum minted coins, Zenobia did issue coins, both in her (Photo M. Gawlikowski, with thanks to Kh. Al-Hariri). name and for her young son, Wahballat, in the last two years of her rule.31 Her image, however, closely imitated the coins of Salonina, wife of .32 A tions et Belles-Lettres, Paris bronze tessera, one sided, is on display in the Palmyra MDAI Rom Mitteilungen des deutschen archäolo­ Museum as one of Zenobia (Fig 7). As Krzyzanowska gischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung has shown, the portrait is that of Salonina (the in­ MUSJ Mélanges de l’Université St. Joseph, Bey­ scription is obliterated). The already mentioned lead routh tessera shows the head inscribed as Zenobia’s in co­ RTP H. Ingholt, H. Seyrig, J. Starcky, Recueil rona muralis.33 It was probably found together with des tesséres de Palmyre, Bibliothéque ar- the bronze tessera of Herodian. Whether this is a chéologique et historique LVIII, Paris 1955 faithful likeness remains a moot point. The imagina­ SHA Scriptores Historiae Augustae tion of later centuries, as treated in this volume by Maurice Sartre and, for the Victorian art, brought Bibliography back to attention by two recent books on the famous queen,34 is not related to any ancient documents. Baity, J.-Ch. 2005, La sculpture, in Chr. Delplace, J. Dent- Some modern Syrian bank-notes are freely inspired zer-Feydy, LAgora de Palmyre (Bibliothéque Archéolo- by Zenobia’s coins. gique et Historique 175), Bordeaux-Beyrouth, 321-341. Baity, J.-Ch. 2002, Odeinat, Toi des rois”, CRAI, 729-741. Equini Schneider, E. 1993, Septimia Zenobia Sebaste, Roma. Abbreviations Gawlikowski, M. 2010a, Odainat of Palmyra between Rome and Persia, in E. Dqbrowa et al. (eds.), Hortus AAAS Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes, Historiae. Studies in Honour of ProfessorJozf Wolski on the ioo‘!‘ Damas Anniversary of his Birthday, Krakow, 467-479. BEO Bulletin d’Etudes Orientales, Damas Gawlikowski, M. 2010b, The Royalty from Palmyra once Bull. ép. Bulletin épigraphique again, in B. Basti, V. Gassner, U. Muss (eds.), Zeitreisen CRAI Comptes-rendus de l’Académie des Inscrip- Syrien - Palmyra - Rom. FestschrftfurAndreas Schmidt-Colinet zum.65. Geburtstag, Wien, 67-72. Gawlikowski, M. 2007, Odainat et Hérodien, rois des rois, 31. Mattingly 1936; Seyrig 1966. Melangesen I’honneur de Jean-Paul Rey-Coquais, MUSJ 60, 32. Krzyzanowska 2014, 30. 33. See note 14. 289-311. 34. Hvidberg-Hansen 2002 (Herbert Schmalz, 1888); Gawlikowski, M. 1985, Les princes de Palmyre, Syria 62, Winsbury 2010 (Harriet Hosmer, 1859): in parenthesis the 251-261. former is a painter and the latter a sculptor, who created the Hartmann, U. 2008, Das palmyrenische Teilreich, in K.-P. pictures, alluded to.

r33 M. GAWLIKOWSKI SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 6

Johne (ed.), Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser. Krise und Transfor­ Schmidt-Colinet, A. 2009, Nochmal zur Ikonographie mation des Römischen Reichesim 3. Jahrhundert (235-284), zweier palmyrenischen Sarkophage, in M.Blömer, Berlin, 343-378. M.Facella, E. Winter (eds.), Lokale Identität im römischen Hvidberg-Hansen, F.O. 2002, Zenobia, Århus. Nahen Osten. Kontexte und Perspektiven, Oriens et Occidens Ingholt, H. 1976, Varia Tadmorea, in Palmyre. Bilan et per­ 18, Stuttgart, 223-234. spectives, Strasbourg, 101-137. Schmidt-Colinet, A. 2005, Palmyra: Kulturbegegungim Grenz­ Kaizer, T. 2005, Odaenathus von Palmyra, Römischer bereich, Mainz. Orient, 267/68, in M. Sommer (ed.), Politische Morde. Schmidt-Colinet, A. and Kh. As’ad 2007, Zwei Neufunde Vom Altertum bis zur Gegenwart, Darmstadt, 73-79. Palmyrenischer Sarkophage, in G. Koch (ed.), Akten des Krzyzanowska, A. 2014, Les monnaies trouvées å Palmyre, Symposium des Sarkophag-Corpus, Marburg 2001, Sarkop­ Studia Palmyrehskie 13, Warszawa. hag-Studien 3, Mainz, 271-278. Mattingly, H. 1936, Palmyrene Princes and the Mints of Seyrig, H. 1966, VHABALLATHUS AVGUSTVS, in M.- Antioch and Alexandria, Numismatic Chronicle 16, 89-114. L. Bernhard (ed.), MdangesojfertsåKazimierzMichalowski, Parlasca, K. 1995, Some Problems of Palmyrene Plastic Varsovie, 659-662. Art, ARAM 7, 59-71. Seyrig, H. 1963, Les fils du roi Odainat, AAAS 13,159-172. Parlasca, K. 1989, Palmyrenische Bildnisse aus dem Um­ Seyrig, H. 1940, Les tesséres palmyréniennes et le banquet kreis Zenobias, Festschrift Robert Werner, Xenia. Konstanzer rituel, in Memorial Lagrange, Paris, 51-58 (= Scripta varia, althistorische Vorträge und Forschungen 22, 205-211. Paris 1985, 313-322). Parlasca, K. 1985, Das Verhältnis der palmyrenischen Seyrig, H. 1937, Note sur Hérodien, prince de Palmyre, Grabplastik zur römischen Porträtkunst, MDAIRom Syria 18,1937,1-4, pl. VI. 92, 343-356- Stucky, R. A. 1973, Prétres Syriens I. Palmyre, Syriaco, Ploug, G. 1995, Catalogue ofthe Palmyrene sculptures, Copenha­ 163-180. gen- Vardanyan, R. 2001, Tendenze culturali e ideologiche Potter, D. S. 2004, The Roman Empire at Bay, London and nell’Impero Partico riflesse dalla monetazione, Parthica New York. 3, 2001, 25-132. Sartre, M. 2001, D’AlexandreåZénobie.Histoire du Will, E. 1992, Les Palmyréniens. La Venise des sables, Paris. antique, IVsiecleav.J.-C. -Illsiedeap.J.-C., Paris. Winsbury, R. 2010, Zenobia of Palmyra, London. Schlumberger, D. 1942/19433, Les gentilices romains des Yon, J.-B. 2012, Palmyre, Beyrouth. Palmyréniens, Bulletin d’Etudes Orientales 9,1942/1943, Yon, J.-B. 2002, Les notables dePalmyre, Beyrouth. 53-82. Young, G. K. 2001, Rome’s EastemTrade. International com­ Schlumberger, D. 1942/19430, L’inscription d’Hérodien. merce and imperialpolicy, 31BC -AD 305, London and New Remarques sur 1’histoire des princes de Palmyre, Bul­ York. letind’Etudes Orientales 9, 35-50.