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photograph: Stan Thekaekara Because I am a Girl the State of the World’s Girls 2010 Digital and Urban Frontiers: Girls in a Changing Landscape Because I am a Girl the State of the World’s Girls 2010 Digital and Urban Frontiers: Girls in a Changing Landscape res u t ic ey / Panos P l Mark Hen Acknowledgements

This report was made possible with the advice and contributions of many people and organisations.

Global Advisory Panel: Anja Stuckert Program Gender Advisor, Plan Germany Annabel Webb Director, Justice for Girls Ann-Kristin Vervik senior Child Rights Advisor, Plan Geneva Carolyn Rose-Avila Deputy Vice President, Plan USA Cheryl G. Faye Head of UNGEI Secreteriat, UNICEF Claudia Mitchell James McGill Professor of Visual Arts-based Methodologies, HIV&AIDS and Social Change, McGill University Cynthia Steele executive Vice-President, EMPower Deepali Sood Head of Global Because I am a Girl Campaign, Plan International Diana Rivington Director of Equality Between Men and Women, CIDA Elkin Velasquez Coordinator – Safe Cities Unit, UN-Habitat Francisco Cos-Montiel senior Program Specialist, Women’s Rights and Citizenship International Development Research Centre, (IDRC) Kathryn Travers analyst and Project Officer, Women in Cities International Kathy Hall Senior Program Officer, Summit Foundation Kemi Williams senior Gender and Rights Advisor, Department for International Development (DFID) Linda Raftree advisor, Social Media and New Technology, Plan West Africa Regional Office Lisa MacCallum Managing Director, Nike Foundation Lesley Bulman-Lever Formerly of World Association of Girl Guides and Girls Scouts Lucero Quiroga Consultant, Gender Expert Lucia Kiwala Chief, Gender Mainstreaming Unit, UN-Habitat Nazneen Damji Programme Manager Gender equality and HIV/AIDS, UNIFEM Noreen Khan Gender Unit, UNICEF Nigel Chapman CEO, Plan International Rosemary McCarney CEO, Plan Canada Ruth Pearson Professor of International Development, School of Politics and International Studies (POLIS), Leeds University Marie Staunton CEO, Plan UK

Mayra Gomez senior Expert – Women & Housing Rights Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, COHRE a Girls skipping on a roof in the ruined Haitian city of Port-au-Prince. p Meg Greene Consultant P/

Mima Perisic UNICEF Advisor, Adolescent Development, Adolescent Development and Participation Unit Division of i / A Policy & Planning n Seodi White National Coordinator of Women and the Law in Southern Africa Research and Education Trust, Malawi Principal writer: nikki van der Gaag ghi Simon Heap Head of Research, Plan International Report team: Feyi Rodway – cohort coordinator re Mene

Suzanne Williams International Institute for Child Rights and Development Keshet Bachan – project coordinator d Trine Lunde Economist, Gender and Development Group, PREM World Bank Sarah Hendriks – gender advisor Sharon Goulds – project lead exan Al Input was also received from, among others: Lynn Renken and Nythia Gopu (Nike Foundation), Savina Greenickx (StreetChild Africa), Simone Schneider – picture research Louise Meincke (Consortium for Street Children), Dr Graham Ritchie, Helen Penn and Gabrielle Shaw (CEOP), Susan Schor (ITU), Kulsoom Ali and Michael Quesnell (Nokia Corporation), Kreeta Ryodi and Emma Bluck (Cisco), Akhtar Badshah (Microsoft), Kanwal Research: Helen Barley, Jo Holmes, Keren Simons, Laura Margarita Gomez, Rachel McManus Ahluwalia (Plan UK). Special thank you to the families taking part in the ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ cohort study and to the Plan staff involved. Steering Group – Plan International: Alistair Clay, Alexander Munive, Aimee Suchard, Belinda Portillo, Brad Henderson, Chitra Iyer, Don McPhee, Fadimata Alainchar, Hellen Tombo, Jeanette McKenna, Jon Martin Forland, Kate Fehlenberg, Lydia M Domingo, Ndungu All maps in Section 3 courtesy of Maplecroft and GirlsDiscover.org. Kahihu, Patrick van Ahee, Rebecca Lake, Rosanna Viteri, Silje Bundeng, Stuart Coles, Stefanie Conrad, Terence McCaughan. Printed by Graphicom, Italy on recycled paper. ISBN: 978-0-9565219-0-3 Legal input received from: Kristen Anderson, Ruth Barnes and Erica Hall, Essex Children’s Legal Centre. Design and production: New Internationalist Publications Ltd Thank you to: Emily Lundell (Plan USA), Michael Diamond and Lydia Domingo (Plan Philippines), Hellen Tombo (Plan East and South Africa) and everyone in Plan Egypt, Plan Brazil, Plan Netherlands and Plan Sudan. Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this publication is accurate at the time of going to press, Plan cannot be held responsible for any inaccuracies. Special thank you to: Amos Trust and the Consortium for Street Children for inviting Plan to hold a girl-only session at the Street Child World Cup (2010), to Savina Greenickx from Street Child Africa for coordinating a comprehensive survey of street girls in The commentary and opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent the official policy of Plan. Ghana, Zambia and Zimbabwe, to Suzanne Williams and Michael Montgomery (IICRD) and the Child Protection Partnership for the research on girls’ online protection from Brazil, and to Justice for Girls for the research on adolescent girls and their experience of Parts of this publication may be copied for use in research, advocacy and education, providing the source is acknowledged. This detention and rehabilitation in the Philippines. publication may not be reproduced for other purposes without the prior permission of Plan UK.

Unless otherwise indicated, names have been changed in case studies to protect identities. Unless otherwise indicated, dollar values expressed are US dollars. Chapter 4 Section 2 – Adolescent girls and Because We are communications technologies: Girls: ‘Real Choices, opportunity Real Lives’ or exploitation?...... 100 Cohort study update ...... 142 Introduction...... 101 Empowered and Lifted The digital revolution and Out of Poverty? How our the digital divide ...... 102 young girls and their families measure up to the Millennium Giving us freedom – why Development Goals...... 145 communications technologies are important for Cohort Study Map...... 156 adolescent girls...... 105 Girls and international standards Section 3 – on equal access to information/media...... 109 Reference Breaking the silence: girls, Because I am a Girl campaign. . .160 the super-communicators? ...... 110 Introduction...... 161 Barriers: what is keeping Mapping the MDGs: adolescent girls from accessing communications technologies?. . 112 MDG1 Proportion of girls under-5 years that are The dark side of cyberspace underweight...... 162

ekaekara – how technology is increasing sexual exploitation ...... 119 MDG2 Girls’ gross primary

tan Thtan school graduation rate. . 164

D S What laws are there to protect girls from violence, exploitation MDG3 Proportion of girls IQ AN and abuse online?...... 120 aged 15-19 years TAR married by age 15...... 166 Girls on the move in Using the law to prosecute sexual exploitation, abuse Female transition from busy Bangalore, India. and violence online ...... 124 primary to secondary education ...... 167 Contents Legal responses to young people estimated female Foreword by Anna Tibaijuka, The role of the police in who sexually exploit others Chapter 2 Chapter 3 earned income...... 168 Executive Director of UN-Habitat. . 8 ‘protecting’ girls on the streets . . . 75 through new technologies. . . . 125 Bright lights and big Hidden in plain view: MDG4 Infant mortality rates Introduction...... 10 The rights of girls in conflict with Feature: Brazilian adolescent hopes: adolescent adolescent girls on the and Proportion of young the law under international law. . .77 girls in a digital world ...... 130 girls in the city...... 24 streets...... 64 women aged 20-24 Unleashing years that have The global context of Defining disadvantage...... 65 “We have dreams too” – Section 1 – girls’ potential: achieved at least urbanisation and youth ...... 25 street girls’ resilience...... 79 Urban and Digital Hidden in plain view – Recommendations secondary education. . . . 170 Streets of gold? Why adolescent adolescent street girls...... 67 Feature: The forgotten few – Frontiers adolescent girls’ experiences of on adolescent girls MDG6 ratio of young women girls move to cities...... 30 and ICTs...... 135 Chapter 1 “Call me by my own name” – detention and rehabilitation in two to young men living Girls’ legal rights in the city. . . . 31 attitudes towards girls cities in the Philippines ...... 83 Conclusion ...... 140 with HIV ...... 172 on the street...... 68 Setting the scene ...... 14 The best recipe? The benefits The daily diary of Sheena...... 89 References...... 174 of city life for adolescent girls. . . 38 Feature: Trust is a dangerous thing – Setting the scene: girls in cities and Girls online...... 189 girls living on the streets in Egypt. . 70 Adolescent girls’ new technologies...... 15 The law on girls and the right right to the city – About Plan International. . . . .197 Outlining the context and the to protection from hazardous or Why do adolescent girls leave a call to action...... 90 rationale for the 2010 report. . . .15 exploitive work...... 41 home for the street? ...... 72 Plan Offices ...... 198 Feature: My ideal city – “I wish I was a boy” – sexual girls’ drawings ...... 42 exploitation and abuse of adolescent girls...... 73 No safe place? Preventing violence against adolescent girls in the city. 53 Foreword

For the first time, more than 50 per cent and to be part of the solution, and not to As I said at the World Urban Forum earlier of the world’s population is living in urban be identified, as street children so often this year, the Right to the City is about areas, a figure that is forecast to rise to are, as the problem. It is unacceptable consultation, inclusion, and empowering more than 60 per cent in 2030. Cities in the that, according to the research in this people to solve their own problems. It is developing world are expected to account report, millions of women and girls all over about fighting slums, not slum dwellers, and for 95 per cent of urban growth over the the world feel unsafe in the cities they live fighting poverty instead of fighting the poor! next two decades. Plan’s new report, in. It is unacceptable that girls and young Empowering and including girls and young focusing particularly on girls in cities, is women must constantly be on their guard women is crucial. Their rights and needs nothing if not timely. We need to prioritise in streets, parks and estates, and that rape have been ignored for too long. housing and urban development or too statistics are a shameful indication that many of the world’s population will be their fear is justified. We need to plan for Anna K. Tibaijuka pushed further into poverty. safer cities that we can all be proud to Under-Secretary-General and Executive Cities have the potential to make countries live in and where girls can feel safe, stay Director rich, and for many, cities are a symbol of healthy and take advantage of the real United Nations Human Settlements Programme hope for a better life; but in reality, city life TAT opportunities that urban environments, at can mean exclusion and increased hardship. their best, can provide. (UN-Habitat) -H A BI N

This is true for the urban poor, particularly U The State of the World’s Girls 2010 girls and young women. The opportunities focuses on the particular arenas of the that present themselves are real, but so of Ghana, for the past two years, is quite city and cyberspace, which are rapidly are the risks and multiple deprivations revealing. Sala may have arrived in the city growing areas where girls will be at risk associated with the urban divide. Girls with with high hopes, but she found herself on but where opportunities abound. It also nowhere to live, no family support and the wrong side of the urban divide. “As soon focuses on adolescent girls – girls who no job can end up on the street, in unsafe as I moved to the city I fell into a group of are at a particularly vulnerable age and relationships and unable, through poverty, other schoolchildren who introduced me to who need to be able to develop the skills to take advantage of the education and sex work. These children are my only friends to protect themselves, to negotiate these health facilities that do exist. As this year’s here.” City life does not have to be like this: new environments and to distinguish report from Plan International demonstrates, there are opportunities that we must help opportunity from threat. We must make it rapid urbanisation means that inequality and these young women to grasp. our responsibility to ensure that both cities violence against girls in slums and informal All citizens have a right to their city and the internet are safe and girl-friendly. settlements, public spaces and on the streets and we must make sure that all get equal The evidence in this report demonstrates is growing. Adolescent street-involved and opportunities to exercise this right. Girls what can and must be done and I am homeless girls in particular are pushed into and women need to be empowered delighted that Plan and all the many begging, transactional sex and other forms socially, economically and culturally, and organisations that have contributed to of exploitation and cruelty. The reality for involved in the planning and governance the 2010 Girls’ Report have called us all many girls, like 14 year-old Sala, who has of cities. They need the opportunity to to action. We must not condemn another lived on the streets of Accra, the capital make known the challenges that they face generation to life in urban slums, or worse.

8 THE state of the world’s girls 9 Inner city at rush hour in Dhaka, Introduction Bangladesh.

“The first night I was on the street I slept under a 79 per cent of girls did not feel safe online.5 tree. Then the police came and they just fetched The dangers for girls in both cities and online the girls. We thought maybe they just picked the are rapidly expanding and yet are little regulated girls to take us somewhere safe. They took us to or researched. As a result, they pose massive Albert Park and then they just pointed to one of my new threats to girls’ safety. These are particularly

friends. Her name was Nutanka, and then they just serious at adolescence, when girls are becoming N I abused her and when she came out she was naked. sexual beings but have not yet developed the R i / I

They were trying to do something to me but I kept skills or the knowledge to protect themselves from at gh on screaming for other people and they didn’t do harm. It is precisely at this time in their lives that er De

anything to me. They just put the pepper spray on they need the most support. Yet this is also when ch us and hit us with the sjambok [leather whip]. I entrenched gender discrimination – that treats was 13 or 14, I am not sure. I will never forget what girls as less equal and less important than boys – Manoo the police did to my friend.” exposes them to risk. Precious, South Africa1 Adolescent girls are neglected by city planners It is not just the world that is changing; it is also group of other schoolchildren who introduced me to who could make cities safe for them, let down by the way that girls and young women see the world sex work. These children are my only friends here.”8 This year’s ‘Because I am a Girl’ report looks at lives the failure to enact or implement legislation that and their place in it. This includes the kinds of For girls, the new world of ICTs brings old and of adolescent girls like Precious in two of the fastest- would support and protect them, and exposed by work that they want to do, their ideas about how new, rich and poor, opportunity and danger, growing arenas in the world today – cities and new a lack of regulation and enforcement of protection women and men should behave, and their dreams up against each other more dramatically, more communication technologies. In both, girls should online. Girls are also abused by the very people for their future. Girls are pushing at the boundaries immediately and perhaps more damagingly than have the right to protection, but this report will show and institutions that are meant to keep them safe, that limit their lives, and asking for the same in any other era. Access to new information that this right is often violated. For example, one such as the police. As we will see, this failure is opportunities as their brothers. technologies and the media has exposed young study in Lima, Peru’s capital city, found that 41 per particularly acute when it comes to girls like Precious For the first time in history, there are more women to new ideas and ways of thinking that open cent of girls and young women between the ages of and Nutanka, who live on the streets. people living in cities than in rural areas. And up huge possibilities – but which their families might 10 and 24 had experienced coerced sex.2 This is not And yet cities and ICTs also have the potential the numbers are growing rapidly – each month, also perceive as dangerous. The internet creates new just true in the developing world; in the Netherlands, to offer girls more opportunities than ever before. five million people are added to the cities of the intimacies that seem safe, magnifying the power research for this report found that 63 per cent of 17 Increasing numbers of girls are moving, with their developing world.7 We can estimate that by 2030 of the peer group and inviting in the stranger. The and 18 year-old girls say they do not feel safe walking families, to cities – where they are more likely to be approximately 1.5 billion girls will live in cities. This case of a young woman in the UK who was raped around their city at night.3 educated, less likely to be married at an early age rapid urbanisation means that violence against and murdered by a man she met through Facebook The internet and other new communications and more likely to participate in politics and leisure girls in slums and on the streets is growing as well. illustrates the real and present dangers these types technologies blur the line between public and activities. In 59 countries there are now as many Extreme poverty and homelessness push adolescent of online solicitations can pose to adolescent girls.9 private, and abuse online can turn into real life girls as boys going to school – that’s 20 countries girls in particular into begging, transactional sex One 12 year-old girl from a poor area of São Paulo encounters that put girls at risk. One study in more than in 1999.6 And millions of girls and and other forms of exploitation in order to survive. said: “What Lan Houses [internet cafés] most offer the UK found that adolescents, particularly young women now have access to mobile phones Girls like Sala, who is 14 years old and has lived on is risk. Porno sites simply pop up.” Technology can young girls between 16 and 17 years old, were and global information systems, putting them in the streets of Accra, the capital of Ghana, for the be liberating for girls, but it may also replace the in serious danger of ‘online seduction’.4 Research touch not only with their friends but with their past two years. She says: “Most nights I spend with influence of the immediate family and community to commissioned in Brazil for this report found that peers in different countries. clients. As soon as I moved to the city I fell into a both good and ill effect.

10 THE state of the world’s girls 11 Investing in girls Adolescence, age 12-17 ASSETS Financial literacy Role models/mentors Networks/online communities Safe spaces Science, maths & tech capabilities Secondary education Access to sexual health Mobility Literacy & numeracy skills Friends Time Land & property Inheritance Nutrition Immunisation Birth registration

Girl RESILIENCE

Adolescent girls need to be able to develop and women is wrong. You must respect a woman’s the skills to protect themselves and to distinguish opinion, as we respect a man’s.”10 Or Hasina opportunity from threat. Authorities and other Hamza, a student from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, ‘duty-bearers’ must make it their responsibility to who says: make both cities and the internet safe and girl- “In terms of world leaders, I would like them friendly. As the diagram above shows, in both to know that young people are not simply cities and online, adolescent girls need access to ‘leaders of tomorrow’. We are already leaders, information, to education, to safe spaces and to and members of society, today. Our views networks. matter. We need avenues to express them, and We ignore the dangers facing adolescent girls for that we need to know that there is guaranteed at our peril. Girls are half the world’s future: the freedom of expression, as well as solid access to citizens who will be running our cities and shaping information. When we are treated as full partners technology in the decades to come. We owe it to in development issues, real change will result.” 11 them to ease their passage from childhood into Time is running out for the 600 million girls who womanhood so that they have the skills and the are adolescents today. Action needs to be taken knowledge to build a better and safer future for now. Tomorrow will be too late, because by then us all. We owe it to ourselves and to the future of the girls in this report will already be women and our world to listen to what they have to say. Girls the critical moment for positive change lost forever. themselves are telling us clearly what needs to be done. As Laura, a street girl from Nicaragua, says:

“We all have rights that cannot be trampled on, a l girls as well. Violence that goes on between men Making a living

o De Pao in Freetown, bi

12 THE state of the world’s girls Fa Sierra Leone. 13 Setting the scene

The report series “The government don’t do anything for girls on the street, they don’t even think about ‘Because I am Girl’ is an annual report them. They should take them by the hand1 published by Plan assessing the state of the and say ‘I am going to support you, I am world’s girls. While women and children are going to help you, you are not alone’, but no recognised as specific categories in policy and – they look at them as they would any other planning, girls’ particular needs and rights rubbish.” are often ignored. These reports provide Jessica, 17, street girl from Nicaragua1 concrete evidence, including the voices of girls themselves, as to why they need to be treated “Literacy now is not just learning to differently from boys and older women. read and write but learning how to use The reports also make recommendations for a computer.” action, showing policymakers and planners Rana, 16, Alexandria, Egypt2 what can make a real difference to girls’ lives all over the world. New arenas for adolescent girls: cities The first report was published in 2007 and new technologies and the last will be in 2015, the final target Today, five years before the 2015 target year for the United Nations Millennium for the Millennium Development Goals, Development Goals (MDGs). For the same many millions of girls are still missing out on period, in our ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ education, on healthcare, and on prospects study, we are also following a cohort group for employment. of girls in nine different countries born in the This year, we have chosen to look at two year of our first report. This year, as the UN global arenas of dramatic change – the General Assembly reviews progress on the world’s cities, which are expanding every goals, we will be measuring the progress of hour, and the global spaces opened up by our cohort group and their families against information and communications technology, several of the MDG targets which are under where the pace of change is even faster. review. Does the state of these young In both these areas, adolescent girls face girls’ lives indicate that the international bewildering and often conflicting sets of community will reach its aims or not? choices as they go about their lives: choices In 2008, we looked at the situation of that will affect their own futures, but also girls affected by conflict; those growing up the future of the world. ‘In the Shadow of War’. The 2009 report Using case studies, girls’ voices, expert focused on economic empowerment: ‘Girls opinion and original research, the report in the Global Economy: Adding it all Up.’ This highlights the positive and negative aspects year, we look at adolescent girls in two of of these fast-changing spaces and places. the most dynamic arenas in the world today It also looks at what adolescent girls need

n – cities and new technologies – and examine in order to thrive in them, and makes the opportunities and the dangers that these recommendations to those in authority at present. international, national and local levels. Jane Ha h Jane

14 the state of the world’s girls 15 Section 1 of the report looks at the who can take an active part in planning of the boys said they had forced a girl opportunities and threats for girls in cities and running city life – and ensure that to have sex with them; 93 per cent of and in new technologies. Section 2 examines cities are both safe and girl-friendly. the girls reported having been raped.12 in detail how the cohort of girls in the ‘Real • In developing countries, school • Violence against girls and women may Choices, Real Lives’ study are faring. Section attendance for girls aged 10 to 14 is 18 be more common in the city than in 3 provides statistical evidence to show how per cent higher in urban than in rural rural areas: in Brazil 24.5 per cent of girls’ lives are changing. areas, and 37 per cent higher for young female respondents in the city and women aged 15 to 19.5 15.9 per cent in the provinces reported In Chapter Two, we look at one of the major • In Bangladesh, 31 per cent of violence.13 changes that our world is experiencing adolescent girls who had migrated • In Pokara, Nepal, 90 per cent of street today – the exponential growth of its cities from rural to urban areas for work were girls were sexually abused by hotel and – and ask: what are the benefits for girls and married by the age of 18, compared to restaurant owners and by people in young women and what are their particular 71 per cent in rural areas.6 places of work. Junkyard owners, older needs? What are the coping mechanisms • Overall, 79 per cent of city births have boys in the group, friends, local people they use to survive when their needs are a skilled attendant compared with 28 and tractor drivers were also among the ignored by those in power and their rights per cent of births in rural areas.7 perpetrators.14 abused by those who want to exploit their • Skilled birth attendants are present • In Ghana, adolescents in urban areas sexuality? This chapter looks at the reasons at 78 per cent of deliveries in urban were significantly more likely to have why young women move to the city, what settings in Bolivia, 60 per cent in experienced coerced sex than those in urban life has to offer them, and the mixture Pakistan, almost 52 per cent in Angola rural areas.15 of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors that drive rural- and 47 per cent in Yemen. Skilled • In the Netherlands, an online survey of urban migration. For example, a survey in deliveries in rural areas in these girls in cities conducted for this report slum areas of Addis Ababa found that one in countries are two to four times lower.8 found that 40 per cent of girls between

every four young women migrants between • In urban areas in Benin 25 per cent of the ages of 11 and 18 said they did not www.shootnations.org K / the ages of 10 and 19 came to the city to pregnant adolescent girls receive HIV feel safe walking around their city at 3 escape early marriage. And a study in Egypt counselling and testing, whereas in night. This rose to 63 per cent of 17 and U ED 24, G of street children between the ages of 10 rural areas the figure is only 6 per cent.9 18 year olds.

and 18 found that 82 per cent said they had • In the city of Ceará, Brazil, young ktail, A come to the city because of abuse by the people were involved in budget setting In Chapter Three, we focus on one group c 4 family or at work. This chapter shows why an and in training other youth. As a result who are most vulnerable in the city – urban life offers adolescent girls both the of their efforts, an additional $750,000 adolescent street girls. Although accurate eele m s / Media Co greatest opportunities and the greatest risks. N was allocated to children and young estimates are difficult to come by, numbers Girls at work Risks which, for adolescent girls in slums in people in 2005.10 of street children are rising. Girls apparently in Accra, Benno ott Main c

particular, need addressing urgently. constitute fewer than 30 per cent of street Ghana. S to woman, school to work, dependence Children Where cities are not working well for girls DEFINING ADOLESCENCE to independence. How she is able to deal at play in Despite the many advantages of living in The World Health Organisation and with these transitions depends heavily Alexandria, a city, for adolescent girls city living also other United Nations organisations on her national, social, economic and Egypt. means an increased risk of violence and define adolescence as being between 10 political context. All girls are different, abuse. and 19 years old, youth as 15 to 24 and but there are some experiences and • A study of human rights violations children as 0 to 18. The fact that these vulnerabilities that they share and it is in Dhaka, Bangladesh, found that categories overlap reflects the fact that these that the report will focus on. adolescent girls were the most young people’s lives and their physical vulnerable group when it came to and emotional development vary hugely, ADOLESCENT GIRLS IN CITIES sexual harassment and rape.11 not just according to age but in relation – THE FACTS • Many of the benefits of cities do not to their sex, where they live, their family Where cities are working well for girls apply to slums or shanty towns, for and community, their economic status As we demonstrate below, adolescent example. In these, many girls never and many other factors. This report, girls in cities are more likely than their start school or drop out before finishing however, focuses in particular on the rural cousins to go to school, marry later, secondary school. adolescent age group from 10 to 19, give birth more safely and have more of • More than half of the boys interviewed while not completely excluding girls who a say in their own lives. This not only in a Rwanda study and more than are slightly older or slightly younger. It benefits the girls themselves as they grow three-quarters of the girls, including 35 also bears in mind that this is a period of into women, but means that cities have per cent of those under 10, admitted major transitions in a girl’s life – from girl a more articulate and vibrant population they were sexually active; 63 per cent

16 the state of the world’s girls 17 children, but this may be partly because • A city where all girls can participate in the formation of ICTs and to challenge they are less visible, which makes them more cultural, political and other activities gender discrimination through these vulnerable. Of all those living in the city, it • A city which prevents and punishes technologies. We explain how and why is street girls, particularly adolescents, who violence against girls boys and young men have greater access are most at risk. A study in India, involving • A city where the state and local to these technologies than girls and young more than 1,000 street girls aged between government guarantee girls’ access to women and how they use them differently. 5 and 18, found that 68 per cent reported justice. In Indonesia, for example, girls and young they had been physically abused. Almost women aged 15 to 24 are half as likely to half the girls told the researchers that they In Chapter Four, we look at how girls are use the internet as boys the same age.20 We wished they were boys.16 Adolescent street operating in the fast-moving world of also reveal how ICTs are an arena where girls face sexual harassment and abuse and communications technologies (ICTs) – the sexual predators can operate with impunity, often have to rely on street boys or older internet and email, instant messaging, and how adolescent girls and young men to protect them. A survey by Child social networks and mobile phones. ICTs women have become prime targets for new

Hope found that 95 per cent of girls living are critical for girls’ empowerment. Because methods of abuse, including trafficking, s re on the streets of Ethiopia experienced sexual this arena is growing and changing, girls A rickshaw via the internet and other communications u t exploitation.17 Street girls can find no refuge have a unique opportunity to influence ride in India. technologies. In China, for example, 44 c s Pi with the authorities or the police, who are as per cent of children said they had been likely to abuse them as protect them. Justice approached online by strangers.21 We look systems and prisons also treat them harshly, at the new phenomenon of cyberbullying, sometimes imprisoning them because they which is most prevalent among adolescents are girls on the street rather than because and teenagers and where girls are more Mark Henley / Pano they have committed a crime. Research in likely to be the victims – in one study in the Philippines commissioned for this report the US, 41 per cent of adolescent girls The bad news Travelling found that girls were arrested simply for between the ages of 15 and 17 said they • 79 per cent of girls said they did not with a mobile being on the street and breaking curfew.18 had experienced bullying via the internet feel safe online phone in This chapter examines what happens to or mobile phone, compared with 29 per • Almost half the girls who responded to Singapore. adolescent street girls in cities. It also looks at cent of boys.22 This chapter will look at how the survey indicated that their parents the strategies they use to survive and protect adolescent girls can be both informed and know what they access online themselves; for being a street girl also means empowered online. • Only about a third of the girls know being resilient. how to report a danger or something ONLINE FACTS ABOUT GIRLS IN BRAZIL that makes them feel bad online An ideal city for girls is…19 The International Institute for Child Rights • Almost 50 per cent of girls say they • A city where girls’ rights (economic, and Development through the Child would go to meet someone in person social, political and cultural) are Protection Partnership undertook research who they had met online. guaranteed in Brazil for this edition of ‘Because I am • A city where girls have equal access a Girl’ (see Chapter 4). For this research, Finally, the report asks those with power with boys to all services they interviewed 44 girls and conducted to make decisions about adolescent girls’ • A city where no girl is so poor that she a national online survey. These facts are lives – to confront, challenge and address has to sell her body to survive extracted from their report, which shows the threats that girls and young women face • A city where every girl has access to that most girls have a mobile phone and in our fast-changing world. It shows the decent shelter, education, employment, access to the internet, and that virtually all importance of investment, both public and transport and health services the respondents think online dangers are private, in order to build girls’ capabilities • A city where girls are free from violence, greater for girls than for boys. and assets so that they can better protect at home, at school, and in the street The good news themselves. It argues that the laws that • A city where girls are not discriminated • 84 per cent of girls have a mobile phone are meant to protect young women must against or harassed • 60 per cent say they have learned about be enforced. It emphasises the need to • A city where girls have equal access online dangers protect and promote girls’ rights in cities with boys to technology • 82 per cent have used the internet, with and online. It makes specific and targeted • A city which notes that girls’ needs 27 per cent indicating that they are recommendations for those responsible for are different from boys’ and from each always online our cities and those who provide services, other • The more awareness and knowledge be they private sector, non-governmental or • A city which documents and takes about ICT use that girls have, the international organisations. And it calls for account of adolescent girls’ needs in its greater degree of security they feel support for girls and young women as they political and planning processes online claim their place in the new millennium. Plan

18 the state of the world’s girls 19 BUILDING GIRLS’ ASSETS We urge those who have a duty and a The word ‘assets’ is often used in responsibility to invest in girls, to protect development. In the context of girls, them, to plan for them and to ensure that ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ – we are talking about social, political, they are able to participate safely in the economic and human assets – for exciting and dynamic developments that The Plan cohort turns four example, ensuring that a girl has are taking place in cities and in the rapid enough to eat, good healthcare and expansion of new technology. This is an education, and a strong social support issue that involves us all, from street girls in 2007 we set up a cohort study – ‘real Essohana, also from togo, was luckier than system that enables her to make choices to civil society organisations, from mayors Choices, real lives’ – to follow a group of Izegbe – access to a trained health worker in her life, achieve her goals and build to ministers, from parliamentarians to girls from birth until their ninth birthday. saved her life. the resources she needs to do this. the police. As Tala, a street girl from the Young their stories help illuminate the decisions Other assets include a supportive Philippines, said: women in a and choices families worldwide face as their Essohana's Story family, a network of friends, role “The government must work together. We street market daughters grow up, and are a vivid reminder Essohana recently turned four. she lives with models/mentors and access to online must all work together because nothing will in Bangalore, that the facts and figures contained in the her mother, Evae. Essohana's father lives in communities and networks. happen if we don’t have unity.” India. report are about real people – real girls and the local town, so Evae is raising her children their families. largely on her own. Evae says: “Essohana this year, because the focus of the will be my last child. I have a lot of children report is on adolescent girls in new and and the problem is to feed them. I grow changing places – both urban space and maize and yam and three days each week I the growing world of new technologies walk two hours to the fields and two hours – we interviewed not only the parents of back, to till my fields. On Monday and the girls taking part but also older siblings, Wednesday, I make and sell local beer and cousins and neighbours. the purpose was maize cakes.” to gain a better understanding of how Essohana has suffered from malaria several teenage girls experience their place in times in her short life but, crucially, has today’s world. we found that although the vast majority of the girls taking part in Plan’s ‘real At home in Togo Choices, real lives’ cohort study live in rural areas, the dramatic changes described in this year’s ‘Because i am a girl’ report are nevertheless impacting on their families. this is particularly so in latin america (Brazil, dominican republic and el salvador) and in west africa (Benin and togo). as family members move to cities, the study clearly shows both the ‘push’ factor of rural poverty and the ‘pull’ factor of opportunity that city life represents. it also shows the impact that the exodus has on family members left behind. the death of Izegbe, one of the little girls from togo, shows us how overpowering the sheer struggle for survival is for the very poorest families. Izegbe's family took her to a local traditional healer but she died after a short illness, before they could take her to the health centre. it brings the total number of deaths in our small ekaekara survey to five in four years. Many of the little girls in west africa, in particular, struggle constantly with illness and disease. the impact of poverty and poor nutrition is all Q AND Stan Th too clear. TARI Plan

20 the state of the world’s girls 21 had access to free treatment provided by a trained healthcare worker who lives in the Girl with her grandmother, At home in the Philippines At home in Vietnam local community. Essohana's mother is able Dominican Republic to look ahead: “When she is older she will go to school. I want her to be a teacher, not working on the land like I do.” the fate of these two little girls demonstrates how important it is that their families break out of the trap of poverty, and how vital it is that we invest in them and their communities. the cohort families in togo spend more than 90 per cent of their income on food. for them, health and education are ‘luxuries’ they cannot really afford. the experiences of the 20 togolese Plan Plan families in the study demonstrate the pull of one member of the family is absent, there is us take a course outside the community… the city among rural communities desperate a lot of sadness...” they are afraid of sexual harassment.” This to leave their poverty behind. twelve of The cohort study also supplies desire to protect girls will hold them back them have a close family member – mother, revealing information about girls and new from school, from internet cafés, from sister, brother – who has already moved. technology. A small number of the teenage college and from fulfilling their potential. Many others talk of moving to their nearest relatives of the girls taking part in the study For the adolescent girls, increased access city to find work and better educational have access to information technology. to information is in itself contributing to opportunities for their children. forty-two Plan Mobile phones feature most prominently increasing urbanisation. Young people are per cent of togo’s people already live in an misery they suffered. abide, aged 15, went in their lives. Access varies from country to keen to move to urban areas, where they urban area. Lelem's father, for example, to Nigeria: country – in Togo, for example, none of the expect to have better prospects. One of the would like her to become a teacher, but “I was working as a maid 18 hours a day for families taking part in the study had heard teenage girls from Brazil explained that “on there is no secondary school in their village 5,000 cprs [$10] per month. I tried to come of the internet and none had regular access television we see the changes, but in our so he too is thinking about moving to the home every year… on the way to Nigeria to mobile phones. In Brazil, where many own homes the story is very different”. nearest town. for many of the families the we had to hide from the police as child in our cohort live in urban slums, all of the The parents in the survey may fear for nearest town is sekode. situated by the main trafficking is now illegal.” teenagers, girls and boys alike, have access their girls’ safety but they continue to north-south road running through togo, it is in el salvador, two of the girls taking to the internet, either at school or at an express their hopes and dreams for their on one of the major child-trafficking routes part in the study are being raised by internet café. However, a larger proportion children. Many desire equality of opportunity in west africa – a potential risk to balance their grandmothers, as their parents have of boys interviewed appeared to have regular for their daughters and want them to stay in against the educational benefits. Many of the migrated to the United states and to italy. access to mobile phones. school “to become a doctor, a lawyer or a teenage girls we talked to spoke of the others are being raised by their mothers Talking to a focus group of Brazilian teacher”. Attitudes are changing, sometimes pressure to leave their villages and earn alone because their fathers have left to work mothers and daughters, it became clear that ahead of practice, but by the time the money elsewhere. they also spoke of the in cities abroad. in the dominican republic girls are held back by parental fears for their cohort’s four year olds are adolescents we the mother of Saidy has gone to work in the safety. Girls commented: “We want to take must make sure these dreams are closer to capital san domingo and speaks for many a professional course… our mothers don’t let fulfilment. Girl with her family, Togo mothers when she expresses how much she misses her daughter and how much of her At home in Benin At home in Togo childhood she will never see. “My mother knows her better than i do,” she comments. the information from our researchers in the nine cohort countries has again provided a vivid illustration of the analysis provided by the report as a whole. it keeps us aware of the real human costs of poverty and lack of opportunity. the young women we talked to in Brazil spoke for their younger siblings and all the children whose parents had gone to look for work elsewhere when they told us: “when any member of the family leaves, the changes are for the worse...” and “when Plan Plan Plan

22 the state of the world’s girls 23 Bright lights and big hopes: adolescent girls in the city 2 “I am going to talk about the challenges them, which are not available or possible in that we girls in the ghetto get. First we are a village. But we also reveal how violence is raped and there is no action taken against a growing threat for adolescent girls in cities the men who raped us. Second, early because of their age and sex. We argue that pregnancy. Boys say: ‘You are beautiful, they must be supported to develop the skills can I sleep with you?’ Third, dropping to protect themselves, and to distinguish out of school. So the challenges girls opportunity from danger. We showcase face in the ghetto are many. That is why models of good practice; for example, urban we created Safe Spaces to talk about our planning that takes young women’s views into challenges.” account and initiatives aimed at building safer Linda Nyangasi, one of the young cities for girls and women. We look at the leaders of the Safe Spaces project difference for girls living in poorer and richer in Kibera, a slum in Nairobi. housing areas. Finally, we call for investment, not just in young people in cities as a generic “My mother used to listen to my brothers group, but in adolescent girls specifically.W e and not to me. I used to be afraid and never must listen to what they have to say. They imagined I could do what I can do now. have a crucial part to play in building the safe Now they listen to me as well and treat me and sustainable cities that we will need for the the same as my brothers. I am the secretary 21st century. of the school parliament. I want to be a child doctor. I want to distribute all the 1. Introduction: the global context experience and knowledge I have to other of urbanisation and youth girls around the world.” Asalaa, 12, from Alexandria, Egypt. She has “We have achieved things that the benefited from training programmes that teachers didn’t think we would be able to she would be unlikely to get in a rural area. achieve as girls. They never had these kind of opportunities at our age. My parents Summary too are astonished at the change they see in me.” In this chapter, we look at one of the major Rana, 16, on the leadership training changes that our world is experiencing today – she had from Plan in the city of the exponential growth of its cities – and ask: Alexandria, Egypt. what are the particular needs of adolescent girls in this context? We look at the reasons For the first time in history, we are now why young women move to the city and what officially an urban planet. More people now urban life has to offer them. We show the live in cities and towns than in villages.1 Each many opportunities that the city opens up for week, three million people are added to the Jenny Matthews

24 the state of the world’s girls 25 2 cities of the developing world. The urban Projected Growth of Selected Cities by 2025 In response to the growing re-thought and designed or adapted with population of Africa and Asia will double in concentration of the world’s population the particular needs and experiences 3 less than a generation. Delhi in urban centres and to increasingly of girls in mind. Adolescent girls must Despite common perceptions, not all cities fragmented cities, a new concept has be actively involved in all stages of this are expanding due to rural-urban migration. emerged as the backdrop for affirming re-thinking process to ensure that their In fact, 60 per cent of urban growth, Cairo the entitlement of all city dwellers to voices are included and reflected in how particularly in mega-cities of over 10 million, its privileges and opportunities, spaces cities are organised and run.12 occurs due to natural population growth.4 and services – the idea of the ‘right to Karachi Cities also grow because rural land around the city’. This stems from the premise Young people under 25 already make up the perimeter gradually becomes urban as that all city dwellers should be able to half the world’s urban population, and people move in. And in some countries the Dhaka benefit fully from city life in ways that are the numbers living in cities are growing economic crisis has also brought about a accessible, appropriate, affordable, safe, fast.13 They all should have their needs and reversal in this trend as people leave cities adapted and equitable for all, regardless rights recognised and live in a city free Manila to return to villages.5 While many millions of age, gender, race, religion, sexual from violence, with adequate housing, safe migrate, most young people living in a city orientation or any other factor. water, transport, and access to healthcare, today were born there.6 Beijing UNESCO and UN-Habitat state that technology, networks, education and skills What statistics cannot reveal is the the assertion of one’s right to the city can training. diversity of experience of living in a city. As serve as a vehicle for social inclusion. The The diagram below shows how the we will see, life for an adolescent girl in one Mumbai right to the city includes the following: population of young people is projected to of the world’s growing number of mega- • Liberty, freedom and the benefit of the grow in cities all over the world. cities of over 10 million is very different from São Paolo city life for all Life in the city has much to offer living in a small town, let alone in a village. • Transparency, equity and efficiency in adolescent girls. They are more likely to be And one of the most important factors city administrations educated and find work, and less likely to shaping that experience is whether she is rich 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 • Participation and respect in local marry young in a town than in a village. or poor. Estimated Population in 2025 (Thousands) democratic decision-making They have more opportunity to interact with The cities’ richest inhabitants are Population in 2007 (Thousands) • Recognition of diversity in economic, boys and to work towards equality. increasingly isolating themselves in gated Sources: Data from UN Population Division, World social and cultural life But millions of adolescent girls are not communities and using private services. Urbanization Prospects 2007. Figures for 2025 are projections. • Reducing poverty, social exclusion and able to access these positive sides of city Then there are the middle classes, who (From UN-Habitat: State of the world’s cities 2008/2009 p. 6) urban violence.11 life. Because they are at the point in their benefit most from the amenities and These principles are particularly lives where they are maturing sexually, they services provided in a city, and for whom further shaped and re-shaped by additional important for women and girls, whose are especially vulnerable to violence and they are generally provided.7 And finally, factors, including age, ethnic background, ability to access the city is more limited. sexual exploitation, in particular if they are there are the most marginalised – the religion, marital status, sexual orientation Urban environments, governance homeless, live on the streets or live in poorer urban poor – who constitute up to half the and disability.”9 structures, services and spaces must be parts of the city, especially slums. urban population, especially in developing This fact has been recognised in many countries. They have little access to the cities, which have special programmes for Population of Youth (millions) benefits of a city, and may live in slums or women, children and those with disabilities 450 shanty towns. Father Bruno Sechi, co- or from particularly disadvantaged groups. founder of the National Movement of Street However, there are only a few that recognise 400 Boys and Girls in Brazil, says: “The first and the particular needs of adolescent girls, 350 greatest violence is the systematic exclusion especially those who are most marginalised, 300 of a great number of people by society. and therefore most deprived of its benefits. 250 From this violence other violence directly And yet we know that investing in girls and indirectly flows. Where you exclude, can break the cycle of poverty that is 200 you must establish instruments to control often handed down from generation to 150 10 those who are excluded so that they don’t generation. 100 invade the peace of those who have access to opportunities and wealth.”8 A GIRL’S RIGHT TO THE CITY 50 As Women in Cities International have Women and girls should have as much 0 stated: “It is important to recognise that right to the city as men and boys; to South Asia East Asia Sub-Saharan Latin America Europe and Middle East and Pacific Africa and the Central Asia and North cities are not homogenous; rather they are freedom of mobility, to use public spaces, Caribbean Africa experienced in different ways by the diversity to go to school, to engage in politics and 1950 2050 of their residents. Not only is the experience to participate in the benefits of urban life of the city shaped by one’s gender, but it is without fear. Source: World Bank: World Development Report 2007: Development and the Next Generation

26 the state of the world’s girls 27 GIRL HOMELESSNESS IN CANADA – co-educational shelters and group homes Justice for girls A NATIONAL CONCERN14 which they share with young men and There is little recognition at any level by Despite a context of economic prosperity adult male staff. Many girls try to survive those who run our cities that adolescent and relatively progressive social policy in outside of state care as a result. girls have different requirements and Canada, teenage girls who live in poverty, When Canadian governments fail different vulnerabilities than boys, older a disproportionate number of whom are to provide safe accessible housing to women and younger girls. We will show indigenous, are very often denied access Canadian girls, exploitive adult men how, in order to keep safe, they need secure to the most basic human rights. They are step in to fill the gap. Before long, transport, adequate lighting, and affordable criminalised for the oppression they face homeless teen girls are ‘trading’ sex and decent housing. To mature into and encounter additional abuse in state- with older abusive men in exchange for responsible adults, they require education run facilities, leaving them vulnerable a place to stay. Many of these adult men and health services targeted at their needs to becoming homeless. The United subsequently reveal themselves as drug and, when they are the right age, the Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right dealers and pimps who eventually ‘turn possibility of decent work. to Adequate Housing recently found: out’ girls, under threat of force, into With cities mostly built, planned “Homelessness in general and that of selling sex and/or drug dealing. In a 2007 and run by men, the requirements of young women and girls in particular has survey of 762 homeless youth aged 12 women and girls are often ignored – and become a national concern in Canada.” 15 to 18 it was found that 57 per cent of the those of adolescent girls particularly so. Manoocher Deghati / IRIN Teenage girls constitute between 30 and girls had been sexually abused.17 Adolescent girls have huge energy, ideas 50 per cent of homeless youth in big On the street, teen girls in Canada and enthusiasm, as some of the projects we According to UN-Habitat, a ‘slum household’ Living in a cities across Canada.16 endure frequent and severe male sexual will showcase reveal. But, as UN-Habitat is a group of individuals living under the Bangladeshi Many girls leave their homes to escape and physical violence (including rape and points out: “Young women and girls have same roof in an urban area who lack one slum. sexual and physical abuse by male family murder), commercial sexual exploitation, traditionally had little say in how cities are or more of the following: durable housing, members, which is not properly dealt with police harassment and brutality, developed, how services are delivered, and sufficient living area, access to safe water, by the criminal justice or child welfare criminalisation and imprisonment and how governance structures are run.”18 Giving access to sanitation and secure tenure. Not systems. For indigenous girls, the impact serious, sometimes fatal, health disorders them a say will not just make cities safe for all poor people live in slums, and not all of historical and current colonial social such as HIV and Hepatitis C. They survive girls: they will make them better places to people who live in areas defined as slums are policies is also a driving force behind in grossly inadequate and dangerous live for everyone. poor. However, slum dwellers constitute the girls’ trajectory into homelessness. living environments such as squats or The issues about adolescent girls in cities majority of the world’s urban poor.22 There is virtually no girl-only housing adult rooming houses that are often that this report raises are not going to go Slum dwellers are no longer a few in Canada for girls who are homeless and infested with bed bugs, cockroaches away; on the contrary, they will become thousand in a few cities of a rapidly escaping male violence. Instead, girls and rodents, inhabited by violent men, more urgent with each passing day. By the industrialising continent. Vast urban slums who are often dealing with the emotional or toxic with environmentally hazardous middle of the 21st century the majority of are now the reality of daily life for around and physical traumas of male sexual and chemicals, building materials and countries in the developing world will be 828 million people: one out of every three physical violence are expected to go to pesticides. mostly urban.19 The issues must therefore be city dwellers, almost a sixth of the world’s addressed with the speed that they deserve. population.23 The majority of slum dwellers Investing in urban girls We owe this, and much more, to the millions live in Asia, and more than 70 per cent of adolescent girls who live in cities and the of Africa’s urban population live in areas many more who will live there in the coming that can be defined as slums,24 although decades. The United Nations notes that: aggregate statistics hide deep inequalities “The future of cities depends on the future and gloss over concentrations of harsh of young people. In particular, it depends on poverty within cities.25 The pace and scale of what policymakers can do to equip young slum growth is changing rapidly. There are people to break the cycle of poverty. This in now more than 250,000 – Delhi now has turn depends on involving young people in ‘slums within slums’ and in Cairo and Phnom the decisions that affect them.”20 Penh urban squatters on rooftops have built slum cities in the air.26 Adolescent girls in slums Slums are also vibrant places: “Slums “Both men and women in slums face are filled with entrepreneurs,” as Judith problems associated with poverty, poor Hermanson of InterAction points out:27 living conditions and lack of social safety “Slums are creative places, full of people nets. But research shows that women and who have made a living in very difficult girls are by far the worst affected.” circumstances.” Anna Tibaijuka, Executive Director However, the majority of the world’s of UN-Habitat21 slum dwellers are likely to die younger,

28 the state of the world’s girls 29 Slum Population as percentage and rape. These issues have been left largely 34 of urban population (%) unaddressed by academics and advocates GIRLS’ LEGAL RIGHTS IN THE CITY Philippines alike and there is limited data on adolescent girls and the poverty of urbanisation. Girls who move to the city are vulnerable to a number housing. However, where parents are not able to Uganda of human rights violations and it is primarily the provide safe, secure accommodation for children 2. Streets of gold? Why obligation of governments to ensure that their rights in their care, governments must give them the Vietnam adolescent girls move to cities are protected. International human rights standards necessary support to ensure that their right to can be used to provide guidance on domestic legal adequate housing is protected. Where children Togo “For me, a ‘better life’ means having goods frameworks and other measures to ensure that the either do not have parents or carers, or cannot you would never get when staying in your city is an environment in which girls can survive, live with their parents, Article 20 of the UNCRC El Salvador village. In their villages, [children] always develop and thrive. The UN Convention on the Rights places an immediate obligation on governments to Dominican eat the same kind of food, and that’s not of the Child (UNCRC Article 19) is perhaps the most ensure that alternative care is available to children Republic good. My living conditions are tough, but significant instrument that can be used to address including, for example, foster care. Cambodia at least I earn 500 cfa a day, a sum that I violations of girls’ human rights in the city. However, would never get within three months, if I other instruments, including the International The right to protection from violence, abuse and Benin stayed home [in the village].” Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the exploitation Young girl in Mali32 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Governments have an obligation to protect girls Brazil Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and the Convention on the from all forms of violence, exploitation and abuse. “Well, it’s very difficult here; here there Elimination of all Forms of Violence Against Women The most important instruments on the rights of 050 100 are no jobs. She will have to go to the (CEDAW) are also important. girls to protection from violence, abuse and neglect Source: UN-Habitat: State of the World’s Cities 2008/2009 p.248 city. She’ll have to work there, to look for are the UNCRC and CEDAW. While there is no employment so she can study.” The right to adequate housing specific international instrument relating to girls, experience more hunger and disease, attain Mother of Maria, a young woman in The right to adequate housing is a key component children’s rights and women’s rights standards less education and have fewer chances of Peru33 of the right to an adequate standard of living, can be used to set out a framework of action for employment than people who live in other which is recognised in a number of international governments to use in aiming to protect girls who parts of the city.28 The majority of them are Many adolescent girls leave the village in instruments, including Article 11(1) of the ICESCR, have moved to cities to escape from violence. young.29 While there are few statistics which search of education or work and the many Article 27(1) of the UNCRC, and in a number of According to Article 2(1) of the UNCRC, disaggregate by gender and by age, there opportunities a city has to offer. Some think other conventions and commitments. Ensuring that governments must ensure that the Convention’s is some evidence that there are more girls they are moving permanently; others only girls have adequate housing is key to preventing rights are available to each child, without than boys in slums.30 We know that women for a short time. This section explains the violations of other fundamental human rights, discrimination. Governments must address the and girls now represent 55 to 70 per cent reasons why girls leave. including the rights to health, education, security gender dimensions of violence against children of slum dwellers globally. Evidence shows We know that young people are more and protection from violence. and employ measures to ensure that girls are not that woman-headed households, of which likely than older people to move from Adequate housing, according to international disproportionately affected by violence. there are many in slums, are likely to be the standards, includes more than just having a roof Article 2 of CEDAW places an obligation on poorest of the poor.31 over one’s head. It also includes the right to governments to take all appropriate measures On the other hand, adolescent girls living live somewhere in peace, security and dignity. to eliminate discrimination against women. in slums may have access to projects that According to the UN Committee on Economic, According to the UN Committee on the Elimination they would not have elsewhere. Raouda, Social and Cultural Rights, the right to housing of Discrimination Against Women, gender-based who migrated to the city of Alexandria in includes the following key components: legal violence is a form of discrimination. It includes Egypt, says: “In Upper Egypt [rural areas] security of tenure (including legal protection physical, sexual and psychological violence there are not the same opportunities for against forced evictions); availability of services, in the home, the community and by the State. girls and women. There are cultural activities materials, facilities and infrastructure, including, Governments are obliged to take a range of and discussions here that we can join, from for instance, access to safe drinking water, food measures to address violence against women literacy classes to awareness about practices storage, sanitary facilities, energy for cooking, (including girls), as set out by the Committee. such as female genital mutilation. I hope that heating and lighting, refuse disposal and emergency These include legal measures (such as penal my daughters who are born in the city have services; affordability; habitability, including sanctions and civil remedies); preventive measures more chances in life than I did.” protection from the elements; accessibility; location (such as public education and information Very little research has been done looking which affords adequate educational and work programmes); protective measures (including specifically at how adolescent girls fare in opportunities and access to services, like medical rehabilitation and support services for girls who slums. As they enter a phase of their lives facilities; and cultural adequacy. are victims of violence); and monitoring the extent, where their bodies are maturing, they have Collecting According to Article 27(2) of the UNCRC, causes and effects of violence. The UN Declaration ey / Panos Pictures particular needs for education, support and l water in parents have the primary obligation to ensure that on Violence Against Women further entrenches information. At the same time, they are at en Mumbai, children have the conditions that are necessary for and elaborates the international commitment to increased risk of harassment, sexual violence India. their development, including access to adequate addressing gender-based violence. Mark H

30 the state of the world’s girls 31 the village to the city – one study of 29 something will happen to her, or simply that developing countries showed that young she will be exposed to influences that they people are 40 per cent more likely than consider undesirable; while for a boy, leaving older generations to migrate. Migration home for the city may be seen simply as rates peak between the ages of 15 and 24, part of growing up. As this young woman as young people grow up and begin to take from Morocco said: “I am a girl. I can’t go risks, search for jobs or further education working in other cities. My brothers could or simply want to earn more money than never tolerate it.”39 they can in their home village. Many are Many young people leave because they encouraged in this by their families, but feel they have no choice. If the village others are escaping abuse or the threat of provided as many opportunities as the city, abuse in the village. Gina Crivello of Young they would not have to leave. Lives, a 15-year research project into child N’deye Faye, age 19, from Senegal, has poverty, notes that in Peru: “For poor rural been involved in a savings project. She says: households, the city was often imagined as “In our village, N’Goundiane, the dream a place of opportunity where children could of all young girls is to work as a maid in a do well in life by becoming ‘professionals’. large city, especially Dakar. My aunt, with The countryside, on the other hand, was whom I lived, was always against this. often described in terms of suffering, When the Plan project arrived, I was finally hardship and stagnation. While there were able to obtain what had been missing: eux many positive aspects of living in the village, financial capital. I was able to borrow, and such as greenery, animals, vegetation and with that money, to buy cloth and other safety, opportunities for escaping poverty things necessary to make attractive outfits were considered to be concentrated in the and clothing that I sold. I have a very cities.”35 In West Africa, reasons such as faithful group of customers, because I do family and social pressure, the ambition to good quality work. In summary, I borrow, I ‘become somebody’ in a world perceived to work, I make profits, I reinvest in my work. Martin Dixon / Dixon Deux Y hold a basket of opportunities and rights that I no longer think of Dakar and my former are not gender specific.”43 They are even fashion: “Most of the adolescent migrants Girls learn can only be accessed elsewhere, are behind dream. Now I feel good in N’Goundiane, less likely to take account of both gender aspired to look smart and when they first to sew in many current female migrations. Those who where I have an activity that works well and age, although adolescent girls’ needs, came to the capital, some got blinded by Senegal. migrate hope that they will be able to earn and makes me money. In addition, it’s expectations and risks in moving to the city the bright city lights and the abundance money, prove themselves and then return in generally true that a woman stops working are different from those of older women, of fashionable clothing and accessories. glory to their families.36 after she marries. But my skill of sewing younger girls and even boys their own age. Living in the city provided them with Girls and young women may also I’ll have for my whole life. Even better, The decision to migrate can be a complex the opportunity to follow radio and TV leave simply in search of the unknown I can still improve myself in the future. combination of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors, as programmes on a regular basis… or to go to – adolescence is a time of change and It happens that from time to time I go we show below. video clubs showing action-, vampire- and transition, of exploration and excitement, to Dakar to shop or to visit members of sometimes [Nigerian] Nollywood movies, and leaving your family and the life you the family. I’m proud to be staying in the Pull… usually dubbed in French. Their ideas about have known is in many cultures part of the village. I’m not envious of anyone. The Adolescent girls may migrate in search which ‘looks’ were smart changed, but their move into adulthood.37 The sheer volume of project has changed my life.” 40 of the promise of a better life – in South small incomes of 3,000 to 7,000 francs per people moving about has increased and the Africa, Johannesburg is often called Eboli – month – between one-tenth and one-fourth expectation is that migratory patterns will While the traditional image of a migrant City of Gold. They hope to find education of the formal minimum wage – soon made continue to change, moving progressively is a man looking for work, today, women or work. Some go to be reunited with them realise their limitations. Their ability to from permanent to circulatory migration. account for almost half the world’s migrant relatives, to seek opportunities for leisure assert particular identities was circumscribed Adolescent girls may find themselves moving population.41 The International Organisation and entertainment, or simply because they by their rural origins and poverty.”45 between town and country or even across for Migration (IOM) states that: “Gender have heard reports from peers of positive Other girls come to the city because they borders, avoiding permanent migration is perhaps the single most important factor city experiences.44 They may think that in hope for more tolerance in the city than but spending much of their time away shaping migrants’ experiences – more the city there will be safety in numbers, a they had in the village.46 Girls like Radha, from their original home. This mobility will important than their country of origin greater acceptance of difference, including now 28, who ran away from her home in be dependent on the requisite skills and or destination, their age, class, race or difference of sexual orientation, and more Kerala, India, when she was 15 because her training.38 culture.”42 And yet, as the IOM points potential and choice about their own lives. parents wanted to get her married. Radha It is, however, more difficult for an out: “Despite growing evidence about the One study of adolescents who migrated was present at the launch of the first helpline adolescent girl to leave than a boy the gender-specific aspects of migration, most from the village to the city in Burkina Faso for lesbian women in Chennai in February same age. Her parents may be afraid that migration-related policies and regulations noted the attraction of television and 2009. She and her lesbian partner, she says,

32 the state of the world’s girls 33 “suffered a lot as we didn’t get support or The reality of city life does not always match fathers because of inheritance laws that counselling 10 years ago. Today’s lesbians up to adolescent girls’ expectations. As a favour boys, moved to the city as they were will benefit from the helpline.”47 However, study from Burkina Faso notes: “Comparing unable to support themselves in the village.52 as the laws on sexual orientation become adolescent girls’ situation to that of boys Rukshana, who now lives on the streets of ever more stringent in some countries, this demonstrates that their opportunities as Mumbai with her 11 year-old sister Deepa, remains a major challenge even in cities, migrants were very different. Since girls were also left because of inheritance disputes: particularly in Africa.48 rarely paid on a regular basis, they could “Our village is in Murshidabad, West not easily save up money. Instead, they Bengal. My two brothers live in the village. BRIGHT LIGHTS AND ASPIRATIONS – emphasised the status and skills they gained Both are married. My younger brother loves ‘REAL CHOICES, REAL LIVES’ such as clothes, things for their trousseau and, me a lot. But how can I live with them? He COHORT STUDY in particular, urban cooking skills – things that has five children and no house. When my More than half of the families taking would help them find a good husband, and father was ill, he asked his brother – my part in the ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ preferably one who appreciated their urban uncle – to leave all his land in his children’s cohort study would like to see their skills: that is, a migrant. Thereby they reiterated names. You know what my uncle did? He daughters pursue careers that involve adult notions of rural girlhood, namely that put it all in his name. My father died and my further education and training to become adolescent girls are ready to marry and that uncle removed us from our house. He is the midwives, nurses and teachers. Post- they in fact do not think about much else.”49 one who threw us into problems. He brought secondary education is not widely In addition, the risks an adolescent girl us to Kings Circle in Mumbai, made us available in the rural villages in which faces in trying to realise her aspirations are work and didn’t give us anything to eat. We most of the families live. Therefore the often disproportionately higher than for almost died of starvation. My mother cried parents’ aspirations for their daughters an adolescent boy. As we will see later in a lot. She told me: ‘My daughter, do honest will inform the decisions they make about the chapter, there are many aspects of city work to eat. Don’t go on the wrong path.’ moving to cities. In Brazil, at least half life which are hugely problematic for an Since then I have worked hard and come up. of the families interviewed already have adolescent girl. There is no question of going astray.” 53 older daughters who have left home, Her mother later died in the city when the vast majority to either improve their …and push Rukshana was 13, leaving her to look after educational prospects or to work. The “I dream, always dream that the city isn’t like her little sister. sister of one of the girls taking part in it is here, here it’s always suffering… well, as Escaping forced or early marriage is ey / Panos Pictures

the study explains: “I want to finish high l I see it, there can’t be that much suffering [in another reason many adolescent girls leave school to work, and maybe go to the en the city], because they don’t get wet, they their village. Shimu is one of thousands who university, and here in Codo there isn’t don’t get sunburned, they have their secure did so. She now lives in Dhaka, the capital Mark H one…” jobs, they have their daily schedule, and in of Bangladesh. She left her village to avoid In Benin, a third of all the families per cent indicated that their fathers had Advertising contrast, here it’s back-breaking.” marrying a man that her parents had chosen taking part in the study are separated by left home at various times to work. One mobile A rural mother’s hopes for for her at a very young age. She says that seasonal or long-term migration to nearby girl related: “My father has left. He spent phones in the her children in Peru50 “living in the city has allowed [her] to make or capital cities. three years away from home to work. The Philippines. a break from traditional networks”. True, she The teenage members of an older family was sad; he didn’t even see my For many adolescent girls, the lure of the city sometimes feels lonely and doesn’t know focus group, neighbours and friends brother when he was born, and then my is matched by the need to escape from the what to do. But she does know that she of the families in the study, whom we brother died and my father couldn’t even village. One study in Egypt of street children doesn’t have to do what her relatives and interviewed in Uganda, were clear that come home to see him...” between the ages of 10 and 18 found that elders tell her. She prefers living in Dhaka they are motivated to move to cities and Teenagers we interviewed were very 82 per cent of children said they had come to because “here I can earn a living, live and gave the following reasons: clear about the impacts of migration on the city because of abuse by the family or at think my own way”. In her village none of • To send money back home and support those left behind. In the Philippines, they work; 62 per cent cited parental neglect; and this would have been possible.54 their elderly parents observed that when mothers move away 62 per cent “came from broken families due to Shimu is not alone. A survey in slum areas • To live a more exciting life than in the for work, their daughters tend to marry divorce, separation, the death of one or more of Addis Ababa found that one in every four village soon after graduating from secondary parents, imprisonment of a parent or both, or young women migrants between the ages of • To reduce family expenditure at home school. Despite the potential benefits for extreme sickness of a parent or both”.51 10 and 19 came to the city to escape early • To raise money in order to build a house the family, as parents or siblings working Violence, abuse, or family breakdown marriage.55 This 17 year-old said: in their village of origin away send money home, the majority are other ‘push’ factors for young women “My parents were trying to marry me, but • To pay school fees of their siblings of the Brazilian teenagers also felt that leaving the countryside. I didn’t want to get married. So I ran away • To ultimately help other family migration to cities had a negative impact Adolescent girls may also be escaping and came here. My mother has said that I’m members to get jobs in the city/town. on family members who remained: various forms of gender discrimination. For not her daughter any more, but I didn’t want In Brazil, at least half of the girls’ parents “When any member of the family leaves, example, one study in Accra, Ghana, showed to get married. I wanted to study – that’s were considering moving to a city, and 75 the changes are for the worse...” that young women, disinherited by their why I came.”

34 the state of the world’s girls 35 She is now at school.56 In Ghana too, a tell of their determination not to have their they support the practice, compared with The Arabic study found that younger women migrated daughters cut. The women I met said that 25 per cent in urban areas.61 translation to the city to run away from the possibility of although it was sometimes their husbands Government television programmes on reads: “Do being married off by their parents. who insisted on cutting, more often it was the dangers of FGC; contact with those not kill your “With no hope of continuing their the older generation of women who were in authority, such as doctors and imams children’s education, families often force their girls to most determined to have it done. who are prepared to speak out against the innocence”. marry, often at a young age. In defiance, “For our first daughter, my mother- practice; and women themselves who, once girls sometimes escape with their friends and in-law said that if we did not do this convinced, influence their neighbours, can join the trek into Accra.”57 to her, she would be a bad girl. At all help. Plan works with local Community Female genital cutting and other harmful least I managed to have it done by a Development Associations on raising traditional practices are also generally less nurse instead of the barber, which was communities’ awareness of gender equality, prevalent in the city than in urban areas, as something. But my daughter kept asking including issues around FGC, to build both the chart below shows.58 me: ‘Mummy, why did you do this to the knowledge and the confidence that can There may, however, also be a counter me?’ It was terrible. I told her it was her begin to bring about change. movement as families try to protect their religious duty. Education is another important reason daughters in the city by clinging even more “But for my second daughter I do not why fewer girls in the city undergo FGC, as fervently to the old ways. want to have her cut. I will ask the doctor one of the mothers told me: “We are more and the imam and if they say no then I educated here in the city, our children are

NEW CHANCES: RESISTING HARMFUL will somehow persuade my husband and part of the internet generation and things aag

TRADITIONS IN THE CITY my mother-in-law. My sister had such a will change even more for them. My girl er G The incidence of female genital mutilation bad time with her cutting that she has talks to me in a way that I would never or cutting in Egypt is lower in the city than refused to do this to her daughters. But have been able to talk to my mother. When ikki d van in rural areas, and is slowly falling. But my youngest daughter is very confident I had my first period I thought I was dying N mothers find it hard to resist pressure from and speaks out a lot and my mother says because my mother never told me about One study in Addis Ababa found that both older relatives who bring village traditions this is not a good thing and it is because these things.” girls and boys gave a mixture of these with them when they move to the town. she has not been cut.” The statistics back her up: while 98 push and pull factors as their reasons for “I have come here on condition that it is This generation gap also reflects the per cent of women with no education moving to the capital. On the pull side, a secret. I don’t want anyone to know my gap between town and village. Forty- are cut, this drops to 87 per cent of education and work opportunities came name. If you can promise me no one will eight per cent of women in rural areas say those who have completed secondary or high on the list for both sexes, as did joining find out then I will tell you my story…” higher education – and is dropping each family members. Boys were more likely to We are in a slum area in south Cairo Urban/rural prevalence of female genital mutilation or cutting year.62 Government surveys estimate that cite family problems and girls the threat of and the woman’s nervousness reflects 100 over the next 15 years there will be a marriage.63 The aspirations of both girls and the continuing difficulty of talking about steady decline. By the time girls who are boys were in fact quite similar – education, something like female genital cutting now under three are 18, the percentage economic opportunities and security. (FGC).59 80 will have dropped to 45 per cent. Slow There are many other reasons why Even though the government in Egypt progress, but this is still progress. adolescent girls leave their villages. Girls has banned FGC, 85 per cent of girls and 60 Today’s mothers are the vanguard of may be forced to leave due to wider women in cities and 96 per cent in the rural protection. But their main hope lies in circumstances, such as war and conflict, areas60 are still being cut in this way. This the future, with their own daughters. climate change, natural disasters, rural woman, whom I will call Samar, recalls: 40 Government surveys show that 46 per cent underdevelopment, the collapse of rural “I was nine years old and I had no idea of young women aged between 15 and 19 economies and the uncertainties of what was going to happen until I saw the believe that the practice should be stopped, 20 razor. My mother and two other women compared with 28 per cent of older women. Reasons for migration to held me down while the barber did his These are hopeful signs that fewer young Addis Ababa, by sex64 work. He was very rough. The pain was 0 women from the next generation will have Reason given Boys (n=94) Girls (n=306) terrible, and the bleeding. I got an infection to suffer as their mothers did. Sahar, aged % % from the dust they put on the wound, which Mali 13, says: “When I see one of my friends cut Educational opportunities 41.5 43.9 Eritrea Liberia Yemen Gambia Ethiopia Republic is supposed to stop such infections but in Tanzania it makes me even more determined not to Work opportunities 25.5 25.5 Mauritania Sierra Leone Sierra

fact makes them worse. Afterwards I had Burkina Faso do it.” And Leila says: “When my girls are Poverty in the rural area 20.2 22.1 Guinea-Bissau urine problems but I never connected them African Central mothers they will be very different from me. Family problems 26.5 18.6 Prevalence of rural female genital mutilation or cutting (%) to the cutting until much later.” Prevalence of urban female genital mutilation or cutting (%) I want to give my daughters the chances in Threat of marriage 1.1 18.6 Time after time the women who tell their life that were denied to me.” Joining family members 24.5 24.1 Source: Population Reference Bureau – update 2010 – stories talk of their suffering during and ‘Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Data and Trends’ Nikki van der Gaag talked to community *Total percentages may be over 100 as more than one after FGC. And time after time they also http://www.prb.org/pdf10/fgm-wallchart2010.pdf members in a Plan-supported project in Egypt. reason was possible

36 the state of the world’s girls 37 subsistence farming. This teenage girl from During the first five months food banks South Asia, 50 per cent of young women in who participate in sports tend to be Bomi Country, Liberia, said: “If the war were my best friends. I don’t think I’ll ever rural areas are married by the time they are healthier – emotionally and physically – starts again, Monrovia [the capital city] will forget the pain of hunger. 18, which is about twice the rate of young and less likely to smoke or abuse drugs be the best defended place, so I want to I was feeling guilty for a while after I women in cities.69 or alcohol. There may also be a link move there so I will feel safer.”65 ran away from home until I spoke with my There are many reasons for this. Some between decreased incidences of breast It is not just young women from the South stepdad. He was like: ‘Oh, this is what are simply about the different aspirations cancer and osteoporosis in women who who leave home for the city. Nicole, featured you wanted and now this is what you and understandings of city dwellers – the have been physically active throughout in the box below, left her small town for the get.’ Once I heard that, I thought: ‘Well, I people girls live with in the cities such as their lives. In addition, adolescent girls bright lights of Toronto when she was just don’t really care’. I’ll admit, if my stepdad parents, relatives, guardians and boyfriends who take part in sports tend to delay 15 because of abuse by her stepfather. One wasn’t there, I’d still be at home. But I’m have aspirations and expectations that are becoming sexually active until later study in Canada indicated that more than 70 out here for a reason. I’m not regretting it radically different from their rural peers and in life.70 This may in part be because per cent of street youth leave home because any more. this translates into a powerful influence on participation in sports encourages of physical or sexual abuse. I learn from my mistakes. We all know girls. Some are practical – schools may be adolescent girls to develop a sense of what we have to do to help ourselves. more plentiful and closer to home, or there ownership of and strength in their own NICOLE’S STORY 66 And we need to find the strength inside is less work for girls to do in the home in bodies instead of seeing them simply “I grew up in a small town. My mom to ask for help. Go to anyone you trust. the city, because there is no land to work as a sexual resource for men. “Before and dad split up when my sister was just Talk about it.” on. Once a girl makes the city her home, playing football I was fearful,” said a baby. When I was a kid, money was Nicole spoke to Noreen Shanahan. she then faces the same opportunities and one girl. “Now I am not because I am tight... It was a rough time. But my mom threats as other girls her age. used to mixing with people and I know and I were close. I remember saying: ‘I 3. The best recipe? The benefits of what is good and what is bad.” Through don’t want to get old and if I do, I’m not city life for adolescent girls PLAYING SPORTS, BUILDING football, another young Kenyan said, going to leave you.’ CONFIDENCE “I have learned how to have my own School was fun till they tried to change “At the beginning of the 21st century, the Sport is good for girls, especially principles and not be blown and tossed me. I was 13 then and when you’re 13 you best recipe for a life without poverty is still those in cities who are less likely around by the wind.”71 start doing your own thing and finding to grow up urban.” to lead active lives than their rural There are a number of projects working out who you are. I was dressing in baggy Growing Up Urban, State of World counterparts. UNICEF notes: “Girls with adolescent girls to build their clothes and getting into trouble at school. Population 2007, Youth Supplement, My mom had just met my stepdad. He UNFPA didn’t like me and used to beat me up. Once he banged my head again and again “I became more of a social person and like on the table. I told my real dad about it to stay with the group and participate with but he pretty much said it’s my stepdad’s them positively. I also learned to work with house and he can do what he wants. It was a team.” his word against mine. I felt like I was on Sarah, from El Marg, a poor town outside my own and I had to take care of myself. Cairo, was able to join a jobs training My stepdad kept saying that all my programme and is now working.67 friends were stealing so I must be stealing too. Then I went out and did a stupid Girls come to the city full of dreams and thing. I became a tag-along in an auto aspirations about how their lives will theft. That was the first and last time I improve. Statistics show that they are right got into trouble with the police. My mom to dream. and stepdad came to the police station For example, a girl is much more likely and said: ‘She can stay in jail and learn a to go to school if she lives in a city – in lesson.’ After that it was: ‘You’re going developing countries school attendance for to a foster home. We’re gonna send girls from 10 to 14 is 18 per cent higher in you away to these places for good.’ My urban than in rural areas, and 37 per cent stepdad said: ‘They will beat you and higher for young women between 15 and rape you at a foster home and you won’t 19.68 This gap is also there for boys, but it is be able to do anything about it.’ less stark. I ran away in July 2002. My boyfriend An older adolescent girl is also more likely Mike gave me a ride to Toronto. I was 15 to find employment in the city than in a A girls’ d

when I ran away, and Mike was 23. My village, as the following section shows. She on football m parents didn’t know about him. It was is less likely to be married at an early age match in two years before I saw my mom again. – for example, in sub-Saharan Africa and Brazil. Leo Dru

38 the state of the world’s girls 39 football skills – for example, the Mathare Young Women in Education accommodation and meals of rice and including asthma and respiratory diseases 76 Youth Sports Association Football or Employment, Selected Countries (%) vegetables. But she says she still prefers this that either plague them while they work, Programme (MYSA) for Girls. One of the to working in the fields. “Working under a increasing stress and reducing their income, Tanzania girls taking part noted: “When I started roof is better than working in the rice field or simply prevent them from working playing for MYSA my father would say Malawi under the sun or the rain. I don’t feel tired altogether. “Sometimes I can’t work because that there is no football for girls, and he at all here.”78 of my asthma,” says Charrie-Mayof, a would beat me up. So whenever I wanted Rwanda tricycle-driver on the streets of Cebu. to go and play, my mother would cover Senegal Girls and child labour in the city Some girls helped their families at home up for me by saying that she had sent me Child labour is an issue for many by assisting their parents in their work. One somewhere. Then when I went to Norway, Chad adolescent girls in the city. A research study girl reported that after school she helped her 72 he started liking it.” Guatemala commissioned for this report by Justice for father peel garlic until midnight. Another girl Plan spoke to some of the girls who Girls found that it was common in the cities reported that she assisted her mother as a came from seven different countries to the Haiti of the Philippines. Their report noted: “Many laundry woman. Street Children’s World Cup in South Africa Colombia girls do not make a monetary income; Many girls end up in the illicit street in March 2010, and found that many of rather, their labour is exploited in dangerous, economy, coerced and trafficked by adults them felt playing football had given them Nepal labour-intensive jobs simply in exchange for into commercial sexual exploitation, selling a new approach to their lives. Jessica, aged food. For example, 13 year-old ‘Lisa’ has a drugs or acting as accomplices. Nicaragua 15, from Nicaragua pointed out: “I think job working at weekends cleaning the public But having paid work also gives older football has helped me not to think about Mali toilet in exchange for food to feed herself. adolescent girls and young women more the bad things that have happened to me… Other girls reported doing similar forms of confidence. In one survey of Bangladeshi Burkina Faso I have become more involved with football child labour, including selling things at local garment workers, 90 per cent of young than my past. I’m trying to leave the past Niger malls for up to 10-12 hours per day for food, female respondents had a high opinion of behind and live a new life.” 73 and no pay. themselves, compared with 57 per cent of Mozambique Often, the work that is available to female workers in non-export industries.79 Building capacity: finding jobs 050 100 girls exposes them to conditions that are Contributing to the family income gives in the city hazardous to their health, ranging from young women more say over the decisions Small Towns Capital/Large Cities extreme exhaustion, physical and sexual about their lives, such as when and who they “I like working [in a restaurant]. The hard violence, exposure to harmful environmental marry. In one study in Bangladesh, young work only really starts at 4pm, and I have toxins, and psychological stress. Many women’s wages contribute up to 43 per cent learned a lot. In my spare time I watch TV billion young people between the ages girls report work-related health conditions of household income.80 and text my friends. I don’t want to get of 15 and 24, only 3.8 per cent, or 548 married until I have finished college.” million, are employed. THE LAW ON GIRLS AND THE RIGHT TO PROTECTION FROM HAZARDOUS OR EXPLOITIVE WORK 81 Irene, 17, Masbate, Philippines74 In general, apart from agricultural Governments have an obligation to protect children from economic exploitation and from performing work, cities offer young women more hazardous work. ‘Hazardous work’, according to Article 32 of the UNCRC, includes work that: interferes “Over the next 10 years, 1.2 billion young employment opportunities than rural areas. with a child’s education; is harmful to the child’s health; or is harmful to the child’s physical, mental, women and men will enter the working-age There also appears to be a difference spiritual, moral or social development. In accordance with Article 32, governments must take a range of population. They will be the best-educated between cities and small towns, as the measures to prevent children from becoming involved in hazardous or exploitive work. These measures and best-trained generation ever, with chart (above) shows. include providing for minimum ages for admission to employment; providing for appropriate regulation of great potential for economic and social Many older adolescent girls in cities, hours and conditions of employment; and providing for appropriate penalties and sanctions. development, if countries can find uses particularly in Asia, find themselves working Various International Labour Organisation (ILO) Conventions and instruments also prohibit hazardous for their skills, enthusiasm and creativity. in factories in export-processing zones or child labour. The ILO Convention Concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of Otherwise they will be condemned to in call centres. In Indonesia, for example, the Worst Forms of Child Labour 1999 requires parties to prohibit and eliminate the ‘worst forms’ of child poverty, like many of their parents are.” export-oriented sectors employ more than labour. This includes: UNFPA75 twice the national average of young people. • All forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery (for example, the sale and trafficking of children, debt Young women are particularly likely to be bondage and compulsory labour) It is not surprising that some young women employed in these industries; case studies • The use, procuring or offering of a child in prostitution, or in pornography come to the city in search of employment. in Bangladesh showed that many young • The use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, including the production or trafficking of Some are sent by their families, others women preferred working in factories to drugs come of their own volition. Some will their other choices: agriculture or domestic • All other work that is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children. find formal paid work, but this varies service.77 This is true elsewhere too. Cho Governments are obliged to criminalise acts that are involved in the use of children in any of these types enormously from country to country and Cho Thet is 15 and works in a garments of child labour. A range of non-penal measures aimed at eliminating the worst forms of child labour must even from city to city. Young people in factory in Rangoon, Burma. She works also be undertaken. In designing and implementing such measures, according to the ILO Convention, general are more than three times as likely for 14 hours a day, seven days a week governments must pay attention to groups of children who are at a particular risk of becoming involved in as adults to be unemployed – of the 1.1 and is paid $35 a month. She is given free the worst forms of child labour.

40 the state of the world’s girls 41 My ideal

city Afaf, 13 years old “Families should take care of The ideal city, in the words and drawings of both girls and boys equally.” young girls from White Nile State in north Sudan. The girls took part in a session about girls’ rights and city life organised by Plan programme staff. Faiha’a, 12 years old “I dream of a society that encourages us to complete our learning. Without discrimination!” Amal, 12 years old “A society that is free of FGM Fareeda, 14 years old [Female Genital Mutilation] “My dream about an ideal city – there should and early marriage in which be development and progress, all community there is self-determination.” services must be complete, such as attractive schools, nice hospitals and pure water sources.”

Afaf, 13 years old Tawasoul, “I love the FLAG at my school, 12 years old because it stands for freedom and “A city that I dream that our entire teachers are does not good model.” discriminate between girls and boys and gives us all our rights.”

42 the state of the world’s girls 43 Longer-term, the effects of such work are A Forsa unclear, as this World Bank report notes: 1 2 training “Once married, young women tended to session in El Market leave wage employment, and most young Curriculum Marg, Egypt. Scan Develop- women expect to work only three or four 9 ment 3 years. Aside from the short tenure, many Program Review Road of the jobs were tedious, low-skilled, had Shows limited upward mobility, and were managed CAP in traditional patriarchal ways. Young Place- Employability women experienced greater autonomy ments Model as they migrated to urban settings but 8 Induction 4 were sometimes stigmatised for having Work a more Western, individualistic lifestyle. Readiness Module Classroom Nevertheless, what is clear is that these Training

Assign- aag young women in Bangladesh and Malaysia 7 ments 5 have broken some new ground and in the er G process contributed economically to their 6 82 families and societies.’ ikki d van carries an enormous cabbage, like a huge N JOBS FOR THE GIRLS – TRAINING flower, on her head, and in one corner as I am rather shy. After joining Forsa, I The informal economy: where most AND EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES goats stare warily from under a makeshift began to overcome my shyness and fear adolescent girls in cities work IN EGYPTIAN TOWNS shelter. and started to be open to all. I acquired The International Labour Organisation El Marg is a city of immigrants from rural “It is difficult for young people to a great deal of self-confidence. I made a estimates that approximately 85 per cent areas; 30 years ago it too was just fields find work here,” says Sameh, one of lot of friends throughout the course, with of all new employment opportunities in and villages. Now it is a slum town, an the facilitators of the Forsa programme, whom I speak a lot and without any fears developing countries are created in the outpost of Cairo that houses some half which gives three months’ training to or worries.” informal economy, which is where the a million people. Many areas are still young people and then finds them work Cultivating the desire to learn and the majority of adolescent girls and young without electricity or water or sewerage at the end. “This is why Forsa is so useful. confidence to speak out is especially women are likely to find work.85 This is and rubbish is piled in the streets. A In Arabic it means ‘opportunity’.” important for girls in a society where particularly true in slums. “In fact, slums market sells the vegetables that the The programme targets three categories women are not valued in the same way tend to form the epicentre or principal inhabitants can no longer grow; a woman of young people – those who have as men and where only 22.9 per cent of source of informal labour, and within dropped out of school, those who have women are officially in the labour force.84 slums most economic activity is informal,” been to college but can’t find work, and In El Marg, the primary schools are according to the United Nations Settlements those who are working in jobs which do enormous and there are often 60 or 70 programme.86 not suit their skills. Most come from poor children in a class. Some primary schools In sub-Saharan Africa, 84 per cent of families. Recruitment is done via posters have to operate a three-shift system, women’s employment in the non-agricultural and roadshows – but also via Facebook. with children attending for only a third sector is informal. In many countries, more The programme here is run by Plan, but of each day, in order to accommodate young women work in the informal sector in the idea is the brainchild of the CAP the numbers. Not surprising, then, that small cities than in the capital. For example, Foundation, a public-private partnership drop-out, especially for girls, is common. in Kenya, 58 per cent of young women which aims to alleviate poverty through The only secondary schools are in the employed in Nairobi and the country’s linking learning and livelihood needs centre of town, so once again this means other large cities work in the informal of working children and disadvantaged girls who live nearer to the outskirts are sector, compared with 73 per cent of their youth.83 The courses were first unlikely to finish their education. counterparts in small cities and towns and successfully trialled in India and because Ola, who is still at school, says: rural areas. In Peru, 50 per cent of young of their success have now been exported “We are the youth; we are the future women in large cities work in the informal to Egypt. The diagram (above) shows the of this country, but when I analyse sector, while the figure for smaller cities is CAP model. the situation I feel there is a lack of 64 per cent.87 Forsa training has already been carried opportunities for jobs for young women. However, what these general statistics out successfully in East Cairo, where The government must think about fail to reveal is the particular situations of aag 90 per cent of the graduates found Country young women and give us the same adolescent girls who are poor, or from a er G jobs. Marwa, aged 19, was part of this meets city on opportunities as boys.” minority group, or live in a slum. Having a programme. She says: “Before joining the outskirts Nikki van der Gaag talked to participants in the health centre in the next street is of no use

ikki d van Forsa, I was afraid to deal with people of Cairo. Forsa programme in El Marg, Egypt if you cannot afford to pay the fees, and N

44 the state of the world’s girls 45 having a school within walking distance is ‘A difficult life’ – domestic service because it carries with it the moral weight of only useful if you have money for books and Raky and her Many adolescent girls from slum areas end an assumed ‘trust’ relationship.” uniforms. The picture for these groups is very mother up doing domestic work for richer families. In another study, Themba, aged 16, from different, as we will see in the next section. This is where the urban divide shows itself Zambia, explains how she came to be working most clearly. The employer is often an as a maid: “My mum left us with Dad and MAKING A LIFE IN THE CITY – RAKY, educated, middle-class woman who thinks went to live in Lusaka after a quarrel. Dad WATER SELLER she is helping a girl by taking her off the got sick and I started looking after him until Raky is 15 but looks younger. She has a streets or out of poverty. Once employed he died. Mum came back and took us to ready smile and a quick wit. Along with in a household, the girl becomes invisible, Lusaka. While in Lusaka, life became difficult her older sister, Daba, she sells plastic swallowed up in the wider household, and and I started working as a maid to support bottles of iced water to passengers on therefore at risk of all kinds of abuse, from my mum and my siblings. One day, when I the buses that stop along the side of the long hours with no breaks to sexual abuse by came back home, I found my young brothers busy highway on the outskirts of Dakar, a male member of the family. She also misses alone; they told me that Mum had been gone Senegal. out on education. One nationwide study in for a long time.”89 Themba and her brothers “I take two bottles at a time and walk India showed that 81 per cent of domestic are now in a centre for street children where, the 15 minutes from my house to the workers were girls, and in fact the figure was she says, “life is good because they give us road,” says Raky. “I sell them for 100 highest for the youngest age group, between support as parents and teach us how to live CFA francs each [about 20 US cents]. five and 12 years old. and work with people”. Themba was lucky; On a good day I sell 50 and make 5,000 The research for this report by Justice for often domestic work not only takes girls out CFA [$10]. My sister does the same. Girls in cities in the Philippines88 (see page of school, but places them in situations where Someone brings the empty bottles to 83) also found that: “Girls are trafficked they have very little time off and very little

our home from a factory in Dakar and aag from rural to urban areas to work as social support, which puts them at risk of

we pay 25 CFA [five cents] for each.” er G domestic ‘house helpers’ where, if they are sexual harassment and trafficking (see section With the cost of ice and water, she paid, the wage is grossly disproportionate page 73). probably makes just a few pence per to the slavery-type working conditions ikki d van bottle. But this helps the family income. N to which they are subjected. ‘Jendy’, in “Your own place in the world” – “I give my money to my mum but I can woman as well as a man needs some kind a rehabilitation centre for stealing a cell housing and homelessness also use it for things I need like clothes of economic activity to survive.” phone from her employer, reported he and transport. I have enough for my Raky has been lucky: she was made her work from 5am to 10pm, seven “If the time comes that I have my own needs.” introduced to the African Movement for days a week and that she earned less than family, I will have a house by then. I will Raky lives in a compound with her Working Children and Youth by a local $100 per month.” do everything so that my children will not mother, Mbengue, her father, her older volunteer who came to her house and The report also notes that: “Violence by experience how it is not to have a home.” sister Daba, and her three younger suggested that she learn to make clothes employers in domestic settings is common. Lean Joy, 17, Manila, Philippines90 siblings, Ndaye, Fallou and three year-old and at the same time attend classes to Vangie and Sancia, both in a rehabilitation Yacine. The family moved here four years improve her reading and writing. So now centre for false accusations of qualified theft “On the street, no one respects you. Here, ago and Raky has been a water seller for Raky sells water from 10am to 2pm. After from their employers, discuss the abuse they you have your own house, it’s yours and two years. lunch and a rest, she then walks the 30 experienced as house helpers: ‘I was made they have to respect you. Here, even if you Mbengue says she doesn’t approve minutes to a centre where, along with to do everything. I wanted to leave. I did not don’t have a thing to eat, you have your of children working too young, but 32 other young women, she studies and like my employers. When his wife was drunk own place in the world.” some work can help to link childhood learns the art of dressmaking. On some she would slap me. He would verbally assault Woman from Mahila Milan, to adolescence. It teaches them respect, days, she also has lessons at a tailor’s me. Calling me names like ‘devil worshipper’ Mumbai, India91 which Mbengue thinks is very important. shop. Although she doesn’t yet dare to and cursing me to be dead’ (Vangie). ‘He got She also believes it is just as important speak it, she understands French and angry with me, held me down and slapped Living in the city will often mean living in for girls as for boys to learn independence has been elected to represent the Dakar me’ (Sancia).” a slum area, desperately trying to put a and to have the ability to make their own branch of the Movement and travels Justice for Girls notes: “Domestic roof over your head. However basic and living. For this they need education and regularly to Dakar and elsewhere for child labour, in addition to being a inadequate the roof, “your own place” is of training, but also the ability to make meetings. human rights violation in and of itself, prime importance. their own decisions in life. “I don’t tell Asked how she sees her future, sets up girls’ vulnerability to abuse by Young women living on their own find it my children what to do,” she says. “It is she says she wants to be a famous employers, organised crime syndicates very difficult to pay for adequate housing. up to them. I don’t impose my ideas on dressmaker. Her mother agrees. Smiling or other employees and false accusations In Ghana, research revealed that groups my daughters. But I don’t believe in girls proudly, she says: “I want her to make a from exploitive employers that see them of young women pooled their resources to staying at home and doing nothing. That name for herself as a dressmaker, but also criminalised for the crime of ‘qualified theft’. rent a shack on a weekly or monthly basis, is the worst thing. I came from a poor to be able to travel and meet people and Qualified theft is treated more severely than living 10 to 30 in a small room.92 The same family and learned at a young age that a make a life for herself.” simple or petty theft (snatching, shoplifting) is true in many cities around the world: in

46 the state of the world’s girls 47 the Philippines, such accommodation is out on opportunities to share experiences overcrowded housing, poor sanitation HIV Prevalence Rates known as a ‘bedspacer’.93 They know that and develop coping mechanisms – leaving and unsafe water supplies which reduce Urban Rural any accommodation, however poor, is safer them more isolated and vulnerable to slum dwellers’ life expectancy.101 Studies Male Female Male Female than living on the streets. Secondary school exploitation.”97 have shown that children living in slums Cameroon 1.4 5.7 1.5 3.5 girls who come to the cities may rent a room are more likely to die from pneumonia, Ethiopia 0.3 3.3 0.2 0.6 and find a ‘boyfriend’ who will protect them, Adolescent girls have different needs: diarrhoea, malaria or measles than those Kenya 2.6 7.6 0.3 5.3 exchanging accommodation for sex.94 access to healthcare living in non-slum areas, because many Lesotho 4.6 21.3 6.2 13.9 Even if girls manage to gain housing of these diseases are linked to poor living Liberia 0.9 2.5 0.3 0.9 within cities, their housing tenure is often “We need to show [girls’] potential to conditions. In addition, as Rutti Goldberger, Zambia 3.7 15.2 2.6 8.2 insecure, and girls, along with their mothers, contribute to good sexual health in their Asia Programme Manager for Interact Zimbabwe 4.4 11.2 4.1 10.9 may be forcefully evicted from their homes. environment – for example, through Worldwide, points out: “An adolescent Cambodia 0 0.4 0.1 0.3 Forced evictions are often characterised by informing peers or other people around girl may not want to visit a centre that is India 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 violence, particularly against women and them.” easily identified as providing sexual and Vietnam 1.3 0 0.6 0 children.95 The rapid expansion of urban Sophie, young woman from Benin98 reproductive health services if she thinks her Dominican Rep 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.5 slums has led governments around the whole neighbourhood will know/think that Haiti 0.8 1.9 0.3 1 world to use callous methods to ‘clean up’ Once they come to the city, adolescent she is sexually active, and will not want to Source: Country Demographic and health surveys cities and erase the urban poor from the girls often find they have access to better discuss confidential and sensitive issues with sight of city centres. The most vulnerable services and better healthcare, including a counsellor that knows her family.”102 nationwide social marketing programme. in slums, including women and girls, are sexual and reproductive health services – Adolescent girls in poor parts of the city It also encourages providers to serve often susceptible to forced evictions by provided that they can pay for it. They are may also find it more difficult to negotiate unmarried young women, often denied governments and other actors, and too often also more able to access information about safer sex. They face specific health threats services by reproductive health providers. face gender-based violence before, during, health. For example, young people in cities because of their age and sex – in sub- An evaluation of the programme106 and after eviction.96 generally know more about contraception Saharan Africa, for example, HIV prevalence showed that it had positive effects on We know that overcrowding in slums is and use it more than their rural peers. In is significantly higher for young women both young women and young men. The a major issue for adolescent girls. Aoife Nic one study, over 37 per cent of women in aged 15 to 24 than young men. In Zambia, proportion of females who ever used Charthaigh of Interact Worldwide points urban areas said they used condoms to 15.2 per cent of urban young women aged condoms rose from 58 per cent to 76 per out: “The very fact of living in confined avoid AIDS, compared with only 17 per cent 15 to 24 are affected, compared with 3.7 cent in the treatment group, compared conditions exacerbates the lack of safe of rural women. And 87 per cent of urban per cent of urban young men.103 It is also with a decline from 53 per cent to 50 per spaces for girls: places to access peer girls and women said they had ‘ever used’ a significantly higher in slums than in non- cent in the control group in another town. support away from prying eyes and ears. condom as opposed to 57 per cent of rural slums and in most countries with data it The evaluation also found that young When land is scarce there tend to be few girls and women.99 appears to be higher in urban than rural people had delayed initiation of sexual designated spaces for young people, and Adolescent girls in slums, however, face areas.104 As one report notes: “In slums, risky intercourse; that those who did have sex girls are often crowded out of this space. a number of health hazards common to sexual behaviour among women and girls, or had reduced the number of partners. Both Without this peer support network, girls lose all slum dwellers – lack of opportunity, trading sex for food or cash, is a widespread young men and young women increased strategy to make ends meet.”105 their knowledge about condom use and Knowledge of a formal source of condoms among young women, urban/rural100 other contraceptives – the proportion of 100 Horizon Jeunes (Youth young women who knew about condoms 90 Horizons) in Cameroon rose from 39 to 74 per cent and of oral 80 Horizon Jeunes is a reproductive health contraceptives from 23 to 60 per cent. The programme which targets urban youth programme also raised awareness amongst 70 aged 12 to 22 both in and out of school. It young men of the risks of STIs and HIV, 60 aims to delay the age of sexual initiation and amongst young women of their own 50 and reduce risk-taking behaviour among responsibility to use protection during sex. those who do have sex. It does so by 40 using campaign messages developed But while living in the city means that in 30 by the young people themselves, which theory health clinics and doctors are closer 20 are then disseminated at live events, on and more available, this does not necessarily radio, in printed material and by peer mean that all adolescent girls have better 10 educators. It distributes condoms and access to healthcare. Services may be too 0 contraceptives, trains healthcare providers expensive, or clinics not seen as friendly to in making services youth-friendly; involves young women or offering them the care and India Chad Benin Nepal Congo Liberia parents and community leaders, including support that they need to protect themselves Ukraine Uganda Ethiopia Vietnam Namibia Armenia Tanzania

Cambodia local health and education officials, and and their health. Migrants in slums may have Urban Azerbaijan Rural advertises in the mass media as part of a better health services than they had in their

48 the state of the world’s girls 49 Attendance by skilled birth attendant, rural and urban, selected countries educated, she is more likely to be healthy and early loss of virginity. Students who get 100 her children are more likely to go to school. A pregnant are expelled from schools. 90 study in Bangladesh by the London School of School violence reflects violence in 80 Hygiene and Tropical Medicine found that for society as a whole, and therefore an 70 women with eight or more years of education, appropriate response needs to be gender- 60 maternal mortality was three times lower and balanced, holistic, participatory and 50 abortion-related mortality was eleven times measurable. Accordingly, in the first year lower than in women with no education. of Learn Without Fear we have been able 40 to track the following changes: 30 LEARN WITHOUT FEAR114 • Due to improved laws in Ecuador, 20 Learn Without Fear is Plan International’s Nicaragua and the Philippines more 10 global campaign against violence in than 27 million school students have

Percentage 0 school. Fear of bullying and sexual better legal protection from violence harassment is one of the reasons why • In Bolivia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Haiti Brazil Egypt Nepal

Yemen girls drop out of school. Philippines and Tanzania, campaigners Nigeria Pakistan Indonesia Cambodia are leading efforts to pass bills on Philippines Bangladesh SouthAfrica Burkina Faso “Our teachers should be there to teach us school violence-related issues Proportion of rural births attended by skilled health personnel Proportion of urban births attended by skilled health personnel and not to touch us.” • The governments of 30 countries have Girl, 15, Uganda invited Plan to work with them to stop villages, but they may not be able to afford off overall than their rural counterparts.”109 school violence them. Adolescent girls are less likely than This is clear when an adolescent girl in Each year, 150 million girls and 73 million • In total, 286,216 children have been most to have the extra cash for healthcare.107 a city has a baby. She is more likely to be boys across the world are subjected to involved in Learn Without Fear Their low status may also mean that they attended by a skilled birth attendant in a city sexual violence and between 20 and campaign initiatives are attended to last. One study of urban than in a village. 65 per cent of schoolchildren report • 8,289 teachers across 26 countries have populations in Bangladesh looked at access being verbally or physically bullied. The been trained on ‘positive discipline’ to healthcare within poor households. Taking advantage of urban life – access Learn Without Fear campaign was set • 11,813 public servants have undergone They found that because women and girls to education up in 2008 to address the fact that training on school violence-related had lower status than men and boys in the cruel and humiliating forms of physical issues. family, their health needs were neglected, “Education is definitely more important for punishment, gender-based violence and This initial success demonstrates that sometimes fatally. For example, during a girls than for boys. If girls don’t have the bullying are a daily reality for millions of a concerted effort by schools, parents, cholera epidemic, three times more women opportunities that education gives them children. At present, 89 countries have pupils and law enforcement agencies died than men simply because they were then they are not qualified for a good life.” not yet prohibited corporal punishment could largely eliminate fear as a reason taken to hospital too late in order to avoid Sabah, mother of three daughters, in schools. Girls in cities may have more for school drop-out. paying hospital fees.108 In many countries, the Alexandria, Egypt110 access to education but access itself is mothers of girls with disabilities find that there never enough, as the campaign clearly “There would be a lot less violence in are more programmes to help integrate them The Millennium Development Goals, in demonstrates. schools if there were a stronger sense of into normal life than there are in villages. recognising the importance of girls’ education, community in the classrooms.” UN-Habitat notes that: “Youth and, by acknowledge that access to education has “If they hit me, I learn to hit.” Girl, 15, Germany extension, children born to families in highly been shown to be the one thing that will Girl, 12, Spain deprived areas like slums have far less access protect a young woman in future life, giving Female school drop-out rate due to to health services, such as immunisation her the possibility of work, self-confidence Plan researchers made a number of pregnancy and early marriage, slums and, in some cases, antenatal and delivery and knowledge. We know that education findings that are directly related to girls: and non-slums, selected countries115 care. For instance, in countries where a high has a significant impact on girls’ futures. • In Africa, some male teachers offer Slum % Non-slum % proportion of poor youth and children are According to the World Bank, an extra year good grades in exchange for sexual Philippines 21 13 without immunisation, national coverage of schooling can increase a girl’s potential intercourse. Such abuse is commonly Kyrgyzstan 32 20 can still be as high as 40 per cent, because wages by 10 to 20 per cent.111 Girls who attend seen as an inevitable part of school life. Indonesia 24 33 immunisation is much more widespread secondary school may make $2,000 more • In Asia, boys are more likely to use Peru 22 17 among the richest. In some countries, per year than girls who only attend primary physical intimidation and violence, Dominican Republic 35 29 access to antenatal and delivery care is very school.112 As Maria Eitel, President of the Nike while girls tend towards verbal and Colombia 20 16 unequal among slum and non-slum areas, Foundation – which has a major programme social bullying. Reports note a rise in Bolivia 28 20 but generally speaking the divide emerges supporting adolescent girls – notes: “Multiply sexual abuse via the internet. Zambia 19 23 most clearly in post-neonatal mortality rates. that by 1.6 million out-of-school girls in Kenya • In Latin America, violence against girls Uganda 14 14 However, regardless of parents’ economic and there’s a potential $3.2 billion increase in school tends to remain a silent crime Nigeria 27 16 status, urban children are still much better in national income.”113 In addition, if a girl is because of the stigma attached to the Mozambique 39 14

50 the state of the world’s girls 51 figures were 59 per cent of young women structures include the European Youth and 70 per cent of young men.122 Among Forum, the Latin American Youth Forum, and urban slum dwellers in Rio de Janeiro, girls the African Youth Parliament. Assemblies scored significantly lower than boys on every also operate in many locales, including the dimension of citizenship, “including political Youth Council of Catalunya and the Youth participation, membership in community Parliament of Ryazan, Russia.” or civic organisations (excluding churches), In the municipality of Barra Mansa, in seeking out government agencies, and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, children aged nine having official legal documents”.123 to 15 help set expenditure priorities. In the UN-Habitat recognised that participation Philippines, the councils are open to youths was still an issue for many girls in cities. aged 15 to 21.125 In Ceará, Brazil, young Lucia Kiwala, the Chief of the Gender people were also involved in budget setting Mainstreaming Unit at UN-Habitat, and in training other youth. The council says explained: “We found that girls were not that as a result of their efforts, an additional participating as much as boys in our One $750,000 was allocated to children and Stop Youth Centres which provide a meeting young people in 2005.126 place for young people to come together These initiatives are to be welcomed but to access information and resources. So we they need to make the necessary efforts to started up Girls’ Clubs to encourage girls ensure that the ‘youth’ consulted are girls 124 AN to attend.” Girls and young women need as well as boys. Girls are, after all, experts PL time, information, knowledge and confidence on their own experiences – they know when There are big differences between rich and be lower than in rural areas, is higher than in Children at to help them participate in city life, and they do not feel safe in the city.127 poor areas when it comes to education non-slum areas (see table on page 51).119 a “Learning there also needs to be a willingness on the in cities. UN-Habitat notes that globally: to Protect part of governments and municipalities to 4. No safe place? Preventing “While children from the wealthiest 20 per Participation and governance Ourselves” involve adolescent girls. Some countries are violence against adolescent cent of households have already achieved summer beginning to recognise the importance of girls in the city universal primary school attendance in most “No one is born a good citizen; no nation camp in the involving youth in such debates. The World countries, those from the poorest 20 per is born a democracy. Rather, both are Dominican Bank notes that: “Many countries promote “Safety and security don’t just happen: they cent have not.”116 It continues: “The urban processes that continue to evolve over a Republic. advisory youth assemblies, councils, or are the result of collective consensus and advantage of better access to education lifetime. Young people must be included parliaments. Some, such as those in Slovenia public investment. We owe our children – remains a myth for the majority of slum from birth. A society that cuts off from its and Zimbabwe, bring together local youth the most vulnerable citizens in any society dwellers. Even if schooling is available, slum youth severs its lifeline.” representatives at the national level. Regional – a life free from violence and fear.” families sacrifice the education of their Kofi Annan, former United Nations Nelson Mandela128 children, particularly girls, so that they can Secretary-General120 Habiba’s father tried to kill her when he found meet the costs of food, rent and transport. out that she was disabled. If she lived in a “It’s not beautiful in our area. There are Often, there simply are not enough schools “When it comes to ‘youth making a village she would probably just stay at home. many snatchers [people who snatch bags within easy reach of slum settlements.”117 difference in communities’ I think the Now, though she lives in a poor area of Cairo, and valuables and make a run for it] and Slums vary as much as any other areas value of youth has been underestimated she attends a local community centre where people shooting guns.” of the city, and are sometimes categorised everywhere. Youth are excellent in she enjoys the company of other children. Lean Joy, 17, Manila, Philippines129 according to what are known as ‘shelter delivering grassroots-level development deprivations’ – lack of access to improved projects at minimal budgets and very As we have seen in the previous section, water, lack of access to sanitation, non- effectively. Due to the fact that they are cities offer many opportunities for durable housing, insufficient living area, involved at the grassroots level, they can adolescent girls that they could not find in and security of tenure.118 Research has easily implement a project without the rural settings. But living in a city may also shown that the more of these a girl suffers, bureaucracy of organisations… they often mean that girls face a number of risks and the more likely she is to grow up illiterate. have a lower cost base too.” dangers, some of which are the same as For example, in Benin, the literacy rate Shasheen, 20, Australia121 those they might face in a rural area, and varied from 43 per cent to only six per cent some of which are different. Violence, for according to whether a woman suffered one, It is not easy for adolescent girls to take part example, is not confined to the city any two or three or more such deprivations. in discussions about how their cities should more than it is just in the home or just on In slum areas, many girls never start be run. World Bank research revealed that aag the street. This section looks at the risks school, or drop out before finishing young women between the ages of 18 and er G adolescent girls in the city face, in particular secondary school. This may be because of 29 were less likely to discuss politics with Habiba in relation to violence. It showcases

teenage pregnancy which, although it may their friends than young men. The overall ikki d van examples of good practice and outlines N

52 the state of the world’s girls 53 how cities can be made safe places of • In Ghana, adolescents in urban areas opportunity for all adolescent girls. were significantly more likely to have Violence against women and girls130 is a experienced coerced sex than those in global phenomenon that has no respect for rural areas.136 class, age, income, religion, culture or place • A study of human rights violations in of residence. Sexual violence, and the threat Dhaka, Bangladesh, found that adolescent of such violence, haunts many adolescent girls were the most vulnerable group when girls as they go about their daily lives in the it came to sexual harassment and rape. city, whether in school, on public transport, The research was based on 3,000 incidents or in the street. of human rights violations in 61 districts Globally, six out of every ten women from 2006 to 2009. It found that rape experience physical and/or sexual violence in was the most frequent crime (31 per cent their lifetime.131 The United Nations Report of incidents) followed by murder (25 per on Violence Against Children identifies cent), acid throwing (15 per cent), suicide four main forms of violence – physical, (12 per cent), physical torture (eight per

AN psychological, sexual and neglect. Some cent) and attempt to rape (seven per cent). PL kinds of violence are more common in Half the rape victims were aged below 15 “NOT EVEN WITH THE PETAL OF A ROSE” be poor, four will live in extreme poverty, six Rag dolls rural areas, such as forced marriage and and 59 per cent of the girls under 15 had – BOGOTÁ CITY CAMPAIGN AGAINST are likely to be victims of sexual abuse, five from the harmful traditional practices. Others are been victims of attempted rape.137 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS will get pregnant before reaching the age of “Not even more common in cities and towns, such as 19 and only eight will complete their studies. with the sexual harassment in public places, forced In slums, levels of violence against girls “She was a little girl of 13 years old and her The project made 350 dolls in all, some petal of commercial sex and trafficking. and women are higher than in other parts mother left her father and got involved with a made by displaced women and girls, some by a rose” of the city. The combination of poverty, man who haunted the girl. He offered her bad well-known artists. It was called “Not even campaign. •A World Health Organisation study in unemployment, inadequate wages, social proposals. He wanted to sexually abuse her with the petal of a rose” after a traditional a number of countries found that in exclusion and racism can lead to frustration and offered her money to let him touch her.” saying about violence against women. It Bangladesh twice as many young women among men and boys and vulnerability for helped many girls and women come to terms over 15 in urban (as opposed to rural) areas women and girls, particularly if they are “This doll is crying because her husband hit with what they, and others, had suffered. had experienced physical or sexual violence on the street.138 “I like being a girl, but I her and now she has a black eye.” Along with the making and exhibiting by someone other than their partner.132 want to know my rights,” said a girl who of the dolls, the project provided training • In Brazil 24.5 per cent of female is a secondary school student in Kibera, a “As you can see, she doesn’t have a face; to strengthen the capacity of different respondents in the city and 15.9 per cent huge slum area in Nairobi, Kenya. She said she only shows parts of her body, because groups to protect women and girls against in the provinces reported violence.133 that she felt she could hardly step out of her that is all anyone looks at… men talk to her violence. It also produced posters, banners, • Another study in Cape Town, South Africa home at night without being assaulted.139 breasts rather than her face.” songs, stickers and campaigns on radio showed that 72 per cent of young women One study in the cities of Bangladesh and television to raise awareness among who were pregnant and 60 per cent of found that girls under 15 were the most These young women were describing the civil society about violence against women those who had never been pregnant had likely to be raped, while girls and young rag dolls, both beautiful and terrible, and girls, and to promote commitment to reported experiencing coerced sex.134 women between 15 and 25 were most that they had made as part of a project change. A petition with 15,000 signatures •A similar study in Lima, Peru, found 41 per likely to be the victims of acid attacks and supported by Plan International and Casa was collected. Each individual who signed cent of girls and young women between physical torture.140 It found no difference Ensamble, a local arts organisation, to made a promise not to be violent. Finally, the ages of 10 and 24 had experienced according to economic status – among the combat violence against women and girls there was an institutional strengthening coerced sex.135 rape perpetrators, 35 per cent were rich, in the city of Bogotá, Colombia. Gabriela component: institutions responsible for Bucher, Plan’s director in Colombia, said: the protection and care of girls and women Female victims of physical “People connected strongly with these (hospitals, family, police and others) will torture by age Female acid victims by age Female rape victims by age dolls, which were direct reminders of all be supported to improve the attention 60 60 60 50 that most of us do not want to see.” provided to victims of abuse. 50 50 50 42 The project was supported by the mayor “For some of us,” said one young woman, 40 40 40 38 and the municipality as part of Bogotá’s “our healer was the doll. Singing, dancing 33 32 30 27 30 27 30 initiative to become a ‘safe city’. Levels and dramatising our stories became our of violence against women and girls in healer... and there comes a time when the cent Per 20 18 cent Per 20 cent Per 20 Colombia are high. Every day 92 women are wound closes and the scar doesn’t hurt or 10 14 10 8 10 9 killed, and 100 more are beaten, by their bleed any more. When we take a look at it, it 3 0 0 0 partners. And the story for girls is no better. just reminds us that we had an accident but <15 15-25 26-35 36+ <15 15-25 26-35 36+ <15 15-25 26-35 36+ Every hour, 24 girls are born: 12 of these will it doesn’t hurt any more.” Age (years) Age (years) Age (years)

54 the state of the world’s girls 55 area. Since then the women are very pregnancies are then placed at further risk they take a girl from a nice family, she will The Old Fadama cautious with their young girls and do not through unsafe and illegal ‘backstreet’ probably be more naïve, not as streetwise as slum area. allow them to use the open fields or usually abortions. kids who have been in care. And because you accompany them to the fields. It is not only at night time that Kayayei are naïve, you are more trusting, easier to girls are vulnerable to violence and abuse: impress. They like that. It makes you easier A report on Azni Nagar, a slum area in “In the community and during the course to control. They’ll have anybody – doctors’ Mumbai, India, noted: “There are three pay- of their work, Kayayei women and girls children, lawyers’ children – anybody.” and-use or public toilet facilities available, also risk open attack by thieves who Today, Emma is 20 and is planning to where residents must pay 1 rupee for each threaten them at knifepoint and take their become a lawyer. She has written a book use. Most of the residents find this too money. This happens especially very early about her experiences. She also works with expensive, however, and they use a nearby in the morning as the Kayayei women set Crop – the Coalition for the Removal of open area instead. As the area is also rife out to work.”146 Pimping – in Leeds, which was set up by with prostitution, women, and especially The women in Old Fadama said they the families of those affected by the sexual young girls, find it very difficult to go to the were afraid to report cases for fear of exploitation of youngsters. Emma gives talks bathroom at night without being harassed, provoking the government into evicting to parents facing the same horror that hers and they felt it to be entirely insecure for them. Even in those cases where rape once did, and she is pushing for more police them. Some reported attempts of rape and was reported, the police had little interest resources to be directed to tackling gangs sexual assault as they made the precarious in pursuing these cases and holding like the one that groomed her.149 Justin Moresco / IRIN journey.”143 perpetrators accountable. Girls like Emma who have been sexually 36 per cent middle class and 28 per cent exploited are at high risk of HIV and sexually poor – which backs up the assertion that KAYAYEI GIRLS IN THE SLUMS OF Violence against adolescent girls in cities is transmitted diseases, particularly if they are violence against women cuts across all social ACCRA, GHANA144 not confined to poor areas of a city or to involved in commercial sexual exploitation boundaries. Young women and adolescent girls poor countries. It occurs in the developed or sex for money. They are less likely than In slum areas, adolescent girls can be in who live in and around the Old Fadama as well as the developing world. Emma was older women to be able to negotiate safer danger while undertaking the most mundane slum in Accra, Ghana, work as Kayayei: 13 when she was introduced to an older sex and are often threatened with violence. of tasks, as Anna Tibaijuka, Executive Director temporary migrants residing in a city to man by the boys she was friends with in In South Africa, it is estimated that for those of UN-Habitat, points out: “Girls in slums earn money as porters and return home Yorkshire, England. He made friends with under the age of 15, cases of sexual abuse have to choose between defecating in a plastic either for marriage or other labour. These her and then raped her and forced her into are beginning to overtake mother-to-child Kayayei girls bag or risking rape should they dare venture girls often pool together with other commercial sex work. transmission as the main reason for HIV at work in outside to a dirty public toilet at night.”141 Kayayei to group-rent a room in a slum. “I never thought of myself as a prevalence.150 the city. Focus groups with women and girls for However, the slums are very congested prostitute,” she reflects, her down-to-earth an action research project on Women’s and the rental rates are often exorbitant. voice strangely disengaged as she describes Rights and Access to Water and Sanitation Consequently, violence and insecurity her own suffering, “because, in my child’s in the Resettlement Colonies of New Delhi are often pervasive for girls and young view of the world, prostitutes walked the found that:142 women in this slum: streets, wore short skirts and high heels and “Inability to raise rent money is one I wasn’t doing any of that. It is only now that • Sexual harassment is rampant when girls of the main reasons why some women, I can see that, much as I wanted to believe go out in the open for defecation. Men especially the young girls, are forced Tarik had feelings for me, he didn’t have any disguise themselves as women and hide to sleep outside. When this happens, at all, except to make money out of me.”147 themselves in the fields. The situation is women and girls risk their personal Studies have also shown that socially worse during winters when men wrap security and their property. Many isolated girls (with family being a key aspect themselves up in shawls and it becomes reported that Kayayei women and girls of connectedness) are six times more likely extremely difficult to differentiate were routinely raped, sexually assaulted, to have been forced to have sex than socially between men and women. There have or robbed when they slept outside. Rape connected girls.148 This leaves girls in street been instances when girls were abducted and sexual assault were major concerns situations who are socially isolated much from the fields and men were caught for for Kayayei women and girls, and attacks more vulnerable to HIV transmission than sexually harassing them. After 11pm, did not only happen at night. Too often, boys. But Emma is keen to dispel the myth girls are usually forbidden from going to women and girls reported having to suffer that these things only happen to girls from the fields unless they are accompanied silently when this happened to them.”145 dysfunctional families: by elders. Being raped brings more than “Yes, there probably are a lot of girls who • There was one story where a teenage girl emotional damage to Kayayei women and get involved because they come from broken was abducted in the morning while she had girls; they are also placed at an increased homes, or are in care, but when you look

gone in the fields for defecation. Three days risk of HIV transmission and unwanted at the whole situation, as I have, there are H ahn later, her dead body was found in a nearby pregnancy. Those with unwanted plenty who don’t. The gangs know that if Jane Jane

56 the state of the world’s girls 57 Nighttime While boys and young men make up the Adolescent fears and experience of crime, by sex (%), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia157 streets, Codo, majority of the militarised structures within Boys Girls Brazil. the gangs, some young women rise up Feelings of well-being and comfort in the neighbourhood the ranks to take leadership roles. Others You don’t feel comfortable walking in your neighbourhood after dark 50.0 76.6 may play roles in the drugs trade and the You know of girls in your neighbourhood who have been raped 9.0 14.0 violence that is integral to its functioning. You are scared of being beaten by someone in your neighbourhood 15.8 31.8 Increasingly, girls and young women are You are scared of some people in your neighbourhood 42.0 62.1 being imprisoned for drug-related offences At times you are scared that you will be raped in your neighbourhood 9.8 54.4 – rising in Rio de Janeiro State from 32.6 per There is a lot of crime in your neighbourhood 51.3 43.9 cent of female convictions in 1988 to 56 per cent in 2000, with 31 per cent involved in Experience of harassment and crime violent crimes.154 You have been groped by someone of the opposite sex in your neighbourhood 4.3 32.2 Most women who get involved in gangs People tease you as you go about your business 19.0 46.9 are confined to supportive roles. They are You have been robbed in the last year 5.8 7.3 less likely to carry arms, and their activities may never be acknowledged as gang work Fear of violence When girls perceive that their environment at all. The younger they are the more likely is threatening, they start to avoid the places d

on it is that they are to be found carrying out “The streets [in the ghetto] are not safe that make them feel unsafe. As a result, m low status tasks. Nevertheless, activities spaces for girls because there are bad things streets, squares, parks, internet cafés and such as storing and carrying arms, passing happening. Like, for example, rape. You neighbourhoods are often used more by men Leo Dru messages and smuggling goods into can be beaten, you can be killed… So we and boys than by women and girls.161 GIRLS AND GANGS IN RIO151 prisons and across gang territories all play think that Safe Spaces has created a safe This survey in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia In the context of lack of job and education a key contributory role in the continuation environment for us.” (above), showed that girls are more afraid opportunities and social marginalisation in of violence and criminality, as well as Girl from Safe Spaces project, than boys to go out after dark; more afraid many cities, organised youth gangs may offer constituting a risk for the young women Mathare, Nairobi, Kenya158 of certain people in the neighbourhood, and a means to make money, gain social status involved. Moreover, in their relationships also afraid of being raped. They are also more and provide a sense of belonging. ‘Gangs’ with gang members, young women, and Violence and the fear of violence can also likely to be teased or harassed than boys. cover a wide range of social groupings, and frequently adolescent girls, may either lead to a culture in which an adolescent In the Netherlands, an online survey while some get involved in petty crime or perpetuate or reduce levels of violence, as girl is afraid to go out of her home – and conducted for this report162 of girls in cities drug dealing, others are primarily social they strive to protect or implicate others; sometimes afraid to stay in it for fear of found that while most girls and young women networks which come together to give a violence that they themselves are not violence at home. UN-Habitat notes that: felt safe walking around their neighbourhood feeling of protection for young people who immune to. For example, young women “A causal link also exists between domestic in the day, at night 40 per cent of those themselves feel under threat.152 may incite the punishment of rivals, as violence and urban violence.”159 This may between the ages of 11 and 18 said they did In Latin American cities, it is often young well as suffer punishment for the acts of be partly to do with shifting male and not feel safe. This rose to 46 per cent when 19 black men who attract the majority of media boyfriends and brothers.155 female roles – research in the Philippines to 22 year-olds were included. Sixty-three per and policy attention. However, studies in Women who live in gang-controlled areas found that being poor and living in cent of 17 and 18 year-olds said they did not Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, have highlighted cannot access formal routes to justice, as an urban area was linked to a higher feel safe travelling around their city at night. the various roles that young women and contact with the police is forbidden: “If likelihood of intimate-partner violence.160 girls play in these structures, as well as the something serious happened in my family, Overcrowded environments at home and Proportion of girls in Netherlands survey who do not feel multiple effects on their lives. The impact a really serious fight, we couldn’t go to the in the street can also contribute to violence safe walking around their neighbourhood at night of gang violence on girls and young women police to report it, because when we came against girls. 70 is not restricted by age but forms part of a back here, we would die,” says Marilia, Outside her home, a girl knows that there continuum, in terms of their relationships aged 13. And although the threat of gang are many places which may be unsafe for 60 and the consequences of violence, which punishment may have the potential to her to venture – unlit streets, bus stops, 50 evolves over time. Gang members are known protect victims of violence in the home, public toilets. Perpetrators are more likely to for having young girlfriends – with girls as in reality it is just as likely to silence the be able to remain anonymous in an urban 40 young as 13 involved in sexual relations victim further, as 16 year-old Rosária environment – and to go unpunished. Girls – with the risk of teenage pregnancy and states: “The traffickers come straight away are hidden – and so are the crimes against 30 sexually transmitted diseases that this when they hear about something. Perhaps them. This is why it is so difficult to find 20 entails. Involvement tends to last until their I wouldn’t tell anyone because I can’t make data on violence against this age group. mid- to late-twenties, when both men and a complaint to the police and I would be Girls may be afraid to speak out against a 10 women, if they have survived, leave the scared that the traffickers would kill the stranger, brother or teacher, fearing public 153 Percentage 0 gang, or ‘mature out’. This may come person that had done me wrong. They killed stigma and shame and doubting that they 8 - 10 11 - 13 14 - 16 17 - 18 19 -22 22 years about as a result of having children. one guy who raped girls.”156 will find justice. years old years old years old years old years old or older

58 the state of the world’s girls 59 • When asked what would make their city putting them at risk of unwanted pregnancy Getting around the city safely: transport In response to this problem, the female safer for girls, better street lighting was and sexually transmitted infections, If adolescent girls are to prosper in the head of the Rail Ministry, Mamata most important including HIV”.164 Many girls may blame city, they need to be and to feel safe. This Bannerjee, announced that in the 2010 • 35 per cent of girls between 14 and themselves. Studies in cities in Peru and means having adequate street lighting so budget there would be provision for female 16 said they know someone who had South Africa found that both girls and boys that they do not have to walk down dark security officers on the trains. I“ t is a very been assaulted – this rises to 55 per cent thought the victim of a sexual assault was alleys if they go out at night, and ensuring good proposal,” said Ananya Chatterjee- amongst girls who are 22 or older to blame for what had happened to her.165 that public transport is safe and that they Chakrabarty, a filmmaker and professor of • 55 per cent of 17 to 18 year-olds Interestingly, in urban areas they are less will be free from sexual harassment. If buses film studies and journalism. “Women have have witnessed violence in their likely to feel that they are at fault if they are are infrequent, or taxi-drivers are known long felt insecure... With the increased threat neighbourhood. assaulted – in a study by the World Health to assault young women, then they cannot of terrorism and crime on trains, women will Organisation, more than 75 per cent of travel safely to work or to school. feel reassured if the security personnel are These dangers and perceived dangers are not women living in urban areas in Brazil, Japan, In many cities, neither lighting nor safe women.”170 only for adolescent girls, or those who are Namibia, and Serbia and Montenegro said transport is available. One study in Western A survey in urban Tanzania (see page 62) poor, but are faced by young professional that no reason justified violence; while in Joubert Park in inner-city Johannesburg, found that problems with transport were a women as well, as the following testimony provincial areas of Bangladesh, Ethiopia, South Africa, asked boys and girls what the major factor preventing girls from going to shows. Peru and Samoa, this dropped to only 25 issues were for them in terms of keeping school. per cent.166 safe. Both groups recognised that transport In this chapter, we have outlined the NO RESPITE; LIVING ALONE IN THE CITY was key. Girls wanted the council to: global context of urbanisation and youth in “I live alone in an apartment as a single SOU DA PAZ – I AM OF PEACE167 “Prevent/control child harassment in taxis”; relation to adolescent girls. We have looked professional young woman. Life in the Founded in 2000, Sou da Paz (I am of for the “bus service to be faster; more routes at the push and pull factors in terms of why city is a mix of all kinds of absurdities. Peace) seeks to address violence in and stops”; and suggested having “bigger, girls move to the city. We have looked at the Though I am secure economically and Brazil through a range of community safer taxis for long-distance travel”168 many benefits of city life for adolescent girls, live in a decent neighbourhood, my programmes in São Paulo and through Safe public transport is an essential but also shown that cities are often unsafe sense of independence exposes me to national and international advocacy, part of ensuring that cities are safe places places, particularly for those girls who live multiple disadvantages, especially in policy work, media and public for adolescent girls. In some cities, local in poor areas. City life could be so much the developing world where a woman awareness raising. However, one of its councils have instituted women-only buses better for girls and young women. Planning is expected to live with parents or a signature programmes, Polos de Paz, or compartments on trains. In Cairo, the with girls in mind and including them in the husband. I change taxi-driver every which was designed to create public first two cars of each train of the Cairo process, decent housing, safe transport and now and then so that they do not recreation spaces in blighted urban Metro are reserved for women.169 In girl-friendly spaces and places would all get to know that I live alone. This is areas, was almost exclusively reaching Mumbai, two compartments on every train help. As we will see very clearly in the next despite my desire to have a regular males only. Through research with 86 are earmarked as ‘women-only’. Chitra chapter, where we look at a specific group of Looking out one to avoid the danger of bumping young people, Sou da Paz uncovered Iyer, from Plan, says: “This is a blessing girls who are the most marginalised in cities over the city into strangers everyday. Though I am a variety of factors inhibiting young for women during rush hour as at least – those who live on the street – the situation in Santiago, not very social, I make sure people women from participating in activities the obvious issue of sexual harassment is urgent. Chile. visit my house to send a signal to the in parks and playgrounds – notably stops. However, in non-peak hours, these silent observer outside that I have domestic chores, caring for siblings and compartments are often empty or thinly people and am not alone. I am forced parental worries about the girls’ safety populated. Often men who are drunk to lie to some people, saying I am and reputation. or street vendors climb in and threaten ‘engaged’ or ‘my marriage is fixed’… In response, Sou da Paz has the women or harass them. There have The negative preconceived notion of an implemented a variety of innovative been cases of knife-wielding drug addicts independent young woman who lives strategies to bring gender to the getting into these compartments late at alone cuts along all economic, social forefront of its work and to create an night and taking money, cell phones and and professional circles and you do not environment where young women use jewellery from the few women in them. get respite anywhere.” community spaces, enjoy leisure time, The poor security at railway platforms www.shootnations.org l / Selam, young woman living learn new skills, build self-confidence, and the lack of security within the in Khartoum, Sudan163 and enjoy time with peers. Such compartments themselves are the cause for D 15, BraziD 15, strategies include using graffiti and this harassment. Thus, a woman or young If an adolescent girl is raped or assaulted, hiphop to discuss gender issues with girl must make a choice: risk travelling in

there are psychological as well as physical youth, and promoting soccer teams the women’s compartment where there orreia, AGE

consequences. One report notes that for girls. To create more enabling are not enough of us, and risk an attack ia C l violence against girls undermined their environments, Sou da Paz is also training by a thief or a drunk; travel in the regular development “by making it difficult for stakeholders such as police, school compartment and risk getting molested,

them to remain in school, destroying their personnel and municipal officials in touched or otherwise leered at; or finally, iane Bertag l confidence in adults and in peers, and charge of recreation. don’t travel late at all.” iu G

60 the state of the world’s girls 61 “I DON’T LIKE BEING HIT” – A SURVEY of government secondary schools almost In 2008, the Academy of Educational attempted to force them to accept rides OF THE PROBLEMS GIRLS IN TANZANIA doubled between 2005 and 2007 and girls’ Development (AED) decided to undertake to school, but most said they had been FACE IN GETTING TO SECONDARY enrolment increased by more than 50 per a study of the issues related to gender- able to escape. “Once, a driver forced me SCHOOL SAFELY cent in just one year from 2006 to 2007. based violence and transport in the Dar es to get into his car. He wanted to have sex However, despite this, girls’ attendance, Salaam area. Staff knew that there were with me but I refused and jumped from “I have been harassed by a bus driver. performance and retention is low problems about the cost and demand for his car. He tried to follow me, but I ran so I quarrelled with the driver to get on the bus compared with boys’ – for example, only buses because many students had to travel he left and I went back to the main road and he grabbed my breast. I cried out from 68.9 per cent of girls passed Form II a long way to get to a secondary school and to wait for the next bus to come.” pain because he pinched my breast so hard.” national exams compared with 83.3 per students pay lower fares than adults. AED cent of boys; and the retention rate from presumed that, as in other situations, this This study shows that gender-based This secondary school girl was one of 659 Form I to Form IV was 64 per cent for girls gap between supply and demand could be violence is a crucial issue for girls going surveyed by the Academy for Educational and 78 per cent for boys. more problematic for girls. to secondary school. It revealed just how Development (AED) as part of a study There are multiple reasons for this: girls The study came up with some startling determined they are to go to school, many on gender-based violence against female have to do chores at home that leave them findings: of them getting up early and travelling long students in the Dar es Salaam region of little time for study; society and families Another distances each day. But there can be no Tanzania. think it is more important to educate a boy; hazard of the • Fifty-nine per cent of girls said they doubt from this survey that the challenges Tanzania has made great efforts in recent girls become pregnant or are forced into city streets: missed school because they didn’t have they face have an impact on their years to increase the number of female marriage at an early age; girls experience walking bus money. At least 18 per cent said they attendance, and likely their performance as students attending secondary school and gender-based violence; and problems with through piles had missed five days or more a month. well. The study recommends that “NGOs to improve their performance. The number transport to and from school. of rubbish. •A significant number of girls reported and governments… consider the issue of that it takes two or more hours to get to transportation to and from school when school and the same amount of time to developing and implementing mechanisms return home. More than 20 per cent of to improve girls’ education.”171 the girls reported waking up before 5am to get to school. Sixty-eight per cent of students reported needing to use two or more buses. • Almost half reported that they were sometimes unable to attend school because bus drivers refused them entry. • More than two-thirds said they had been abused or mistreated by a bus driver. This included physical and verbal harassment and assault. Forty-seven per cent reported being physically harassed – either hit and/or pushed. One girl described this abuse: “One day I boarded a bus and the bus conductor pushed me down out of the seat. I fell out of the bus and was really hurt.” Others described being hit or having encountered other forms of physical abuse. “I have been mistreated plenty of times. I have been pushed and pulled so that I can’t get on to a bus which has stopped, and I have been hit by drivers and called names. It hurts my feelings and I don’t like being hit.” • If the bus driver refuses them entry, 75 per cent of the girls try alternative means erg / Panos Pictures

b of getting school, ranging from walking

er to asking for assistance to hitch-hiking. lb i

b S This is often dangerous. Twenty-two per cent of girls reported that drivers had Jaco

62 the state of the world’s girls 63 Hidden in plain view: adolescent girls on the streets 3 “I can say that for girls it’s very, very bad to girls like Trina and Precious and Tanya. be on the streets, because someone can just That they should have to live like this is an come and sleep with you by force. If he is outrage that should not be tolerated in the older than you, you can’t just say anything. 21st century. There is an urgent need for I have a boyfriend. He was born in 1990 and those responsible for cities to protect these I was born in 1991. His name is Freedom. girls and improve their lives – and to give I also have a son who is nine months them the basic rights that all children are old. Because I was living on the streets I entitled to. couldn’t stay with my son. And one of the ladies from the church, she takes care of my 1. Defining disadvantage son until I have a better place to stay and then I will take my son back. I ask God that “If you see a girl on the street, looking my son doesn’t know that his mother is like dirty, don’t think badly of them – because this on the streets.” they could be a member of your family.” Precious, 18, Durban, South Africa Laura, 16, Nicaragua1

Summary “The government don’t do anything for Our urban story continues with a focus children on the street, they don’t even think on adolescent street girls, who are one of about them, when they see those children the most vulnerable groups in any city. they do not even make a case for them. Although there are generally fewer street They should take them by the hand and say: girls than boys, and they are less visible, I am going to support you, I am going to they are most at risk of abuse, exploitation help you, you are not alone. But no – they and sexual assault, and least able to look at them as they would anything else, protect themselves. The general public like any other rubbish.” treats them with contempt. Those who are Jessica, 17, Nicaragua2 meant to protect them, such as the police, offer them violence instead. Girls like Trina, In a city where many people are poor, it is who sleeps in a corridor between shops sometimes difficult to differentiate between and lives in constant fear of violence. Girls a slum and a non-slum area, between a girl like Precious, who has a baby but knows who is poor and a girl who is so poor that she cannot look after him on the streets she is on the streets. Adolescence is a time and has to face the daily pain of being of transition and many girls will move in and apart from him. Or Tanya, who says: “It is out of extreme poverty or homelessness as elemans / Panos Pictures better to die of AIDS than of hunger.” As they grow into adults. As we will see in the cities grow, so do the numbers of street section on street girls, many live with family Dieter T

64 the state of the world’s girls 65 some of the time and spend the rest of the disadvantaged and marginalised groups 2. Hidden in plain view – one really knows the numbers. An estimated time on the streets: some are working and in the city: adolescent girls on the street. adolescent street girls 18 million of these live in India, which has some are not. According to the UN Committee on the the largest numbers of street children of any So who is a marginalised girl? The United Rights of the Child, “[s]treet children are “Being poor is in itself a health hazard; country in the world.7 And numbers appear Nations Department of Economic and Social among the most vulnerable victims of the worse, however, is being urban and poor. to be increasing – for example, in Jakarta, Affairs has 11 categories of what it calls most extreme forms of violence… Such Much worse is being poor, urban, and a Indonesia, there were 98,113 street children ‘disadvantaged youth’3 These are: violence too often takes place at the hands child. But worst of all is being a street child in 2004 but this had risen to 114,889 by of agents of the State, or at least with their in an urban environment.” 2006.8 Another study noted: “A recent 1 those without adequate access to encouragement or tolerance.”4 Ximena de la Barra, senior head-count of street children in Accra shows education and health services; urban advisor, UNICEF6 a consistent increase.”9 2 adolescents who have dropped out of My name is TRINA5 Street and homeless girls are not just in school; “My name is Trina and I am 17 years The success of the film ‘Slumdog Millionaire’ the developing world. In the US, according 3 Pregnant adolescents, whether married old and I live on the streets of Kitwe in highlighted the plight of children living on to the National Coalition for the Homeless or not; Zambia. I stopped attending school in the street. Like Lalita, the young heroine, (NCH), an estimated 1.2 million children are 4 Married adolescents; 2007. I have a girl of two and a half. My it is often street girls who are the most homeless on any given night.10 In the UK, 5 Young single parents; mother takes care of her now. We came vulnerable of all. As the film showed clearly, around 100,000 young people under the 6 Young people who are HIV-positive, or at from a rural area in 2009. adolescent street girls like Lalita face sexual age of 16 run away from home or care each particular risk of HIV/AIDS; Both my parents live on the street. It is harassment and abuse and often have to rely year.11 7 Young refugees or displaced persons; not easy because my mother and father on street boys or older men to protect them. 8 racial, linguistic and ethnic minorities; are blind. I sell brushes on the streets. They can find no refuge with the authorities STREET CHILDREN12 9 homeless youth; I make at least K20,000 to K50,000 or the police, who are as likely to abuse them The term ‘street children’ can mean many 10 Young people with disabilities; a day ($4 to $10) depending on the as protect them, sometimes locking them up different things. UNICEF’s definition 11 Girls and young women in any of these business of the day and the willingness because they are girls on the street rather includes three different categories: groups that are affected by gender of the customers to buy our brushes. than because they have committed a crime. 1 Children ‘of’ the street (street-living inequalities. Competition is high, as all the street Overall numbers of street children are children), who sleep in public spaces, girls and the blind women sell the same almost impossible to estimate, partly because without their families; What is interesting about this list is how commodities. I like talking to customers many do not live on the street all the time. 2 Children ‘on’ the street (street-working many of the categories are either exclusively while I sell my brushes. Often they live some of the time on the children), who work on the streets adolescent girls, or else largely girls. It is girls I sleep between shop corridors with street and some with families or relatives. during the day and return to their who are most likely to have dropped out of the blind beggars for safety. I belong to UNICEF believes that there are at least 100 family home to sleep; school and married. They may then become a choir because I enjoy singing. My best million street children globally, although 3 ‘Street-family children’ who live with pregnant and have a child. The list recognises and closest friend is Charles. We are many other studies have pointed out that no their family on the street.13 implicitly that gender and disadvantage planning to get married in future and he go together when it comes to adolescent is very nice to me. If I am in trouble, I can Slum youth and that these disadvantages, once ask Charles to help me. conditions established, are likely to continue into I never feel safe [on the streets], I feel in Dhaka, adulthood. very uncomfortable because there is a Bangladesh. UN-Habitat, in its 2010 report on the state lot of violence… and a lot of crime in our of urban youth, notes that young people area. Violence is rampant on the streets considered to be ‘at risk’ in urban settings and in every corner there are people include: all those girls and boys whose ready to harm us. Thank God, we survive living or health conditions, circumstances every single day. I have been beaten in or behaviour patterns place them at risk the past by strangers, the street boys of falling victim to, or being involved in, punched me. I am not happy living here – crime. They include, but are not limited to, there is no privacy, everything is an open youth already at odds with the law, those space. living in urban slums, street children, youth I am intelligent but sometimes I feel gangs, school drop-outs, unemployed youth, very bad about myself because I stopped substance-abusing youth, those who are school at an early age, and although I can sexually exploited, war-affected children, read my own language I struggle to read and those affected by the AIDS pandemic, English, which makes me feel worthless. I including orphans. hope that one day, given the chance, I can This section of our report looks at go back to school.” the issues faced by one of the most anoocher Deghati / IRIN M

66 the state of the world’s girls 67 Many girls on the streets live with their because they are hidden from sight. Many myself. I had to be tougher and meaner am sure they have happened elsewhere. This families; many girls caught up in commercial may be working in brothels. Some disguise than anyone else, or befriend someone who makes it hard for those trying to work with sex work are key breadwinners: “If I die themselves as boys “to protect themselves was meaner.”20 Laura, a street girl from street children because they are always on doing sex work, then I die for my family,” from sexual harassment and abuse by other Nicaragua, said: “It’s a bit like a horse – if the move.”22 said a young Zimbabwean sex worker, aged street children, employers, welfare workers you keep hitting it, after a while it won’t take Because girls on the street are regarded 15, working in the coastal resort of Beira in and the police. Others tend to appear on the it any more and kicks back.”21 by many people as sex workers, and Mozambique.14 She charges 50 meticas an streets only at night.”17 The other consequence of this widespread because they have no one to protect them, hour: approximately $1. She tries to send public view – which is often also shared by they are in danger of sexual exploitation home approximately $20 a week. 3. “Call me by my own name” – the police and the authorities, as we shall and rape. Their futures are also bleak – attitudes towards girls on the see in the next section – is that it makes many are rejected by their families, whose “IT IS BETTER TO KEEP QUIET”15 street it harder to protect street children, and in abuse may have been the cause of the girl “My name’s Sala, I’m 14 years old and I particular girls. leaving home in the first place, and they moved to Accra two years ago. As soon “You have no one to take care of you. Cynthia Steele, Chief Executive of have little possibility of marriage or any as I moved to the city I fell into a group of Nobody in the society respects you or wants Empower, which works with young people in kind of stable life. They are likely to become other schoolchildren who introduced me to see you… People don’t care whether you many different countries, says: “Street youth involved in drugs to stem the pain of living to sex work. I spend most of my days with die, whether you live.” are often caught in cleansing campaigns by on the street. They have no documentation, these friends. These children are my only Street girl in Kenya18 police who have government instructions and so no right to education or healthcare friends here in Accra. We work together to have them off the street, often especially or a vote; and no place to store money and help each other make contacts and In addition to all the other problems they in capital cities, where governments want safely, so there is no incentive to save. The Children find clients. Most nights I spend with face, children on the street are often viewed to show a different face to tourists and following feature on street girls in Egypt eating a clients, but I usually spend two nights a with fear and suspicion, sometimes to such delegations from other countries. Our illustrates just how difficult it is to work with snack on a week with my friends. I really admire our an extent that their lives are at risk – often grantees have told us of such campaigns in these girls, and how vulnerable they are to bridge over a group leader; I feel I can always go to her from those who are supposed to protect Mexico City, St Petersburg and Hanoi, and I mistreatment and abuse. Dhaka slum. if I needed help or advice. them. As one street child in Bangladesh Even though I have my friends, I don’t said: “Everyone calls us ‘toakis’ (scavengers) feel very safe during the day. There are or beggars. Hardly anyone calls us by our gangs in our area who often fight and at own names.”19 times the leaders harass us girls. I’ve also Research for this report (see page 83) in had to experience violence myself. I’ve the Philippines by Justice for Girls found gotten into a fight with another street that “adolescent street girls are called girl over a client and at times have had ‘buntog’, a Cebuano term for the quail. clients punch me. Even things like using It is a derogatory term equated to mean the public toilet are scary as you can be girl sex workers, girls with loose morals/ attacked there. I know I could go to the promiscuous, or girls allegedly engaging in police if needed but there are times when ‘free sex or sex for fun’.” it is better to keep quiet; like when a pimp The research also notes that “sexist slurs demands sex, it is easier to submit than to and curse words are used to verbally abuse face violence. Plus, sometimes the police girls by family members, peers and the

are just as violent as the gangs; once when police. Comments such as ‘your mother esh d I was arrested a police officer hit me on is a prostitute’ or simply calling a girl a the head with the butt of his gun. ‘prostitute’ demonstrate that ‘promiscuity’ I’ve never been able to go to school and is viewed as a serious social transgression.

because of this I don’t feel as smart as Attitudes about appropriate behaviour by roject, Bangla

those around me. I would like to be able to girls translate into the view that ‘bad’ girls hy p p learn dressmaking and earn a decent living. are undeserving of protection from the Even though it is difficult on the street, I community or police. ‘Normal’ girls, for them still look forward to a better future.” [referring to police], normal and proper girls hotogra d p will not be staying out late. They will be at It is generally assumed that there are more home by 6pm. But if you are alone with your boys on the street than girls. The UK’s friends they have the wrong notion.” Consortium for Street Children notes that up This can have an effect on girls’ behaviour. to 30 per cent of street children are likely to One girl who ended up working on the be girls, depending on the country.16 But it is streets said: “I realised that to survive I had also possible that street girls are not counted to become cold and hard and turned in on Kamrul,ageD street 13, chil

68 the state of the world’s girls 69 “They send police Ghada, Iman’s sister, dressed all in black with vehicles to gather only her round face peeping out, says: “The Trust is a dangerous thing children the way they police pick us up because they don’t want us send vehicles to collect on the street, but we go back there anyway in – girls living on the streets in Egypt dogs from the street,” the end. When they take you, some are good says Azza Kuraym, and some are bad and hit us and insult us.” the leading expert on The girls agree that they are taken in not What strikes you first about the little group outsize green toothbrush. Many need even to juvenile justice and because they have done anything, but simply of girls perched around the table making learn basic things like how to brush their teeth. street children at the because the police think they are a nuisance; baskets is how neatly they are dressed. The girls at the Alexandria centre are just government-funded or people view them as sex workers just Asmaa, aged 13, is excited about starting a handful of the children living on the street National Centre for because they live on the street. Ghada school and being reunited with her mother. in Egypt. No one really knows how many, Social and Criminal Research in Egypt.23 suddenly blurts out a story about a woman She is wearing a rainbow-coloured cardigan though the government estimates that there These attitudes have made the task of in a detention centre who made them take that reflects her new optimism. Shaimaa, are around 1.5 million between the ages of six those working with such girls exceptionally off all their clothes and lie on the floor and aged 15, has a bright green long-sleeved and 17. Counting is difficult, not just because difficult. “We knew from the start that there then lashed them with a whip. T-shirt with sparkles on the front and a neat the children are not in one place and afraid of would be lots of problems,” says Hany Obaid. I ask them about their own wishes for the headscarf. Iman, aged 11, has a ponytail and the authorities, but also because police simply “Just reaching the girls takes a lot of time and future. Ghada says: “I used to want to go to a funky red top. The girls pass a sleeping sweep the streets of children when they know effort – working daily on the street, handing school and become a doctor.” And now? “Now toddler in pink from shoulder to shoulder as a count is happening. But there are apparently out leaflets about the centre, building trust I don’t know.” Her face falls. “I hope I can go they talk, until at last she is carried out of the about three times more boys than girls. among those whose experience has taught home and pray and be a good person.” Asmaa, room, still sleeping. The majority of the 90 girls that the centre them that trusting adults is a dangerous thing who is the only one of the group currently in The girls are in Alexandria, in one of only deals with come from poor families who because they have been betrayed by adults so school, says: “I want to become a lawyer so two daytime drop-in centres for street girls in have coped badly with migration to the city. many times in their short lives.” that I can defend other people like me.” Egypt; the other is in Cairo. There are a few Family breakdown and violence, drugs and This is why advocacy is also part of the Iman suddenly says: “All I wish for is that other centres, but many demand a virginity abusive step-parents have finally forced the centre’s remit. There is also a mobile unit my parents stop making me beg on the test as a condition of acceptance, and others girls to leave home. which travels the city, offering services that streets everyday.” She then bursts into tears mix street children with much older women. “It takes them much longer to leave than the girls cannot get elsewhere because they and is led out of the room, an arm around The four organisations involved in the the boys,” says Sandra Azmy, responsible for are not registered. “It is more difficult and her shoulders. I find out later that Iman’s centre have long been lobbying for a place Plan’s street children projects in Egypt. “They more depressing to work with the girls than parents make her stay on the street come where girls can also stay the night, away know that once they leave, they can never the boys,” says Mr Obaid. “Many have what may. She has to bring back a minimum from the many dangers of sleeping in the go back. As unaccompanied girls, they are babies, although they are only children amount or she is not allowed home. Once street. They may yet succeed. But the considered to be fallen women.” themselves.” He tells how in desperation she had a bad cut on her leg but had to stay difficulties are immense. There would be “Yes, and 90 per cent of them would some of the girls may sell their babies, or rent outside until she had the money. It took papers to fill in, non-existent identity papers probably be killed if they went back,” agrees them out to beggars who make more money. all night. One of Iman and Ghada’s sisters to show, and the moral disapproval of Hany Maurice Obaid, director of the centre, The centre also has threats from the police was abducted and raped. The centre social officialdom to encounter. which is run by Caritas with Plan and two and authorities that don’t see why ‘criminals’ worker had problems getting her treated at So for now the girls leave the drop-in local NGOs. Boys can be forgiven. Girls are – though these girls have often done nothing all. No one was interested in a street girl. No centre at night with a little bag of soap and a cast out forever. criminal at all – should have a nice time wonder Iman wants to burn the police. toothbrush to fend for themselves and each The girls in the centre today are making drawing and painting. It is time to say goodbye. But as I leave, other as best they can before they return in baskets. They feel that girls have a much When I ask the girls what they would do Iman has dried her tears and runs shyly in to the morning. harder time on the street than boys. Shaimaa for girls like them if they were the president hang a crocheted scarf around my neck. She “The girls come in the morning and have says: “Boys can come and go as they please, of Egypt, Shaimaa says: “I would take all the made it herself. And it is the exact green of a shower and some breakfast,” says Heba, smoke cigarettes [she laughs and so do the street girls and put them in a very nice place my cardigan. a social worker at the others], go outside the home. Boys are at where they can do whatever they want (not Nikki van der Gaag centre. “They learn to liberty to do what they want.” Ghada notes in prison) and go where they want.” Iman read, they make many that it is more dangerous for girls to go says: “I would give money to the poor.” And different kinds of craft, out at night and the girls all nod and point then adds vehemently: “And I would burn all they have counselling out that girls get harassed more and are in the police officers because they are harming and health check-ups.” danger of sexual abuse. They also agree, ER GAAG people.” When we protest politely, she says: In one corner on a shelf however, that boys are more likely to get hit AN D “All except one who was nice and gave me I V

is what looks like a very by other boys or by the police. KK food at the police station. But I would burn large pair of dentures, In Egypt, street girls are generally all the others.” Her black eyes burn too.

complete with pink considered to be sex workers, socially HOTOS NI Samar, aged 14, in white, has still not said a gums. Across it lies an beyond the pale, and even a security threat. word but nods agreement. ALL P

70 the state of the world’s girls 71 4. Why do adolescent girls leave you. It happened to one girl I know. A across Karachi city, most of whom were home for the street? gang of boys picked her up and took her adolescents between 12 and 17. They found to Dadar Tilak bridge and did bad things that the numbers of young and adolescent “My name is Malaika and I am 15 years to her. She had to have stitches. The boys girl beggars was on the rise.29 old. Now let me tell you my story. My life were taken to the police station. She cried • 78 per cent of the girls were between one on the streets began when my mother for many days. Everyone said to her: ‘You and 15 years old. Only nine per cent were died in 1997. My grandmother took me in are disgraced!’ She thought: ‘Whatever I between six and eight years old. after my mother’s death, but again disaster do I am shamed, so why should I live like • 34 per cent said they had migrated to struck when she also passed on in 2000. I this?’ That’s why she chose to go into Karachi and had been there for at least six remained with my aunt, who didn’t send me wrong work as a sex worker. years. to school and did not care about my well- At one o’clock, we go for lunch at • 17 per cent said they had sexual being. That’s when my friend introduced Bandra Platform 7, Hotel Bismillah [a experience, with 15 per cent saying it was ash / Panos Pictures me to street life, which I found to be better café; eating places are often called consensual and two per cent saying it was .B. Ak than being at home where I was not loved.” M ‘hotels’ in India]. It’s my favourite place. in order to get work. . From ‘Testimonies from G The boy I was supposed to marry worked • Three per cent said they had been raped, Zambia: Streetchild’ from children who feel they need help Village girls in there. That’s why I go there. He left long some by relatives. One girl was sent to and cannot get it at home. The majority Bangladesh. back, but still I go. Now he works with a customers by her father. There are many reasons why adolescent girls of callers (65 per cent) are girls between caterer. Sometimes he comes to meet me. live on the street. As we have seen, some still the ages of 12 and 15. The main reasons He cries and says: ‘If only we had gotten 5. “I wish I was a boy” – sexual spend part of their time with their families. they give for running away are conflict in married.’ My mother used to love him a exploitation and abuse of The reasons why girls leave bear some the family, including abuse; and problems lot. But I didn’t marry him. I was forced to adolescent girls similarity with the reasons that rural girls such as pregnancy, getting into trouble and marry someone else. leave for the city and why girls generally say emotional health issues. Seventy-four per After lunch, we rest for an hour. Then “A lot of men from the general public or they run away from home – divorce, abuse cent of girls calling about running away were we are in the trains till 9pm. After that, from nearby offices come to the river. These at home, abandonment, poverty. When between 12 and 15 years old.26 it’s back to a café to eat and drink tea. then solicit sex from girls… A man comes poverty compels families to send their girls Then to sleep at Mahim or, if I feel and picks whoever they want to have sex on to the street, particularly in conservative RUKSHANA’S STORY27 like it, Virar station [Mumbai’s most with. If I am picked, I leave my child with cultures, this is often the last resort, and Rukshana’s life is full of movement. She distant suburb]. We just put down some the other girls and take the client down to the girls are often forced into high-risk zips through Mumbai’s suburbs working newspaper sheets and sleep. At Virar the river.” behaviours because they have no other wherever she can. At 15, she is her 11 station it’s great – no tension of boys or Tanya, 14, Harare, Zimbabwe30 option. Don McPhee from Plan Sudan notes year-old sister Deepa’s sole carer. police. Here in Mahim, boys come and that: “The presence of such girls readily “First thing when we wake up, we wrap harass us.” We have seen that violence affects all available in societies with suppressed sexual up all our bedding and hide it in a tree. adolescent girls in the city, whether they expressions puts these girls at high risk, It’s a 10-minute walk from the bridge Begging are rich or poor. But living on the streets, often completely beyond their control and where we sleep, over the railway tracks Some street girls become beggars. Begging whether they are there all the time or not, comprehension.”24 near Mahim station. Then I take my sister is usually believed to involve very young puts them particularly at risk.31 Once on One survey in the Philippines showed that Deepa to the toilets near the station. We children, but increasingly adolescent girls are the street, girls experience staggering levels Begging on problems at home, particularly violence, wash our faces, brush our teeth and then forced into poverty and resort to begging, of violence, from assaults by passers-by, the streets were the main reason that street children go to Uncle’s tea stall at Platform 1. After where they often face both violence and abuse through sex work, rape and assault of Harare. had left:25 that we go to Bandra for breakfast, and insecurity. They may be captured by • because they are physically abused by then start work. organised begging cartels who break their their parents or older siblings (21%) We go to the shelter outside Dadar limbs or mutilate them in some other way • because they do not like their own homes station [Mahim, Bandra and Dadar – and in order to gain more sympathy from the (21%) the names that follow below – are all public. Many beggars are in fact migrants – a • because they were abandoned by their areas in Mumbai or suburbs], take our study of beggars in Delhi, India, found that parents or do not know where they are goods from the locker and go into the only five per cent originally came from the (15%) local trains to sell them. I sell trinkets, city. Almost half were migrants from Uttar • because their parents were separated or clips, cookery and henna pattern books Pradesh and Bihar. The survey also found because of their step-parent (6%) in the trains. Before we had the locker that a third of all beggars suffered some sort • because they have to earn money (3%) we used to keep all our stuff under our of disability, while 30 per cent were below • because their basic needs were not met or heads and sleep. Even when you sleep, the age of 18.28 d / Panos Pictures poor conditions at home (2%) you have to be alert. If you are deep in In Pakistan, The University of Karachi’s ammon These reasons are not so different in the sleep, not only will someone take your Centre of Excellence for Women’s Studies in H b rich world – the UK’s Childline takes calls goods, they can also pick you up and take interviewed beggar girls from 17 districts o R

72 the state of the world’s girls 73 by boyfriends and male street ‘brothers’, International Labour Organisation “IT IS BETTER TO DIE OF AIDS THAN them. Sometimes they give us food... with extreme mental and physical cruelty statistics reveal that most sexually HUNGER.”40 luck some money as well. We are not doing by pimps and drug dealers, to sexual exploited girls on the street are aged Tanya is 14. Her parents died of AIDS when this because we enjoy it. We know the risks harassment, assault and brutality by police, between 11 and 17. Their first sexual she was 10 and since then she has made her involved, but we are poor and hungry and private security and prison guards.32 experience is often rape, between the ages living on the streets of Harare, Zimbabwe. there is not much else we can do. One study in India with more than 1,000 of 10 and 14.38 Sexually exploited street “Life is not easy on the streets. How can “Some sugar daddies [older men involved street girls aged between five and 18 across girls are at an increased risk of becoming you talk to people who are hungry?” in relationships with young girls, sexually 13 Indian states found that 68 per cent pregnant (9.6 per cent), being physically This is Tanya’s indirect way of asking for abusing them for money] are our clients reported they had been physically abused. attacked (29.8 per cent), experiencing money: “I have not eaten anything since because they have the money to give us. Almost half the girls told the researchers that police abuse (21.3 per cent), receiving yesterday morning... and I want money to I know it sounds scary, but just think of they wished they were boys.33 insults (50 per cent), and having access take my ‘sister’ to the hospital.” yourself in the same situation: what would As one report noted: “Street children are to drugs (42.6 per cent) and alcohol (37.2 Her ‘sister’ is another street child – Joyce you do if you were a street kid with the generally subjected to physical abuse by per cent).39 In one study of street children – who sits beside her and listens to her every chance to make Z$20,000 [$3] just for family members, caregivers, police and other in Cairo, almost two-thirds of children word. “She has not been well for some time. having sex with someone? adults.”34 If you are an adolescent girl living regularly took drugs or solvents, with She has ‘njovera’ [a Shona word for sexually “Even if they don’t use a condom, it’s not on the street you are likely to need protection glue sniffing being the most common transmitted infections (STI)].” like I was ever going to make much out of my from a male, be that another street child substance. The children said they took Joyce puts her finger on Tanya’s mouth to life anyway. I don’t see myself ever leaving or an older male – which is also potentially the drugs “because of peer pressure, to get her to shut up. Then Joyce says accusingly: these streets and having a better life, so I exploitative. Older men and ‘street brothers’ relieve the pressures of the street, to help “She is also suffering from njovera... Tanya, might as well do something that will help often claim to be ‘protectors’ for young them sleep, and to help them endure pain, tell the truth!” The girls accuse each other of me to survive for the moment as tomorrow is women who are homeless. These men and violence, and hunger”. having an STI. It finally emerges that Joyce another day. older boys continue exploitation and violence Adolescent girls on the street are in has the infection. Tanya explains how she got “I’m afraid to visit the hospital for HIV against girls. danger not just from adult men, but from it. “The streets are full of people who want to tests. But if I cannot have sex with these Zerihun Mammo, founding member of older street boys – there are reports of girls hurt and use other people, especially those of men, eventually I’ll die of hunger. It is better the Ethiopian Teenagers’ Forum, which is having to undergo a sort of sexual initiation us who are younger. So you have to be ready to die of AIDS than hunger.” dedicated to working for and with children rite – and from police and those in authority. The red light and you must always watch out for yourself. As she speaks, her eyes show the telltale and youth, is a boy who seeks to protect girls Increasing numbers of girls are giving birth district on Men pick us up here – not just common signs of a person who has had no decent and young women from this fate. He talks on the street, leading to an increase in the the outskirts men. Joyce was picked up by a man who was sleep in a long time. Her eyelids look heavy of a particular girl whose situation “really number of babies, a ‘second generation’ of of Bharatpur, driving a Pajero.” and she explains that she spends most of touched my heart”.35 street children. India. Joyce interjects: “The old business guy her nights half-awake, warding off potential “Ten years ago she came to Addis asked me to take a bath before he slept with bullies and rapists, while the days are spent Ababa from Gondar. She started working me the entire night. The man did not use a rummaging through bins and rubbish heaps in someone’s home, and when she was 15 condom, because he said that if he did he in search of edible scraps. the man who heads the household raped would only give me a few dollars.” “I have a dream,” she says, “to go back to her. When she got pregnant he chased her Tanya nods to show that Joyce is telling school and learn how to speak English – good out of the house and she started living on the truth and continues: “The guys usually English. I can already speak a little bit of the street. She gave birth to his child. Three ask us to bathe before we have sex with English, just to beg from white people.” months after she had his child, she was raped again. She is 16 years old and when we saw her it was only four days since she 6. The role of the police in meant to protect them. had given birth [again], and she had a one ‘protecting’ girls on the streets This section of the report will look at the year and two months old baby. I was very reasons why street girls are detained by the sad when I saw her.” “We hate cops. We’re not best of friends police. It will profile and analyse the ways that One survey by Child Hope found that because they sometimes beat us up, accusing violence and police brutality function as a 95 per cent of girls living on the streets of us of loitering and littering the city. My life form of ‘policing’ young women’s behaviour Ethiopia experienced sexual exploitation.36 is one of constant fear of being caught by the on the streets. The nature of police brutality This 18 year old from Zimbabwe was clear police.” against adolescent street-involved or homeless about the trade-off that she had to make to Tanya, 14, Harare, Zimbabwe41 girls will be outlined. keep safe. “My boyfriend… He takes care Sometimes girls are detained because they of me, caters for my daily needs like clothes Negative attitudes towards adolescent girls have committed a crime, but more often it mith / Panos Pictures and food, protects me from other street guys S on the streets, as we have seen, mean that is because they are seen to have offended who might want to take me.”37 Such girls they are at risk of violence and abuse, not only some kind of moral code by being on the often have no option but to sell their bodies rayler- from street children and adults but also from street. High media coverage, especially of ie T in order to eat. the police and those authorities which are female youth crimes, has resulted in negative Abb

74 the state of the world’s girls 75 portrayals of girls in conflict with the law and as governments treat them as a blight to be the criminalisation of ‘offences’ for which eradicated – rather than as children to be THE RIGHTS OF GIRLS IN an adult could not be charged – such as just nurtured and protected. They are tortured being out on the street or having a tattoo.42 or beaten by police and often held for CONFLICT WITH THE LAW UNDER A UNICEF report noted: “The risks for long periods in poor conditions. Girls are 49 children who are perceived as ‘criminal’ sometimes sexually abused, coerced into INTERNATIONAL LAW begin even before arrest… Sexually exploited sexual acts, or raped by police.”47 girls, including those who report rape, are For example in Bangladesh, Amnesty Girls living on the street may be more likely A/61/299; and the World Report on at particular risk of being criminalised and International has documented how young to come into contact with the law than Violence against Children, Paulo Sérgio experiencing further sexual violence in homeless girls taken into ‘safe custody’ other groups of children. According to the Pinheiro, published by the United Nations detention. In many countries, children who during police investigations into rape UN Committee on the Rights of the Child: Secretary-General’s Study on Violence have committed no offence are taken into allegations are reportedly exposed to “It is particularly a matter of concern that against Children, Geneva, 2006. police custody for ‘their own protection’.”43 further sexual abuse at the hands of ‘law girls and street children are often victims of The UNCRC and other international The Consortium for Street Children notes enforcement’ authorities.48 criminalisation.” commitments require a response to that: “In some countries the criminal justice Yet there are well-elaborated children in conflict with the law which system is used to warehouse homeless Born as girls: violence and abuse international standards governing juvenile promotes a child’s sense of dignity and children.”44 Street children are arrested by police justice systems and children’s rights. The worth, respect for human rights and the “for being victims of commercial sexual UN Convention on the Rights of the Child desirability of reintegrating and assuming exploitation, for begging, ‘vagrancy’ and for “I have been on the streets for nine years (UNCRC) contains several provisions which a constructive role in society. Governments ‘status offences’ such as truancy, ‘running and it was very, very hard for me because relate specifically to children in conflict should set a minimum age for criminal away from home’, and being ‘beyond my mother passed away in 1996 and I got with the law. Article 37 protects the rights responsibility, and this age should not parental control’.” It notes that: “In these my stepdad because I didn’t know my father of children who are arrested and detained be lower than 12 years. ‘Status’ offences cases, although technically in conflict with at all. My stepdad used to take alcohol. My and prohibits torture or cruel, inhuman or should be abolished and behaviour such the law, children in this category are actually sister wanted to go away because he was degrading treatment or punishment and as truanting or vagrancy should be dealt victims of legislation that needs urgently to drunk. My sister left to be with her friends. illegal and arbitrary detention of children. with through a country’s child protection be reformed.” My stepfather once sexually abused me. Article 40 sets out principles for a child system. Governments must create a A study in Dhaka, Bangladesh, involved That’s when I ran away from my house. I rights-compliant juvenile justice system and separate system for children in conflict researchers who were street children told the neighbours and they just said to me rights of children who are being processed with the law, which takes account of their themselves. They found that nearly all the I must tell the police. So I told the police. through the criminal justice system. age and unique vulnerabilities. Alternative, street children they spoke to were involved My stepfather paid the police and after that A number of other international or diversionary, measures for dealing in hazardous and low-paid activities in order they stopped bothering him.” instruments apply to children in conflict with child offenders should be developed to ensure at least one meal a day. They Precious, 18, Durban, South Africa with the law. These include the UN and used heavily: rather than passing reported: “As we don’t have any relatives Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile children through formal criminal justice in Dhaka City, we have to live under the So how does this violence affect adolescent Delinquency (Riyadh Guidelines) 1990, systems, they should be offered support open sky at night, after working hard for girls differently from boys and young men? the UN Standard Minimum Rules on and services to address the root causes of the whole day. We never get involved in We have seen that there is inevitably a the Administration of Juvenile Justice their offending. Imprisonment should be a any ‘bad’ activities. Actually, we do not (Beijing Rules) 1985, the UN Rules for the last resort and used only for the shortest have enough time to do anything else but Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their appropriate period of time. work. The police pick us up every now and Liberty (Havana Rules) 1990, and the Other international instruments that then without any specific reason. According Vienna Guidelines for Action on Children in apply to all persons in the criminal justice to our research, police caught 20 children the Criminal Justice System 1997. While, in system when they are arrested, tried, out of 30 without having any specific case contrast to the UNCRC, these instruments sentenced and detained, will also apply to against them. These children were accused are not binding on governments, they do children. The International Covenant on of ‘sleeping on the street’. If children have no evidence an international commitment Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) contains other option but to sleep on the street, is it to abide by their provisions; and they rights to fair trial, prohibitions on illegal their fault?”45 elaborate the obligations of governments and arbitrary detention, provisions on Girls who live or work on the street are set out in the UNCRC to create a child treatment in detention and a prohibition easy targets for police violence because they rights-compliant juvenile justice system, on torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading are young, poor, unaware of their rights and rust and ensure that the rights of children treatment or punishment. While these 46 lack the consistent protection of adults. mos T in conflict with the law are protected. standards are not specifically tailored to the According to Human Rights Watch: “Street Additional sources include the Report of unique needs and conditions of children, children [and homeless children] throughout the independent expert for the United they nonetheless provide fundamental the world are subjected to physical abuse Nations study on violence against children, safeguards and rights for children who are by police or have been murdered outright, Precious 61st Session UN General Assembly, 2006, in conflict with the law. Wilf Whitty / A

76 the state of the world’s girls 77 sexual dimension to the abuse of girls and They were forced to go with the officers 7. “We have dreams too” – street young women. There are different ways that to the police detective college. They were girls’ resilience street-involved or homeless young women subsequently taken to the home of one of esh are ‘policed’, from isolating a girl for not d the men, having been told that they would “We have dreams too, and no dreams are conforming to social norms, to using violence be safer there than in custody. They were, too small.” to keep a girl ‘in line’, to using the formal however, repeatedly raped: “A detective Cynthia, 15, Philippines58 justice system to ‘police’ a girl’s behaviour.50 colleague came into the house, he smelled The Bangaldesh study on children in roject, Bangla of alcohol… He shouted ‘shut up’ and Young women themselves use a number of hy p conflict with the law in Dhaka showed p said we should take off our clothes. He strategies to cope with life on the street. that it is common for girls to be punished took out a gun and showed us the bullets, They may band together with other girls, or

by police for activities in which they are hotogra and pulled off his clothes. He raped me with mixed groups of girls and boys, or older not the criminal but the victim (sex work d p three times. Afterwards I was crying and women. Catherine, aged 11, sells vegetables and rape) and also for offences labelled by he looked for fuel to take us back. It was and fruit in Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe. the police as ‘sexual deviance’. Adolescent around midnight we were brought to other Her mother left her father when he beat her street girls are much more affected by the men who raped us too as payment for the up, but is not a well woman. Catherine says police because they are often treated as petrol.”55 that her mother’s friends help to look after commercial sex workers, regardless of the The report contains many similar her: “These women are like mother hens to n, street ageD 16, chil A

context. Police target street-involved girls as uj testimonies by young women and states me. I am grateful for their support. If it were being sexually ‘deviant’, and make judgments S that: “Women and girls who are raped not for them, my mother would have died and assumptions about their behaviour, is better to keep to yourself. I befriend girls, A girl works by state actors in Nigeria have little hope and my sister would have been out of school. although they have no evidence upon which but only girls. And any girl who does those on the Dhaka of obtaining justice and reparation... They contributed a great deal towards my to convict girls of committing a crime. filthy things, I stay away from.” 52 railway line. Prosecutions for rape are brought in only mother’s medication.”59 Pakhi, aged 15, is one such girl. She was Magistrates often order ‘deviant’ girls into a small number of cases. Victims are One study notes that: “Street children sleeping at a railway station with her friend ‘safe’ custody in a police or detention centre sometimes pressured into withdrawing the are often involved in mutually supportive Jostna when the police came at midnight where they are subjected to further abuse. case or parents of victims prefer financial relationships, with solidarity and self-support and asked them to go with them to the In Pakhi’s case, the magistrate sent her to settlement out of court to a criminal amongst children’s groups more prominent police station. “Pakhi wanted to know why. Dhaka Central Jail. According to Pakhi, the prosecution… In the few cases where a than violence.”60 Another report on street The policemen replied that they suspected magistrate did not ask any question relating conviction is secured, judges seldom impose children in Kenya noted: “Life on the streets them of being involved in commercial sex to her alleged involvement with sex work. the maximum sentence.” is not all about violence and abuse. The work. Pakhi tried to convince them that “Pakhi was in Dhaka Central Jail for two In Bulgaria, Antonia, who begs in a children develop strong friendships and she was not involved in such activity. The months, where she was regularly beaten by market in the city of Varna, told of her a spirit of mutual support and assistance. policemen refused to believe them, saying the adult women prisoners. Whenever she detention by police for five days. She is They play, sing, watch videos, tell each other that they very well knew what street girls would cry out loudly, the other girls would eight years old. “I’ve been taken to the stories and sometimes go to church together, did and forced them to go to the local police say: ‘Don’t cry. You will not get any benefit police station many times. Once I stayed for among other activities.”61 As this street station.”51 from crying. All of us are here to expiate for five days. There was a jar in the cell in which child in the Philippines pointed out: “Our Other young women agree to have sex our sins, as we were born as girls.’”53 we could go to the bathroom. There were lives are sometimes at the top, sometimes Struggling to with the police in return for protection. In Nigeria too, police and security three other girls in the cell with me. There at the bottom, but we can still surmount earn a living “We make friends with the police, so that forces commit rape in many different was only one big bed, so we all shared it. problems.”62 in Zambia. they will treat us well and watch out for circumstances, both on and off duty. The There were no blankets. While I was there, us while we sleep in the park, and release Director for Women’s Affairs within the the police handcuffed me and put a hat us quickly if we are detained,” said Nawal, Ministry for Women’s Affairs told Amnesty over my head so I couldn’t see anything, aged 19, from Egypt. Ilham, a 15 year-old International in February 2006: “Around and started beating me with a chain.”56 runaway, told Human Rights Watch that she 60 per cent of violence against women Because young women are rarely charged, would rather work as a housemaid despite is committed in army barracks or police tried or sentenced, their interaction with the the abuse of her employers than live on the stations.”54 police often remains hidden and without street and be forced to sell sex in return for This is despite the fact that rape is a formal recognition. They are often detained protection: crime under Nigerian national law and until officials decide they may be released. “I don’t want to be like the other girls, who is an internationally recognised human A report on Papua New Guinea by Human befriend police or boys, because they might rights violation. Very few perpetrators are Rights Watch showed how homeless girls force me to do something I don’t want to do. prosecuted. The Amnesty report tells what and those forced into sex work are routinely Something sexual. And then later, when I happened to two young women students, placed in detention, where they are assaulted marry, I might be walking with my husband aged 17 and 18, who were abducted by by police. Such instances were described and the police officer might stop me, or the two men with Nigerian Police Force badges as “cases involving opportunistic abuses of boy greet me, and then what would I say? It when returning home from the market. power”. 57 anoocher Deghati / IRIN M

78 the state of the world’s girls 79 Adolescent street girls need an internal 1 the right to training to learn a trade sense of self-belief – something which is 2 the right to stay in your home village hard to retain when all those in the adult (rather than being forced to leave your world seem to despise you. They also family and work in a town) need to develop skills such as leadership 3 the right to carry out our activities in and empathy with other street children. safety They need a sense of something outside 4 the right to work which is limited in hours themselves, be it religious or other moral and not too heavy codes. They need positive relationships 5 the right to rest when sick with others, including adults, and ideally 6 the right to respect with family members. They need protective 7 the right to be heard bodies, such as community or non- 8 the right to healthcare governmental organisations which can 9 the right to learn to read and write help them.64 What they want from others 10 The right to have time for play and leisure ers / Panos Pictures is simple: respect. As one child from the 11 The right to express ourselves and to w to Philippines said: “I wish that our community organise and government would love us and guide us 12 The right to have recourse to justice that hris S C and not be ashamed of us.”65 is fair and unbiased if we have problems. SUMI AND THE STREET GIRLS OF the project, more than 70 per cent of the Girls outside Recognising the importance of networking DHAKA, BANGLADESH children who attended the centre felt that the stock and solidarity for children on the street, Fabrizio Terenzio, the coordinator of ENDA, Sumi is 15. She escaped from her home their health condition was better than at exchange in movements of street children have grown a Senegalese NGO that supports the after her parents’ separation and because of the time of enrolment. An important part Mumbai. up in many parts of the world. In Brazil, Movement, says: “The most important thing abuse inflicted by her stepmother. She fled of the project is centred on counselling and the National Movement of Street Boys and that the Movement has done is to create to Dhaka city where she started living in a group motivation to face the psychological Girls was established in 1985.66 It has gone hope for the millions of children who have park. Sumi became addicted to drugs and problems and trauma derived from the from strength to strength since then. Today, had little hope, because their life is a hard was forced to hand over her earnings to the abuse and exploitation that children suffer. there are 10,000 children and adolescents one in which they have only one trump card: street gangs and the patrol police. A police The project’s main success lies in the fact involved in all the major cities. Not only have the force of their own will.”68 officer raped her and she started having that it prioritises children’s participation, they improved their own lives, but they have There are safe and supportive health problems. so that they actively influence their own taken part in political action at national, environments which help girls on the streets The NGO Aparajeyo Bangladesh and its and other children’s lives. For example, the regional and local levels. to rebuild their lives and find sanctuary. But partner Child Hope63 are working together Children’s Development Bank, which is part This kind of involvement of young people some of the care and detention homes which on a five-year action-based research project of the project, is a savings and loan scheme in making decisions about matters that are supposed to help girls on the streets may with nearly 1,000 street child victims of run by children that encourages children concern them is becoming increasingly either not be sufficient to protect them or sexual abuse and exploitation like Sumi. and young people to save for their future; recognised at all levels. They are the experts may even be perpetuating the abuse. In one The project’s main focus is to reduce the and offers credit to children old enough on what they need and on how cities can be study in India, between 35 and 40 per cent incidence of sex work, raise awareness of to use it, for example, to start up a new made better places for youth. The internet of girls reported physical abuse during the safer sexual practices, improve living and business. It also teaches skills in maths, and communications technologies mean that time they were in care and shelter homes health conditions, and promote greater bookkeeping and accounting. A children’s young people can share ideas about urban which were supposed to protect them from community tolerance and understanding. committee even approves the loans. Peer life and about how best to participate in the street. Seventy-five per cent of girls Most importantly, the project creates support involves older children doing decisions made at city level. in institutions because they had been in a protective environment for children, outreach to encourage children involved in Many of these movements are now led conflict with the law reported physical abuse, providing emotional and material sources sexual exploitation to seek help from the by children themselves. In India, street and compared with 67 per cent of boys. needed to achieve their potential and to project. They often win the trust of other working children have formed themselves Many experts believe that except in extreme empower them to take decisions about children more easily than the adult social into the Bal Mazdoor Union (BMU) or Child cases, a ‘welfare’ approach to protecting their future. A drop-in centre encourages workers. Workers’ Union.67 The Movement of African girls on the street is not effective. One report children’s attendance and assures a friendly When she first came to the project, Working Children and Youth is a Pan-African noted that the proliferation of drop-in centres environment through recognition of dignity, Sumi often cried because she believed that organisation that was started in 1994 by a that provide food and shelter in many cities tolerance and acknowledgement of the her life was spoilt due to the actions of group of girls who were domestic workers in has led to street children ‘shopping around’ for rights of children. Preventive and curative her stepmother. She started studying and Dakar. It operates through local groups and the best deal, and fails to help them consider healthcare services and medicines are gradually began to believe that she could has a system of democratic elections to a their situation on the streets and what the provided. Medical aid is made available succeed in her life. She became the manager central council. The young people themselves alternatives might be. It notes that it is better for all the children attending the centre of the Children’s Development Bank and created a list of 12 rights that they believe to train girls and young women to protect and health workers and doctors attend gives peer support to other children. Now should apply to working children, many of themselves, and provide them with non- to the patients. After the first year of her dream is to be a social worker herself. whom work on the street. formal learning opportunities.69

80 the state of the world’s girls 81 Projects with adolescent street girls need enough.” Andrea, the eldest of five girls above all to listen to what the girls themselves and three boys in her family, fended for have to say, and to use existing legislation herself for a month until an uncle tracked The forgotten few to ensure that protection means they are her down. He threatened that if she didn’t protected rather than abused yet again. We go with him, he would tell her stepfather – adolescent girls’ experiences of detention and owe this and more to girls like Trina, Precious and she would be returned. He offered and Tanya. We have seen their strength, to help and take care of her. “I thought rehabilitation in two cities in the Philippines energy and resilience in the face of adversity. he would help me. He told me so. I was There is no excuse not to match this with naïve to think he would. I would have been The presence of girls in public space in • At least 20 per cent of girls in detention our own, and to ensure that during the next better to stay and continue being beaten.” cities may raise suspicion, and enhances the had been victims of child abuse, and decade of the 21st century no girls will have It took 15 days for Andrea’s uncle to likelihood that they will be criminalised and a third had been sexually abused.74 to live on the streets of our cities. drive them to Chiapas, Mexico. When exposed to dehumanising conditions in jails Fathers, brothers and other male they arrived, he took her to a church and for their protection, or institutionalised in relatives were predominantly cited as The Hogar de Querubines asked the local priest to bless her. When rehabilitation centres. the perpetrators.75 (Cherub Home)70, 71 the blessing was over, they stepped out of This research was commissioned by Plan • Girls account for more than two-thirds In December 2003, Casa Alianza Honduras the church and her uncle tried to shove her for this report. It was carried out by Justice of child-abuse survivors and 98 per cent opened a hostel called the ‘Cherub Home’ into a taxi. He was selling her for 20,000 for Girls International in the Philippine cities of sexual abuse cases of the children to look after 60 girls who had fallen victim pesos (about $1,800) to a 50 year-old man of Manila and Cebu.72 It shows how many handled by the Department of Social to commercial sexual exploitation. It now who wanted to live with her permanently marginalised girls in the Philippines are at risk Welfare and Development (DSWD).76 looks after an additional 20 to 25 girls and to exploit her sexually. “I refused and because of their age and sex. Because of their • Three of the 17 girls we spoke with each year. At the centre, the girls receive did not get in the taxi. I ran back to the sex, they are cornered at the intersection of disclosed that they were victims food, clothing, schooling and training in hostel where we were staying. My uncle two interconnected forces: the power of the of sexual violence, with almost all vocational skills in addition to spiritual, was so mad, he beat me and raped me.” state, and patriarchy. Because of their age, reporting they knew of girls in their psychological and emotional support. “We Andrea has been living at the Cherub those who come into contact with the juvenile communities who had been victims. aim to give them back the rights that have Home for nearly a year. She was able to justice system are vulnerable to institutional • Five of the 17 girls reported running been taken away from them. We give them tell the authorities what happened and abuse and violence. away to escape violence at home. the childhood, love and assistance they they arrested her uncle. Many girls are criminalised for offences should have had with their families,” says “He said I lied. He said I had agreed. that are directly connected to their efforts to Stealing to survive Bessy Valle, the director. I was scared. He threatened to kill me survive and cope in highly dangerous, volatile Many girls we spoke to came from families Andrea is one of the girls supported when he gets out of jail. But being in this and turbulent living environments. Much like of five to nine children, often living in by the Cherub Home. Now 14, she left home, I feel safe. They have oriented me. their male counterparts, they are frequently one-room dwellings where they sleep, eat her home to escape six years of physical I have dreams and I hope I can continue to criminalised for offences related to poverty, and socialise as a family. In some cases, abuse by her stepfather. “I had no sense move forward. I hope to God that nothing including stealing and substance abuse. In multiple generations of the same family live of what it was like to be a child. I had had has happened to my sisters.” the context of pervasive male violence, girls’ in overcrowded dwellings with as many as coping strategies place them at greater risk 14 people living under the same roof. Living of being criminalised for status offences, in these conditions poses serious risks to survival theft, and accusations of crime by an girls’ mental and physical well-being, putting employer. In some cases they also engage in them at increased risk of violence, both in violence themselves in an effort to pre-empt and outside the home; often requiring that or protect themselves from the ever-present they find work in dangerous and exploitive threat of violence in their communities. In conditions to help support their families. many cases they are also criminalised for Many girls in this situation do not make their own protection, frequently for offences a monetary income. Rather, their labour is such as curfew violations, which are directly exploited in dangerous, labour-intensive jobs connected to gender expectations and the simply in exchange for food. For example, 13 paternalistic sentiment that views girls as year-old ‘Lisa’ has a job working at weekends needing protection. cleaning the public toilet in exchange for food to feed herself. Other girls reported THE FACTS doing similar forms of child labour, including At risk on the • Estimates indicate that girls comprise selling items in local malls for up to 12 hours nighttime less than 20 per cent of children per day for food and no pay. ‘Kyla’ worked streets of arrested by police in the Philippines and as a sales clerk for only one week because Dhaka, less than 10 per cent of those held in “they don’t feed us so we had to bring our

anoocher Deghati / IRIN 73

M Bangladesh. detention. own food”.

82 the state of the world’s girls 83 Q. How long would you work? representing the frontline rather than a been in jail for months awaiting trial for the A. 8am to 7.30pm. source of refuge. The threat of violence death of her abusive male partner: Q. For how much? puts them at much greater risk of becoming “I couldn’t speak...he threw me and pushed A. 100 pesos [$4.30] per day. But I had to criminalised as they try to survive, later me against the wall face first and punched spend seven pesos to travel by Jeepney serving as the justification for depriving them me in the neck... I grabbed the first thing I because it was too far to walk. It was too of their liberty in order to ‘protect’ them. could, a knife...” dangerous to walk late at night. Statistics in the Philippines demonstrate that girls in trouble with the law have Policing gender and regulating Others receive pennies per day working experienced very high rates of male violence morality in toxic environments scavenging, selling and child abuse in their homes, with one One reason girls are under-represented goods, working as food vendors or tricycle study reporting that at least 20 per cent among street children is largely connected drivers. ‘Nicole-May’ recounts her experience of girls in detention had been victims to family expectations that they remain grilling chestnuts as a street vendor. “I got of child abuse. Every child in this study in the home to help with domestic chores sick from the smoke, there was so much heat had witnessed and experienced violence and family care.78 This was evident among and so much smoke.” from multiple sources in their homes the girls we interviewed, who frequently Girls may find themselves in a position and communities. Many girls reported helped their mothers by cleaning, caring where petty theft provides the only option witnessing their fathers abuse their mothers for siblings and other domestic work. Girls’

to find money for food and subsistence.T he or siblings and engage in extreme forms of d / Panos Pictures morality is heavily regulated both formally most common crime committed by children violence. and informally. At home, girls may be

is theft. ‘Hannah’ was in a rehabilitation stergaar punished violently by male family members

centre for almost five years for snatching “When Sara’s father gets drunk he el O for violating curfew, leaving the house kk money from a woman in a shopping mall quarrels with her mother. He got a gun and i or for perceptions that they are ‘flirting’. M so she could pay for transport to get home. attempted to shoot her mother. She just Speaking of her friends, ‘Kyla’ says “their Most commonly, girls are arrested for stealing cried.” Homeless Public space is just as violent for girls fathers scold them and physically abuse things like cell phones and other items to help ‘Sara’, via interpreter young running away from home. Girls who flee them because their fathers see them flirting”. their families or feed themselves. woman living violence at home may be swept up by She continues, referring to the way girls are ‘Ana Maria’ stole “because that was the Girls described physical abuse at the hands on a beach in recruiters and trafficked to urban areas to treated in the streets, “sometimes when girls time her father did not have a job and the of their fathers, brothers, cousins and Manila. become domestic workers or turned out to pass by they are called flirts or prostitutes”. income of her mother as a laundry woman grandparents. be abused in the commercial sex trade. The The father of ‘Nicole-May’ physically assaults was not enough. Her mother actually knew commercial sex trade is violent by definition, her when she tries to leave her house. that she had stolen something because she “The sins of my siblings are all on me. My and violence by employers in domestic Stereotypes are also used in the gave her part of the proceeds. Her mother brother kicks me and hits me on the back of settings is common. community and social groups to police just told her not to say anything.” my head.” Some girls also cope by engaging in girls’ sexuality. Sexist slurs and curse words Many girls also end up in the illicit street ‘Nicole-May’ violence themselves, in an effort to prevent are used to verbally abuse girls by family economy, coerced and trafficked by adults violence perpetrated against them, almost a members, peers and the police. into commercial sexual exploitation, selling Additionally, girls reported regular beatings form of pre-emptive self-defence. Angelica drugs or acting as accomplices. Parents and from parents and siblings. says she fights because the other girls provoke Police violence family members are complicit in getting her:“They say like ‘who are you?’ ‘Are you Girls report that they are intimidated by the girls to steal. One girl reported that her “If [I]commit a mistake, father spanks [me]. strong?’... And that provokes [me]...” the police and all children report extreme neighbours got her involved in selling drugs, He hits [me] with a belt.” violence used by the police, especially an offer she could not turn down in the face ‘Sara’ Q. “What was the fight over?” towards boys. But police engage in punching of hunger and family pressure. A. “I was a transfer. I was new. They whipping, slapping, and cuffing children of “Grandma hits me, when I don’t bring were kind of sizing [me] up and... so either sex and putting them in cells with Q. What did you sell? anything home from begging.” [I] offered that we have a one-on-one adult offenders, thus deliberately exposing A. Shabu. A white powder smoked through ‘Marialene’ fight because I was afraid they would them to violence and humiliation.79 a metal container. hurt me... They were bullying [me]… Q. Where did you get it? Sexual abuse by male family members is they slapped [me], pulled my hair and “The police hit [me] on the back of the head A. The neighbours... friends of the family. common, with girls more vulnerable to child four girls brought me to a place... so [I] and told [me] I was a liar... They held a gun sexual abuse than boys. offered to fight with the leader of the at [my] hand. They threatened to shoot [my] Daily violence in the lives of girls in Girls also run away from home to escape group... The neck of the other girl was hand because I am a liar.” trouble with the law violence. In one study, children reported broken.” ‘Mischa’ Girls constantly navigate the threat of male 73 per cent of the time that child abuse by Finally, some girls are criminalised for violence Girls know that police officers and other violence and child abuse in every corner of a family member was the reason they left they commit in direct self-defence of male officials sexually exploit girls and women as their communities, with home frequently home.77 violence perpetrated against them. ‘Nyca’ has both sex traffickers and clients.

84 the state of the world’s girls 85 Q. What do you think of the police? Do you theft or substance abuse violations. They run by the DSWD. The policy assumes that like them? are usually held overnight and released in children who violate the law are “children A. No, because the police are womanisers. the morning. Some are detained but never in need of special protection”. It is aimed Q. Can you give me an example? charged.81 at recognising the social and economic A. They get girls from the bars, sometimes Girls have been deprived of basic disadvantage of most children who are they get them pregnant and then they necessities, forced to sleep on the floor while criminalised. Informed by principles of live with them. They keep them on the adult women sleep on cardboard cartons. restorative justice, the Juvenile Justice and side. As the most vulnerable, they are bullied and Welfare Act views rehabilitation centres ‘Kyla’ threatened with violence from other inmates. as a more humane and safer way of Not allowed to eat until the women are detaining children who are deemed unfit The girls experienced police violence simply finished, they often go hungry, surviving on for diversion programmes. Progressive by bearing witness to the brutality enacted the leftovers the women provide. on paper, this policy should mean that on other children and adults upon arrest. no children will set foot inside prison ‘Angel’ was so afraid of the police that she Q. Did you have food? walls. However, as demonstrated by the refused to talk about them in the interview. A. Just the leftovers of the older women. children’s experiences above, there are Crying and putting her head in her hands, Leftover fried rice and dried fish. many hurdles to overcome before this she continued to express concern that if she Q. Did you get enough to make you feel dream is realised. said anything about them the police might full? aag The young women in rehabilitation were retaliate by apprehending her brother. A. I had no choice because I only eat what er G being held for a range of minor offences. an d

is given to me. i v One girl, however, was awaiting trial kk Discipline and punishment – Q. Did you get full? i for defending herself against an abusive N diversion and jail A. No. husband which ended in his death. The In response to international pressure there Philippine Rehabilitation centres girls’ sentences varied, two have an ongoing has been a strong push in the Philippines Girls are vulnerable to sexual violence from street life. Girls held in rehabilitation centres fall into trial, while three had been on suspended to minimise the criminalisation and other inmates as well as police officers. three categories: Children in Conflict with sentence in the rehabilitation centre for four incarceration of children. Major strides were ‘Nikalena’ was sexually assaulted. Explicitly the Law (CICL), ‘Sexually Abused’ (SA) by and five years respectively, with no clear made when the progressive Juvenile Justice connected to gender, sexual violence is used families and communities, and ‘Sexually idea of when they will be released. This, and Welfare Act was enacted in 2006. as a tactic of humiliation and degradation Exploited’(SE) in the sex trade. They are according to the social workers, is due to This legislation raised the age of criminal on both boys and girls. In one report, a child segregated into respective dorms based the conditions of the discharge, which are liability from nine to 15 years old, and called was quoted as stating: “boys become girls on commonality of experience for, as the based on the situation of a girl’s family. for the release of all children incarcerated inside police detention cells”.82 social workers explain, more appropriate The availability of family care and support for crimes they committed before then. intervention planning and development. need to be established before the girls are However, there has been much resistance Youth detention centres Yet the distinction between the three released. to this law and a bill is now pending which and pre-trial custody categories is blurred, and the usefulness One girl in custody for theft of a cell would lower the age of criminal liability While the law states that children of distinguishing between them unclear. phone reveals her vague understanding of once more. who are to be detained can be held in There is strong evidence that young the factors that could play into her sentence: youth detention facilities, these may be CICL girls have experienced an array of Q. Do you know when you will leave here? Jails and police cells comparable to or worse than the adult violence or sexual violence, and have been A. Don’t know. Despite the new legislation, which explicitly jails. Children are frequently taken to subsequently criminalised for survival Q. Have they told you what you need to do states that “children shall not be locked up these centres by the police or DSWD social strategies. What is the difference between a in order to leave? in a detention cell”, children are still being workers after they have spent some time in child who is caught stealing to feed herself A. I still have to attend the hearings. If my placed into jails with adults, in squalid police or barangay jails. after running away from an abusive parent, behaviour has improved. overcrowded conditions with inadequate Here, children may spend months in pre- and a child who runs away from home and Q. What do you need to show your basic necessities, where they risk violence trial detention, as the authorities determine is apprehended in another context and behaviour has improved? and environmental hazards. As of May 2008 how they are to be processed. Some children referred to the DSWD? At the end of the A. Be nice. Ignore the accusations and bad only 208 of 1,076 of jails reported they had are released to their families, while others day they are all abused.83 words from other residents. separate cells for minors.80 are moved to other youth facilities and We had conversations with seven girls, The girls we spoke to did not have a clear Arrested for minor infractions, children are rehabilitation centres. All of the girls we currently in rehabilitation centres, who idea of when they would be able to return hauled into police stations or tiny barangay spoke to who were held in these centres were defined as Children in Conflict home. Eighteen year-old ‘Marialene’ has jail cells. With no universal standards or were detained awaiting trial. with the Law (CICL). Under the new been living in the rehabilitation centre since oversight, conditions depend upon the ‘Nyca’ did not see a judge for over a legislation, children who are sentenced to she was 12 years old and now has doubts resources, politics and integrity of the month after she was incarcerated. She has spend time in custody are to be held in over her ability to leave the institution. community. Isolated and vulnerable, most been in custody for approximately nine rehabilitation centres under a suspended The young women express an inability girls are picked up for curfew violations, months and her trial is still ongoing. sentence. These rehabilitation centres are to establish healthy and warm relationships

86 the state of the world’s girls 87 The Daily Diary of Sheena, 12 years old, with the other girls in the centre. While they programmes, and sometimes recreation. report having friends, they characterise these Productivity classes consist of baking, living in a slum in Mumbai* friendships as precarious and superficial. cosmetology, sewing, computer activities, I wake up every morning at 4.30 and go fetch water for my family. I gaze at the rusty tin of Many girls express concern that they can’t daily prayer and weekly bible study. They our one-room shack which is leaning precariously against the wall of our neighbour , trust the others. also hold special activities, including film s tin wall I think one of these days all these houses will collapse in a row. I run through th . showings, television nights and other e alley towards the main road. The smell of excrement is so strong baking in th “I only have a few close friends because recreational events. While some institutions e Girls like the others are telling me they want to be offer regular sports, some only offer sports morning sun I have to cover my nose with my shirt. Some folks have made hole Sheena have a 5 s per cent chance of0 friends, but behind my back they are saying recreation programmes for one month, in the water pipe that we live near, they want 5 rupees (10 US cents) for a being anaemic by the bucket of water but I can , time they reach 15 year bad things.” with little to no opportunity for vigorous t afford that. So I go to the train station. The police ‘Jendy’ outdoor activities to be structured into the almost catch me this time with their sticks and their booted feet. The water in of age. In India 50 per s cent of girls under fi programme for the rest of the year. Although the pipes here is bad. My brother has jaundice but the doctor is very expensive. W e are malnourished. ve “There is no one here I can tell my problems the programmes and education do offer all get TB in the winter, and we take care of it at home. to. There is one girl I am close to but I don’t prospects for future employment, there is an feel she is sincere. There is no unity... We obvious focus in the rehabilitation curriculum When I get back I see that the entire area around our tin shack is flooded. The drain don’t share problems.” on feminising the girls and reincarnating their must have been blocked by rubbish again. As I wade through the sewage I think about my mother , , . ‘Marialene’ virtuousness. She s pregnant again, but she s not getting enough to eat and she works hard cleaning rich , If the aim of recent changes in legislation people s houses. My father is out of work again and he gets angry sometimes when h e Programmes and ‘therapy’ at the centres in the Philippines is to ‘protect’ children, girls y drinks and hurts her. My mother makes rice for breakfast. My brother gets mor involve a number of psycho-social included, and improve their rights under the Unfortunatel r e for Sheena, he food than I do. interventions. They focus on trauma law, we must be clear about the definition of g chances of stayin y , associated with sexual violence, through ‘protection’. ‘Protection’ (or to be protected/ n Then it s time to go to school. I want to use the toilets, but I , in school are slim. Onl m worried. cognitive behavioural therapy, gestalt safe) must be conceptualised as a positive 10.9 per cent of girls i l They are dirty, there are only six toilets for over 200 families so there and reality behaviour therapy. More state, where it means living free from the district of Mumbai wil are long queues, and they will ask for 10 rupees (20 US cents) to use them prominent, however, are the programmes violence and coercion and with adequate make it to tertiary school; . 50 per cent of them will So I decide to find an open space and risk being molested by the passersby and institutional focus on ‘character access to basic necessities of life, healthy drop out before high , school. especially the older boys. development’. environments and healthy relationships. It Overall, girls in India The facilities feature a range of activities means giving girls equal access to education I catch a bus to get to school. The bus is full of men and they to prepare the girls for their release, and meaningful opportunities to achieve stare at me as I board. On the way one of the boys pinches me an have a 50 per cent d chance of being marrie including education programmes, ‘character their goals. It means ensuring that they have I flinch. I wish I was a boy; then I wouldn , by the time they turn 15. t have to put up with this. d development’, social programming and control over their bodies and reproductive Sheena and other girls i Begging in spiritual development. The girls are woken health. Addressing criminalisation and I like to study, and I hope to be able to go to high school. I probably won , Mumbai district stand a n t be 1 the busy at 4am and engage in a variety of daily institutionalisation of girls, and all the able to, though. The tuition is so expensive. 8.5 per cent chance o n giving birth befor f streets of activities that consist of a mixture of chores, subsequent abuses and violations of their e And I should marry soon, maybe in a year or two when I , ag Manila. ‘productivity’ programming and educational rights that come with it, must begin by m 14. e 1 5. , , a genuine commitment by all parties to After school I go home quickly. I m worried it won t be there anymore. Because of a tackle the underlying causes of poverty and court order it was demolished once, but we came back after a couple weeks an e d discrimination. In 2004, ther d rebuilt it. It scared me. On the way I see some boys in a cyber cafe playing were an estimate n on the computers. I look at the screens with all the colours; they seem t 5000 ‘cyber cafés’ i o e be having a good time. Then one of them spots me and yells at me to ge Mumbai. It is safe to assum . t the numbers have since doubled t out. I move on quickly. However, Sheena probably won’ ever have access to a computer. When I get home my mother asks me to help her with my Only 38 per cent of women Many baby brother, clean and fetch more water. I want to finis adolescent girls in India have access to the l , h my homework, but I don like Sheena – at least internet. This percentage wil t have time. On the way to the 20.7 per cent in Mumba be much lower for the train station I see one of my friends from school. I don , very poor. t district alone – spend i have time to play with her. upwards of 20 hours a wee on household chores. This k But even if I did, where would I go? Sometimes, we meet o leaves them with little tim

d / Panos Pictures n the railroad tracks. And sometimes the train comes too fast and we don , for homework, playin e t and simply bein g have time to escape. My friend Sameena was killed last summer by a train. g stergaar children. el O kk i *Composite based interviews conducted by Kamini Kapadia (for Plan International) M with girls aged 8-19 in Bandara,a Mumbai slum, 15 March 2009

88 the state of the world’s girls 89 Plan International’s 8-Point Call to Action Adolescent girls’ right to on Girls’ Rights in the City the city – a call to action 1 All girls should have the right to access safe education in the city “We know that girls are the most must be part of strategies at all levels to inspirational, the most transformational, the combat poverty, challenge inequality and 2 All girls should have the right to be free from violence in the city most untapped currency in our world today. promote opportunities for adolescent girls in What will it take to unleash this potential?” the city – who are the most vulnerable, but 3 All girls should have the right to secure and decent housing Queen Rania of Jordan84 potentially, the most vibrant, group in town. 4 All girls should have the right to move safely in the city “Young people will always have dreams; “In my neighbourhood there is no security we hardly ever lose hope. For this, the role and it has too much violence. This is very 5 All girls should have the right to affordable of the State must be as a guide to shore up dangerous and the violence is especially democratic practices, and to grant young dangerous at night.” and accessible services in the city people more areas of political and business Girl, 12, São Paulo, Brazil86 participation.” 6 All girls should have the right to age-appropriate Flor de Maria, young woman85 “We have two types of children’s rights. and decent work in a healthy urban environment One is beautifully formulated on paper and Last year’s report showed how investing the other is what happens in real life.” 7 All girls should have the right to safe spaces in the city in girls leads to income growth at both Alexei Petrushevski, Bishkek Centre for household and national level. This year, our Street Children, Kyrgystan87 8 All girls should have the right to participate in making research has shown just how important it is to include adolescent girls when building and The future of cities depends on what cities safer, more inclusive and more accessible. running cities. Investing in girls as part of this governments do now to help adolescent girls process will not only benefit girls themselves, to realise their rights as enshrined in a number 1 CRC Article 28: Education. Children have the right to education. Primary education should be free and compulsory. keeping them safe and building their assets of international and regional human rights Secondary education should be accessible to every child. Higher education should be available to all on the basis of and skills, but will ensure their contribution instruments, including the Convention on the capacity. School discipline shall be consistent with the child’s rights and dignity. to building a better world for us all. Rights of the Child and the Convention on 2 Article 19: Protection from abuse and neglect. Children shall be protected from abuse and neglect. States shall provide This call to action draws on the primary the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination programmes for the prevention of abuse and treatment of those who have suffered abuse. Article 40: Administration and secondary research carried out for Against Women (CEDAW). Therefore, Plan of juvenile justice. Children in conflict with the law are entitled to legal guarantees and assistance, and treatment that this report, including the many girls we has developed an 8 Point Call to Action on promotes their sense of dignity and aims to help them take a constructive role in society. have spoken to about cities. They are also Girls’ Rights in the city as a way to create based on the good practice which already a new normative framework of rights for 3 Article 27: Standard of living. States Parties recognise the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for the exists, examples of which are highlighted girls in urban spaces. This builds on the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development. States Parties, in accordance with national conditions and both here and throughout the report. The United Nations’ articulation of the Right to within their means, shall take appropriate measures to assist parents and others responsible for the child to implement this recommendations are aimed at duty bearers the City88 which emphasizes the goals of right and shall provide assistance and support programmes, particularly with regard to nutrition, clothing and housing. at different levels of society – municipalities, liberty, freedom, participation and diversity 4 Article 34: Sexual exploitation. Children shall be protected from sexual exploitation and abuse, including prostitution and urban planners, non-governmental and and also upon the voices and perspectives involvement in pornography. civil society organisations and international of adolescent girls themselves. This builds on 5 Article 24: Health and health services. Children have the right to the highest possible standard of health and access to organisations. All actors have a responsibility the United Nations’ articulation of the Right health and medical services. towards adolescent girls and a duty to to the City which emphasises the goals of 6 Article 32: Child labour. Children have the right to be protected from economic exploitation, from having to participate see that they are included in policy and liberty, freedom, participation and diversity in work that threatens their health, education or development. The State shall set minimum ages for employment and programming in order to ensure that they and also upon the voices and perspectives of regulate working conditions. play their full part in developing cities. adolescent girls themselves. Girls and women are over-represented This Call to Action makes concrete 7 Article 31: Leisure, recreation and cultural activities. Children have the right to rest, leisure, play and participation in amongst the urban poor, and therefore recommendations that will maximise the cultural and artistic activities. Article 15: Freedom of association. Children have a right to meet with others, and to join or strategic and targeted investments are opportunities and minimise the risks for form associations. required to make urban conditions more all girls in cities, but especially the most 8 Article 12: The child’s opinion. Children have the right to express their opinions freely, and have their opinions taken into responsive to the needs and concerns of vulnerable – those living in slums or on the account in matters that affect them. adolescent girls. Therefore, this call to action streets. Time and again, urban-dwelling

90 the state of the world’s girls 91 adolescent girls have demonstrated their • Ensure the United Nations Special the non-governmental organisation strength and resilience: we need to ensure that Representative on Violence against JAGORI and UN-Habitat. At the launch adolescent girls are given the support to live Children has a specific mandate on street in November 2009, it was noted that: to their full potential in the expanding urban girls in their regular country visits, reports “Violence against women and girls in world of today and tomorrow. Plan’s charter is and research. public places is widespread in Delhi and supported by Women in Cities International. • Include an explicit focus on adolescent usually tolerated as a feature of city girls within the 2011 Human Rights life. When women complain, they are 1 All girls should have the right to access Council discussion day, which is on street often ignored or blamed for the abuse

safe education in the city LAN children. – accused of acting provocatively or P • Systematic, sex-disaggregated data being inappropriately dressed. The Safe Education is one of the reasons why girls • Recognise the transitional nature of Going to should be collected and form the basis Delhi initiative works towards creating move to cities, and is the foundation upon adolescent girls’ lives in cities, especially school in for appropriate anti-violence campaigns a city that is safe and accessible to which opportunities for girls in cities can be girls who work in the informal economy, the city in for girls. women, by mobilising local authorities harnessed. But for the most vulnerable girls and girls who live on the streets. Ensure Monrovia, and community duty bearers and in cities – those living in slums and on the that the education system accommodates Liberia. Municipalities should: implementing practical measures: for streets – going to school often remains a all girls’ needs, including teen mothers • Take concrete action to prevent and example, in urban planning, policing and distant dream. And for many girls, wherever and girls who have missed out on years of punish urban violence against women and transportation. UNIFEM and UN-Habitat they live in the city, school is still not a safe education, with flexible school hours and girls. This will require gender-sensitive have joined efforts on a new global Safe place. Cities have a responsibility to ensure non-formal learning opportunities, at an social policies in crime prevention and Cities Free of Violence against Women that all children – girls and boys – enjoy the age-appropriate level. community safety. and Girls programme that will support right to a quality education, no matter where • Enforce a ‘zero tolerance’ policy on the similar initiatives in several cities around they live. Therefore, Plan calls for strategic 2 All girls should have the right to be free use of violence by police against girls who the world. investments in a minimum quality education from violence in the city are homeless, girls in slums, and especially package so that all girls have access to safe street girls. Increase the number of female Police training in Pakistan and girl-friendly education in the city. Adolescent girls experience living and working police officers, especially in units working In March 2010, Plan Pakistan launched a in the city differently from their brothers, in poor and slum urban neighbourhoods. three-year project of police training and National governments and donors should: and because of this, they face increased Provide appropriate gender and child capacity building in Islamabad. • Guarantee that schools in cities are safe risks, safety challenges and vulnerability rights training for police, law enforcement The project, Police Capacity Building places for girls. Every country must have to violence. In spite of the many policies, and the judiciary who deal with street on Democracy and Human Rights, is laws to protect girls from all forms of protocols and awareness campaigns, the scale girls. Police and local government units funded by the European Commission and violence in schools. These laws must be and severity of violence against girls on the should be empowered with the skills, will train 5,000 police personnel from enforced.89 streets, in cities across the globe, remains commitment and mandate to address the the Islamabad Capital Territory Police • Recognise the scale and severity of violence underestimated by governments, donors and needs of marginalised girls. and representatives from the Ministry of that happens to girls in and around schools, civil society. Also, municipal programmes and • Stop criminalising girls’ survival Social Welfare & Special Education and and provide appropriate care and support. policies designed to eradicate urban violence strategies on the streets. Ensure that all the National Child Protection Centre in Child rights Develop a national strategy on school- do not usually take violence against women children in conflict with the law, including child rights, gender-based violence and training in based violence, with gender-sensitive and girls into consideration. Therefore, we call girls, are only detained as a last resort. human rights tools and their applications, Islamabad. regulations that enable girls to safely report on all actors with a duty towards girls’ safety • Provide safe residential spaces, outreach offences when they do occur. and well-being to take urgent and strategic programmes, legal services and helplines • Ensure that the national school curriculum actions to eliminate violence against girls for street girls, where they can receive is gender-sensitive: Adolescent girls in cities. In particular, we call on municipal information, support, counselling and should see positive female role models governments to protect street girls, and training. Street girls should know their in the books they read and the career ensure they have the same basic rights to rights, and know which structures they guidance they receive. which all children are entitled. can turn to for help. • Ensure that the school environment is girl- friendly: female and male teachers should International Organisations should: MUNICIPAL POLICIES AND TRAINING receive training on positive discipline and • Introduce a target on violence against FOR SAFE CITIES how to eliminate gender stereotypes and women and girls within Millennium discrimination in the classroom. Development Goal (MDG) 3 and ensure The Safe Delhi for Women Initiative • Allocate the budget required for the adequate resources for this through in India.90 construction and improvement of school multi-donor funding. Eliminating violence The project is supported by UNIFEM infrastructure in urban centres, especially against women and girls must also be and implemented in collaboration with in slum areas, which meet the needs of identified as a priority target in the post- the Department of Women and Child

adolescent girls. MDG agenda. Development of the Delhi government, LAN P

92 the state of the world’s girls 93 especially the use of nonviolent methods, National governments and donors should: • Provide training to transport staff to raise police ethics and democracy. • Develop a national strategy on children’s awareness on the barriers girls face when Inspector General of Police Syed housing rights which reflects the needs using public transportation, and on the Kaleem Imam said: “We look forward and priorities of adolescent girls. This scale and severity of sexual harassment to a new face of Islamabad Police and should be consistent with the standards and violence. hope that we are able to set an example outlined in the Convention on the Rights • Guarantee that there is adequate street for the rest of the country… There is a of the Child. lighting to make streets safer for all, dire need to create awareness about the • Incorporate a girl-friendly perspective into including adolescent girls. rights of children, and to root out those national policies on housing and urban reasons which push them to get involved development, in consultation with girls Civil society organisations should: in criminal activities.” 91 themselves. • Launch public education strategies to

The project will help the Islamabad raise awareness of the prevalence of sexual ara k

police force, children, families living Municipal authorities should: harassment in urban public transportation ae k

in Islamabad and the law enforcement • Immediately halt the practice of forced spaces as an issue of concern for he agencies, to be aware of and to apply evictions and ensure secure housing everybody, not just girls and women. T tan demonstrably international human and tenure to girls, boys and their families. This should include information on safety S child rights standards in their day-to-day • Establish a dedicated budget stream to strategies for girls and women when using as a place for advertising. The project was Public work. ensure those threatened by eviction are public transportation. initiated through relations with South transport in afforded alternative decent housing. African organisations that have been Bangalore, 3 All girls should have the right to secure SAFE TRANSPORT IN CITIES working successfully in partnership with India. and decent housing 4 All girls should have the right to move A safe city for girls is a city which has the local councils in nearly all the major safely in the city secure transportation, not only on public cities in South Africa for over six years.93 Not having stable or decent housing can transit systems, but also on footpaths, push girls to work on the street or to The threat of gender-based violence and pedestrian streets, sidewalks and 5 All girls should have the right to affordable exchange sex for somewhere to live. For urban crime mean that girls’ perceptions of bicycle lanes. Here are some ways that and accessible services in the city millions of girls, urban housing insecurity their personal safety can restrict their ability municipalities can design safe public lies at the heart of their vulnerability and to move freely throughout a city. Lack of transportation: Urban environments often mean poor girls exposure to violence and exploitation. Girls urban lighting, water and sanitation services, • Bus routes that cater to girls’ schedules; have inadequate sanitation facilities, unsafe in slums face unique challenges related to and safe transportation leaves adolescent • ‘Request stop’ bus programmes that water supplies, and insufficient health lack of privacy and exposure to violence. And girls more vulnerable to gender-based allow girls to get off buses closer to services or support. Cities must ensure women and girls suffer disproportionately violence. Because adolescent girls often have their destinations late at night and early all public services are not only available from forced evictions, and find themselves less access to economic resources, they are in the morning; but accessible to girls who require them. displaced to the periphery of the city. The more likely to depend on public transport. As • Designated waiting areas for bus or This means cities must become places right to secure and decent housing must be shown in Chapter 2, adolescent girls’ feelings subway services, which are well-lit where girls’ needs are taken into account safeguarded for the most vulnerable girls in of insecurity are due to their experiences and monitored, so that girls can wait in municipal service provision, and where the city, especially girls who live in slums, of sexual harassment and violence while comfortably and safely; every girl has access to decent, affordable, girls who live and work on the streets, and waiting for, using, and walking to and from • Subways designed in ways that safe, equitable and girl-friendly services. girls who are forcibly evicted. Therefore: public transportation. In order for adolescent prioritise the prevention of violence; Therefore: girls to maximise the opportunities of living • Women and girl-only buses and subway in an urban centre, they must be safe, and cars in cities where overcrowding Municipal authorities should: feel safe, in cities. Adolescent girls should has led to sexual, physical or verbal • Ensure that adolescent girls have equal be able to use public spaces, go to school harassment or abuse; access to all urban public services, including and participate in urban life without fear. • Affordable public transit; girls who live in slums and street girls. Therefore: • Well-lit and clearly visible pathways so • Ensure that slum-upgrading projects are that girls can be safe when they walk to developed with the needs of adolescent Municipalities should: and from public transit.92 girls in mind: water, sanitation, energy and • Ensure that public transportation is safe, The Adopt-a-Light programme in Nairobi, road infrastructure in urban slums must be efficient, reliable, and flexibleto girls’ Kenya, steers commercial advertising built in a way that addresses the unique needs, and accommodates their daily revenues into community development. barriers girls face in accessing services. travel patterns. It is inspired by the need to achieve safer • Target municipal budgets to equip and • Commission a strategy with broad- cities through the provision of adequate staff girl-friendly health clinics in urban based transportation solutions that Living in a street lighting. Various private companies slum areas. eeleman N address the safety needs and concerns of slum in Cairo, were asked to ‘adopt a streetlight’ and in • Conduct systematic reviews of basic adolescent girls. Egypt. return, the business utilises the streetlight service needs for adolescent girls. Benno

94 the state of the world’s girls 95 6 All girls should have the right to age- budgets for adolescent girls’ sports and designed public toilets for girls and women appropriate and decent work in a healthy recreation opportunities in urban centres. in schools, health facilities, car-parks, urban environment • Adopt and enforce guidelines for urban markets and other public places. As a result, planning professionals to ensure girls’ gender-sensitive public toilets in cities are This means that no girl would be so poor safety is fully integrated in all municipal meeting the cultural needs and societal that she would have to trade her body to planning processes. obligations of Nigerian girls and women. survive on the street. Too often, adolescent girls are drawn to the city in search of Urban planners should: 8 All girls should have the right to employment, but become subject to insecure • Design cities in ways that reflect participate in making cities safer, more and hazardous labour in the informal adolescent girls’ actual safety concerns, inclusive and more accessible economy or on the street. Cities must as well as their perceived sense of become places where girls’ economic rights dangers. To do so, urban planners must Cities should support girls’ active and and futures are guaranteed, and where girls pay constant attention to the ways that meaningful involvement in all parts of can use their skills and access these economic adolescent girls use public spaces in cities urban design and management, including opportunities in order to emerge into young – which spaces they are left out of, when public transportation. Girls are experts of adulthood as successful economic citizens. and why. Planning professionals should their own experiences in cities and they are Therefore: identify all public spaces that are unsafe or able to identify what can make cities safer risky for adolescent girls.94 for themselves, and everyone. It is more Governments should: cost-effective to design urban spaces and • Ensure girls have access to quality Civil society organisations should: services together with women and girls, education that prepares them to • Integrate girls-only spaces in urban than to change the infrastructure once it take advantage of future economic programmes where adolescent girls can has been put into place. Encouraging girls’ opportunities offered by cities. Adolescent gain confidence, build self-esteem and participation and contribution to municipal girls need business know-how, life skills mobilise together. decision-making processes will not only and technology-based education tied to orrans • Develop public education campaigns to ensure cities are more inclusive and better

real market opportunities. Dina T engage more adolescent girls in sports able to provide services for girls, they will and recreation opportunities. also help foster a new generation of active Municipalities should: 7 All girls should have the right to safe Safe spaces: a citizens and future municipal leaders. • Strengthen opportunities for decent spaces in the city youth centre KEEPING GIRLS SAFE IN CITIES employment in the city. Design and in Udaipur, Safe Spaces is a very young organisation, Governments should: enforce quotas to increase adolescent girls’ Adolescent girls can face obstacles to building India. founded in early 2008 by Peninah • Listen to adolescent girls, and include participation in urban work placement friendships and developing safe social Nthenya Musyimi. Now aged 32, she their perspectives in municipal policy programmes and municipal IT training networks. Even in cities, girls often have less was the first girl from Nairobi’s Mathare and planning. For example, the Growing courses. time, and face restrictions on their ability to slum to graduate from university, which Up in Cities programme supports children • Monitor guidelines for police and engage in social interactions, recreation and she attended through a basketball in low-income urban neighbourhoods municipal representatives to ensure they organised sports. This is partly because cities scholarship. Safe Spaces is dedicated to all over the world to assess their local do not discourage petty trading or street lack safe spaces where adolescent girls can go creating safe spaces for adolescent and environments and to work with local vending – frequently the only way girls can and be together with peers. Safe spaces build teenage girls in the Mathare slum and officials to improve them.95 support themselves. self-esteem and leadership skills, and provide to empower them to create a legacy of • Learn from and adapt good practice important opportunities for girls to exchange female-driven development, community to ensure that both girls and boys The business sector should: information, make friends and learn about leaders and role models for girls in the meaningfully participate in city design • Encourage community engagement critical issues affecting their lives. Girls have slums. The aim is also to provide a safe and management. For example, the Child and outreach –skilled female staff could a right to laugh, play and make friends in an space for young females to voice and Friendly Cities Movement is a network of routinely visit schools and youth centres to urban environment. Planning and designing discuss their issues. city governments committed to involving provide positive role models for girls. public spaces is an important part of creating Gender–Sensitive Public Toilets is a children in the process of making cities • Expand access to financial instruments cities that are safe for adolescent girls. And new initiative which began in Nigeria better places for all children.96 for credit and savings, including a city that is safe for girls is also safe for during 2008, the International Year of microfinance, and to business support everyone. Sanitation. In north-east Nigeria, many Municipal authorities should: services for adolescent girls. Mobile girls and women are constrained by • Conduct an audit of women and girls’ banking units in slum areas should have Municipalities should: cultural and social norms which restrict safety in cities to identify the places a specific remit to reach adolescent girls • Ensure that every municipality has them from participating in public activities. where adolescent girls feel they are the and young women. dedicated girl-only spaces. This can Consequently, girls and women do not most vulnerable to violence. include working with community make use of public facilities that lack • Create city youth advisory councils with organisations and identifying targeted privacy. In response, urban planners equal numbers of girls and boys and allow

96 the state of the world’s girls 97 them to meaningfully contribute in local tool was first developed in Canada and council meetings. Youth advisory councils has been adapted in many cities all over must be inclusive of the diversity of girls in the world.98 Safety audits help to identify cities, including girls who live in slums and urban security issues and local solutions, The street girls’ street girls. together with municipal governments. • Collect statistical evidence regarding the Adolescent girls, including girls who experiences of adolescent girls in cities. live in slums and street girls, should be This means using ‘girls’ as a specific lens of included as key participants in urban manifesto analysis, instead of focusing generally on safety audits. The results of Women’s ‘youth’. Safety Audits have included changes to This report has shown that adolescent girls are the best source of information on their needs. All too often their the physical environments of cities to voices are not heard in crucial decisions about how our cities are planned, designed and governed. The following Civil society organisations should: become safer for women and girls; local manifesto comes from street girls and former street girls from seven different countries, who had gathered • Provide leadership and life skills training programmes and policies which better together in March 2010, in Durban, South Africa, to compete in the first ever Street Child World Cup. to build the capacity and confidence of promote girls’ and women’s safety; adolescent girls so that they can take an increased partnerships between women, “We, the girls living and [who] have lived on the streets and those of us in shelters from seven countries [The active role in city life. girls and their local government, and UK, Tanzania, South Africa, the Philippines, Ukraine, Brazil, and Nicaragua] met during the Deloitte Street • Establish the production of an annual increased public awareness of gender- World Cup Conference event which took place on 20-22 March 2010, in Durban, South Africa.” 99 ‘State of the City’s Children Report’ based safety issues in cities. The campaign aimed to raise awareness of the rights of street children and ensure that their voices were heard which ensures a monitoring and data- in the media. A conference was held to gather the opinions and thoughts of the street children themselves. collection system on the state of children All children and young people should benefit and their rights. All data should be from the opportunities and possibilities disaggregated by age and sex.97 available in cities. Adolescent girls should not We the street girls have the We identified the following be disadvantaged because of their age and following rights and we want them factors that make us safe at WOMEN’S SAFETY AUDITS gender but be able to benefit fully from city respected: national level: The Women’s Safety Audit is a tool that life, in ways that are accessible, affordable, • The Right to live in a shelter and home • Training for police to keep children safe enables a critical evaluation of the urban safe, adapted to their needs and equitable • The Right to have a family • Tough laws on child abuse environment. The Women’s Safety Audit for all. • The Right to be safe • Good relations between government and • The Right to be protected from sexual abuse children • The Right to go to school and get free education • Put money into support workers who can pay • The Right to good health and access to free detailed attention to children health services • Governments should build homeless shelters for • The Right to be heard street girls to feel safe in • The Right to belong • Give us access to education – there should be • The Right to be treated with respectand decency better security in schools • The Right to be treated as equal to boys • There should be more social projects • The Right to be allowed to grow normally • Get rid of corruption

We identified the following ways to We declared that the following be safe in our communities: actions at a regional and global • Step-parents should love all children level will motivate our • Community leaders should punish people who governments to protect abuse children street children: • Adults should know about child rights • The whole world should recognise and protect • There should be good lighting on the streets street children • Street children should be treated with decency • All countries should have good child laws and respect • Girls should be allowed to speak and be heard Working • There should be awareness campaigns about on their street children manifesto at • There should be more awareness of the problem the Street Child World of violence.

LAN Cup. P

98 the state of the world’s girls 99 Adolescent girls and communications technologies – opportunity or 4 exploitation?

empowerment – and the abuse – of adolescent girls reveal themselves through technology, as they do in other areas of their lives. Using case studies, girls’ voices, expert opinion and original research, we highlight the positive and negative consequences of communications technologies – and in particular mobile phones and the internet – for adolescent girls all over the world. We show how information and communications technologies (ICTs) have exposed adolescent girls and young women to new ideas and ways of thinking that open 1 Introduction up huge possibilities for learning, networking, campaigning and personal development. “I’m interested in technology, multimedia We then explain the darker side of these – the business. I love entertainment, music, technologies: how cyberspace is an arena I’m meeting new people. [In school] I was where sexual predators can operate with exposed to media, the web, the internet… impunity. The internet creates new intimacies I loved it, that’s where I could connect with that seem safe, magnifying the power of my friends.” the peer group and inviting in the stranger. Tibusiso Msibi, student, 18, Swaziland1 Adolescent girls and young women are prime targets for new methods of abuse, including Summary trafficking, via the internet, mobile phones and In this chapter, we look at one of the most other communications technologies. They are dynamic and fast-changing arenas of the 21st also sometimes the perpetrators themselves. century – communication technology – and And this danger is expanding exponentially how it affects adolescent girls in particular. We as ever more sophisticated new technologies will show how online patterns of behaviour arrive on the scene. Greater knowledge about and who has access to technologies are a ICT-related sexual exploitation and violence reflection of the way that society operates against girls is needed, and more emphasis on offline.W e examine how attitudes towards the prevention and stronger international standards JENNY MATTHEWS

100 the state of the world’s girls 101 is critical. Girls need to be empowered to use with women and girls enjoying less access as the ‘digital divide’. The developed the new communications technologies safely, to information technology than do men world continues to have more access to on their own terms and in ways which promote and boys. This can be true of rich and poor these technologies than the developing their development and build their future. countries alike.” world, often by a long way (see tables Kofi Annan, former Secretary-General below), although overall figures mask DEFINING ICTs of the United Nations4 the digital divide that also exists within Information and communication countries. Wendy Lazarus, of the Children’s technologies (ICTs) can include the During the past decade, communications Partnership in the US, notes: “One in five whole range of technologies used for technologies have revolutionised our world. children live in poverty today in the US. And communication, from the telephone and They have changed the way billions of low-income children are only half as likely radio to the latest social networking people work, communicate, network, and to have a computer at home.”9 In Indonesia, technologies. The World Bank definition spend their leisure time. Increased internet among 15 to 24 year olds, 29 per cent of is: “the hardware, software, networks, and mobile phone use has been linked the richest sector of the population use

and media used to collect, store, process, to rises in GDP – for example, a World the internet, but only five per cent in the an transmit, and present information in the Bank report notes that 10 per cent more poorest sector.10 Pl form of voice, data, text, and images.”2 broadband use means an extra 1.3 per cent All over the world, women generally have occupation, education levels and whether Children on This technology is changing all the time. on GDP.5 Young people in particular are less access to communications technologies they live in a rural or an urban area. An the computer In recent years or even months, there has spending more and more time using these than men, and less training in how to use additional $100 of monthly income increases in China. been increasing convergence of computer- technologies to communicate with their them. In most countries, women have less the likelihood of mobile phone ownership by based, multimedia and communications peers, both in the next town or village and access than men to the internet and to 13 per cent. And 80 per cent of women in technologies – for example, the ability worldwide. The spread of such technologies mobile phones. In Asia, women make up richer households own a phone compared to of mobile phones to be used much like globally has been phenomenal. There are 22 per cent of all internet users, in Latin 40 per cent in poor households. When age, a computer. In this report we will be now more mobile phones than clean toilets.6 America it is 38 per cent, but in the Middle income, occupation and education are taken mainly looking at computers and mobile But both internet and mobile phone use East it is only six per cent.11 As the statistics into account, urban women are 23 per cent phones, which, as we will see, are the vary enormously from country to country. in the table below show, in almost all cases, more likely to own a mobile phone than their technologies most used by adolescent Millions of people are still missing out on the men outnumber women when it comes to rural counterparts. girls around the world. technological revolution and all the benefits internet use. So what about adolescent girls? We this brings. know that they are more likely to be using Percentage of internet users by sex, these technologies than their mothers Mobile subscribers per 100 inhabitants7 selected countries, 200812 and grandmothers. In the Cherie Blair 2002 2007 Women Men Foundation survey, girls and young women Africa 4 28 Iceland 90 93 between 14 and 27 had the highest rates Americas 30 72 Belgium 70 75 of mobile phone ownership among women, Asia 12 38 Japan 70 82 and where they didn’t own a phone, were Europe 51 111 Hong Kong, China 63 70 prepared to borrow one from someone Oceania 49 79 Latvia 62 65 who did. World total 19 50 Brazil 31 34 Turkey 25 45 Ownership and usage of mobile phones Internet users, per 100 inhabitants8 Thailand 18 17 by age, women in low- and middle-income 2002 2007 Egypt 10 5 countries14 2 The digital revolution and the Africa 1 5 Nicaragua 10 9 Yet to make digital divide Americas 28 43 Age Own% Borrow% use% Asia 6 14 Research by the Cherie Blair Foundation 14 – 20 61 29 10 “Mobile phones and wireless internet… Europe 26 44 showed that there are similar disparities 21 – 27 65 27 8 will prove to be the most transformative Oceania 44 53 among women and men when it comes 28 – 36 65 20 15 technology of economic development of World total 11 21 to mobile phone ownership – women are 37 – 49 60 20 20 our time.” 37 per cent less likely than men to own a 50 – 74 50 25 25 Jeffrey Sachs, Director of the Earth The adoption of these technologies has mobile phone if they live in South Asia, 24 Institute at Columbia University, US3 varied hugely, not only from continent per cent in the Middle East and 23 per cent Adolescent girls and young women to continent and country to country but in Africa.13 themselves are keen to use technology. A “The so-called digital divide is actually between rural and urban areas, from The Foundation’s research, in low and recent survey in Kenya predicts that the several gaps in one. There is a technological the richest to the poorest sector of the middle-income countries, outlines five largest growth in ICT take-up in the coming divide – great gaps in infrastructure. There population, between young and old and factors that influence women’s mobile years will be among young women between is a content divide. There is a gender divide, between the sexes. This is often known phone ownership – household income, age, the ages of 18 and 35. Interestingly, the

102 the state of the world’s girls 103 communications technologies that are growing the fastest – social networking sites, the use of the internet on mobile phones – are generally those used most by young people.15 Women and girls recognise that being connected online is as important as being connected offline.F atma Alloo, Founder of the Tanzania Media Women’s Association, commented as long ago as 1998: “We must recognise that information technology is here to stay. What we have to decide is whether we... play the game and turn it to

aag our advantage or lose out completely.”19 But 3 Giving us freedom – why r G e in some countries, girls still lag behind their communications technologies

an d brothers when it comes to accessing and using are important for i v

kk communications technologies – as we will see adolescent girls i N later in the report. In Indonesia, for example, “WE NEED A COMPUTER MORE THAN her home town of Alexandria and also Noura girls and young women aged 15 to 24 were “Fortunately for us, the internet gives HOT FOOD” worldwide. Many young people say they and her half as likely to use the internet as boys the us freedom since it takes us out to other Nikki van der Gaag finds out that technology have a Facebook and email account. Rana’s friends take same age.20 people, places and other realities. No one is seen as a priority in urban Egypt, and how friend Noura, aged 15, won a computer in a advantage This digital divide will have serious controls where we go with the internet. It it also helps keep girls safe. school competition and says: “Most of our of the ICT consequences for those girls and women is for us a way of escaping from our closed “We badly needed a new oven, but when friends have computers and mobiles.” opportunities who are left out. Even in the rich world, society. It is vital to us, it gives us liberty.” I talked to my children, they said that These are girls whose parents came from in urban not being part of an online social network Young woman in Mauritania22 we could manage, and that we needed a the village to the town in search of a better Egypt. can mean missing out not only on what computer more than hot food!” life and whose mothers were illiterate. Now is happening in your peer group, but on As many technologies become cheaper and Mrs Faysa smiles wryly. Aliya, her their mothers, encouraged by their daughters, opportunities for taking part in a wide range easier to access, even in the most remote daughter, says that her brother is better are learning to read and write and recognising of activities. Clover Reshad, aged 12, who rural areas, it is crucial that adolescent on the computer than she is, but that she the power of education and the importance of lives in the UK, notes: “There are a few girls girls and young women, as well as young is learning fast. Even in poor areas of the technology. Leila, Noura’s mother, who has at school who don’t use Bebo and Facebook men, are able to benefit from their use. city like this one, young women recognise two other girls, says: “I am joining literacy but it’s not because they don’t want to – it’s This means not only having access to the the importance of information and classes so that I can read and write like my because their parents won’t let them. I feel technologies, but the skills and expertise to communications technologies. They usually daughters. I never went to school, so I hope sorry for them.”21 Being left out online is be able to use them to full effect – and to have mobile phones and can find access to that my daughters will have a high level of being left out of something that has become know how to keep themselves safe when computers, perhaps in the house of a friend education. Education is important for girls central, indeed, essential, to many adolescent doing so. or a relative. Although a woman is 26 per so that they can understand the world. My girls’ lives. Overall, access to technologies can help cent less likely to own a phone than a man daughters will be better than me because I The next section will show why it is towards the achievement of the Millennium in Egypt, this gap seems to be closing for was not educated, and I suffer from not being crucially important that we invest in young Development Goals (MDGs), counter the younger generation.16 able to read and write.” women in all parts of the world so that they gender inequality and build adolescent girls’ Internet penetration in Egypt rose from She is delighted that Noura now has access these technologies – for education, assets. There are seven specific reasons seven to 14 per cent between 2006 and a computer in the house and immensely for work, for networking and to build the why these technologies are important to 2008, by which time 40 per cent of the proud of her daughter for winning a prize. skills, knowledge and expertise that they adolescent girls: population had a mobile phone.17 Recent This would not have been possible back need to participate fully in the 21st century. figures put mobile phone penetration at 55 in the village, as another mother points They have the capability and the appetite; 1 to keep in touch with others, which per cent.18 out: “In the village I couldn’t even work. the adults who run the world at the reduces their isolation in countries where “They used to be very expensive,” says Women in rural areas still suffer a lot from moment need to provide the mechanisms this is an issue; Azza Shalaby, Plan’s Gender Adviser in discrimination, though this is beginning and the money. 2 in order to further their education and Egypt. “I remember that my father gave me to change. There is more freedom for girls acquire new skills; one as a wedding present. But now they are and women in the city now because of 3 in order to take an active part in their very cheap, and even poor people see them technology and more awareness.” communities and countries; as a necessity.” For girls like Noura, technology remains 4 in order to have the skills to find work; Rana says she has used the internet a route to discovering new ways of looking 5 to build specific skills and knowledge on to share experiences and even to create at the world. “I couldn’t live without my subjects they might otherwise not know a magazine with other young people in mobile or my computer now,” she says. about, such as HIV and AIDS;

104 the state of the world’s girls 105 6 Because evidence has shown that learning and taking part in global discussions NOKIA – LEARNING AND HEALING Becoming an active citizen to use these technologies can build self- on girls’ rights. Organisations such THROUGH DIGITAL STORYTELLING28 Third, adolescent girls need access to ICTs to esteem; as girlsandwomen.com, a coalition of In many African countries, young girls be able to play a part in their communities, 7 last but definitely not least, in order to private and third sector organisations face the threat of violence and sexual their government and at an international keep safe. that came together to amplify girls’ abuse, including pressure to engage level. For girls and young women who may voices in the run-up to the G20 meeting in unsafe sexual behaviour. They must not be able physically to take part in political Keeping in touch in July 2010, used Twitter to recruit make difficult choices or deal with the or even community activities, ICTs offer a First, as a means of keeping in touch with girl supporters. Twitter was used as a consequences of abuse on their own. unique opportunity to communicate with friends and family and reducing the isolation platform for allowing girls from all over The Sara Communication Initiative others, to campaign, to denounce human that many young women feel if their parents the world to participate in this high-level (SCI) is a programme of the Pearson rights abuses and violence, to champion do not allow them to socialise. For example, meeting and to take part in discussions Foundation’s Digital Arts Alliance and girls’ rights and to access information that a number of mobile phone projects have without the need to be physically present was developed with UNICEF’s assistance. they might not otherwise come across. enabled young women to keep contact with at the G20. Through SCI, more than 200 adolescent In Egypt, Plan’s child media programme, the outside world after they are married, Twitter is also being used by girls in Tanzania, Zambia, South Africa, Esma3oona (Hear Us Out), is a weekly when normally this would confine them international organisations that support and Namibia have used Nokia mobile programme on terrestrial state TV in which to the house.23 This young woman from girls. Practitioners can ‘tweet’ about phones and laptops with film-making children and young people discuss issues Mauritania noted: “The internet is a safe their work in ‘real time’, allowing a software to create short films about their such as child abuse, gender equality, street partner with whom we can communicate glimpse into development work. In a time own experiences and thoughts around children and education. Young people, and discreetly, a partner that can provide us when most communications between topics such as sexual harassment, HIV/ this must include girls, use their new skills to with the information we need to adapt to organisations and individuals are AIDS, early marriage, genital cutting show officials what needs changing in their this modern world. Such information cannot mediated by other media, an ‘unedited’ and girls’ domestic workload. Videos communities. be given to us by our mothers, who cannot view from the grassroots can build made by girl participants in the Sara “People now take us seriously after break the rules of our traditional society.” more support and galvanise action as Communication Initiative have been they’ve seen the show. Also, the officials Some 70 per cent of girls in the successfully as organised marketing shown to peers and educators across were able to see the problems in our Mauritanian study put emphasis on the fact strategies. Twitter allows experts from Africa, as part of preventative and community and how it is affecting us, so it that the internet provides freedom to them the field to weigh in on development rehabilitative efforts to address the abuse encourages them to take action,” says Amar, as women, since they no longer need to limit aspects, developing relationships and of girls. ‘Sara’ is also the name of the one of the participants.29 themselves to the controlled information sharing knowledge with each other to teenage girl who is the main character in “Since they have a camera and a given by their society and families. They can enhance the body of knowledge and the stories, which are found on the radio, computer, they can use it to go out and verify information, they can surf and read shape opinions; and also engaging with on video, online and in print. shoot a garbage or sewage problem in newspapers, access media channels that are institutions, foundations and corporations “I wish I could be just like [Sara],” says the area, come back, do the editing and not provided in their countries or that may which are interested in the technical Kefiloe, a girl resident of the Kids’ Haven then send the tape to local authorities,” be forbidden in their own country.24 Young elements of development work and Orphanage. “Sara’s got this confidence in explains Mohamed Kamal, Plan’s media women like Roza Al-Yazji, who lives in Syria therefore find mass-produced materials her, she’s got this power and for me, it’s like coordinator.30 and has a speech disorder and learning inadequate. whoa, she’s a very good role model for me.” disabilities. Via the Salamieh Telecentre, TAKE BACK THE TECH!31 she learned to design brochures, make Furthering their education Take back the Tech! is an international presentations and access the internet to Second, young women need access to A class in campaign which uses technology to chat with her friends. Now she says: “I am information and communication technologies Tanzania taking raise awareness and take action on no longer imprisoned behind the bars of my (ICTs) and to the skills needed to use them in part in the Sara violence against women. In 2009, isolation. Salamieh Telecentre is my second order to learn and develop. This includes access Initiative. there were campaigns and actions home, it has became a part of my life. I am at school, which is why a number of projects in 24 countries – from audiocast in disabled, but I am not disqualified.”25 focus on girls’ access to computers and the Malaysia, chat relay in Brazil, protest internet and on teaching them the skills they march in Second Life, song-writing need to use technology in the wider world. in Pakistan, calendars in Argentina, A range of school networking projects which tweets in Mexico, posters in cybercafés promote access to ICTs in schools have sprung in the Congo, or a mural on the streets up over the past three years in Afghanistan, of Soweto in South Africa. Using both GIRL TWEETS26 Botswana, Egypt, Ghana, India, Mozambique, online and offline media, and in more Girls are increasingly using new media Namibia, Pakistan, Senegal, South Africa, than 12 languages, campaigners used o n ati d

outlets such as Twitter to communicate, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe, although not n technology to get their messages

share and engage with others. Girls are all have a gender perspective. Recognising this Fou across – violence against women is

not only tweeting at their peers, they fact, SchoolNet Uganda has targeted girls-only s o n not acceptable. In Pakistan, Jehan Ara 27 r are interacting with decision-makers schools to install computer labs. ea appeared on web-TV’s In the Line of P

106 the state of the world’s girls 107 Wire webcast, where she said: “Some curriculum. It is aimed to teach sexual on our toes. Our self-esteem has increased have stories to share, some have health and prevent HIV and gender-based and we walk with our chests out! Anytime experienced online violence themselves violence, and now has an innovative we are confronted with questions, we or their friends… as regular users mobile component. The MyQuestion feel confident answering, even with older of technology. They needed to do service, launched in late 2007, is a people we come boldly!” something about it. Bloggers started free question and answer service that Girls in Martin Luther King School in blogging. We made videos of why the teenagers can contact by Senegal said: issues were important in Urdu and free 3-in-1 text message, “We are no longer dependent on boys. We T BY D BY English, to spread the word.” by email, and a toll-free o u feel capable of solving our problems with a r PE a

voice number. great autonomy without help from our k LO E ae

V 37 k N I N G A B Finding work Because it is an E fathers, brothers or relatives.” R S he EA L Fourth, ICTs have financial value for anonymous and electronic IA, D This may well be because the young ORK R M T tan adolescent girls and young women. If they service, it removes the Y W women live in countries where gender biases r o L F D S don’t acquire the skills of modern technology stigma and judgment R mean they have fewer opportunities than E E N F ING, NIGE TTE R V IQ AN U they will be disadvantaged in the workplace. that teenagers fear when I young men, and accessing the internet gives R SC L B

In the Cherie Blair Foundation survey, 41 per asking for information. them exposure to the outside world that TA cent of women reported having increased Uju Ofomata, project manager of Learning they would not otherwise have. income and professional opportunities About Living, says: “Anyone who wants ten women reported feeling safer because of Checking her through owning a mobile phone.32 “By being proof as to the need of this project should Keeping safe their mobile phone.39 The report notes that messages in better connected, women feel safer, find come and take a look at the questions we And finally, girls and women say that this cut across age, location and social status. Bangalore, employment, start businesses, access banks, got in. In two months flat, we got over technology, and mobile phones in particular, Although we will also show in this report India. learn about market prices and altogether 10,000 questions coming in from young makes them feel safe. One study found how communications technologies can benefit socially and economically,” said people, very real questions dealing with that when people first buy mobile phones, expose adolescent girls to risk, it is important Cherie Blair.33 their everyday lives. It is obvious from the the first reason they give is safety.38 In the to remember that keeping connected is also “In today’s world, computers are questions that we received how very much Cherie Blair Foundation study, nine out of a way of preventing violence and abuse. the tools we use for work, to learn, to young people want this information... communicate and to find out about At the end of the day, their lives may be GIRLS AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ON EQUAL ACCESS TO INFORMATION/MEDIA40 the world… In terms of employment saved.” It is possible to look at the right to equal access to information as a two-part right. First, there is the right opportunities, with new jobs, 95 per MyQuestion’s text message option, to access to information, which is enshrined in international human rights law under Article 19 of the cent are going to require some kind of though available only on the MTN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and Articles 13 and 17 of the Convention on technology,” says Wendy Lazarus of The network, is free. the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). Secondly, there is the right of girls to have equal access to information Children’s Partnership in the US.34 Learning About Living also includes and media, by virtue of the non-discrimination provisions of various international instruments, including a competition service called MyAnswer the ICCPR and UNCRC, and in other international instruments, such as the Convention on the Elimination Accessing information that educates young people about AIDS, of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).41 Fifth, adolescent girls have accessed HIV and sexual health by giving them a International standard-setting documents work alongside international instruments to protect and technologies for advice on HIV infection chance to win prizes.36 promote the right to equal access to information and media, in recognition of the challenges women and and prevention and protection, pre- and girls face in realising their rights. post-natal care, and sexual and reproductive Building self-esteem The Beijing Platform for Action, which was developed during the Fourth World Conference on Women health rights information. One study of Sixth, studies have shown that when young in 1995, sought to accelerate the removal of “all the obstacles to women’s active participation in all the gender impact of computers in African women do master technologies, this can spheres of public and private life through a full and equal share in economic, social, cultural and political schools found that young women used the have a huge impact on their self-esteem. decision-making”.42 Section J of the Platform for Action focuses specifically on “women and the media” internet frequently to access information WorldLinks is a programme that provides and requires states to “increase the participation and access of women to expression and decision-making normally kept from them by society about internet connectivity and training to in and through the media and new technologies of communication”.43 sexuality, puberty and HIV.35 secondary school students and teachers In the five-year review of the Beijing Platform for Action, the secretary general’s office reported that: around the world. An evaluation of the “Poverty, the lack of access and opportunities, illiteracy, lack of computer literacy and language barriers, LEARNING ABOUT LIVING gender impacts of WorldLinks in Ghana, prevent some women from using the information and communication technologies, including the internet.” 44 Learning About Living is a project in Senegal, Mauritania and Uganda found that In the 15-year review, conducted in 2010, the office re-emphasised the importance of access to and Nigeria using computers and mobile 95 per cent of girls said that participating control over ICTs for women and girls.45 The World Summits on the Information Society in Geneva in phones to teach Nigerian teenagers in the programme had increased their 2003 and in Tunis in 2005 also reiterated these concerns regarding women’s access to ICTs. The outcome about sexuality and HIV prevention. confidence and self-esteem. These girls in documents for these summits recognise the ‘gender divide’ in access to ICTs, expressing a commitment to The programme includes an interactive Achimota College, Ghana, said: overcoming this divide.46 e-learning tool with cartoons and “Our self-esteem has really improved But in general, the international instruments did not anticipate the role that technology would play sexual health tips based on the national because of the programme. Now we can and the pace of change, and therefore do not set out concrete steps or activities that countries should Family Life HIV/AIDS Education (FLHE) rub shoulders with boys that want to step undertake in order to ensure equality of access to ICTs and the media.

108 the state of the world’s girls 109 The report cites a project in India, run by the mobile phone and the internet, but overall conclusions are that adolescent girls Idea Cellular, one of India’s five biggest that often they are using them for different are most interested in communication, while mobile operators with over 50 million reasons and different purposes. boys focus on the technology itself. It would subscribers. The company asked women In the developing world, many adolescent be interesting to see more studies that focus what they were concerned about in their use girls, especially if they come from poor areas, on adolescent girls’ use of these technologies of mobile phones, and they said that they are likely to access the internet via a mobile in the South as well. were worried about not being able to call phone rather than a computer. There are a The Pew Internet project in the US found es a member of their family if they ran out of number of reasons for this: four main differences between girls and ur credit. Idea Cellular came up with the idea • Unlike computers, mobiles do not need a boys.52 First, that while boys were more ict s P of a ‘Women’s card’ which not only has regular power supply, and street girls and interested in exploring the technology for o an “information tips on beauty and fashion, slum dwellers often do not have electricity. its own sake, girls were interested in what health, fitness, cookery, career and private • Mobiles can be easily stored and hidden it could do. Second, girls tended to talk z / P tein

counselling on women matters” but also has from prying eyes – sometimes they are about technology as end-users while boys n S r e the possibility of inputting a three-digit code the only source of ‘privacy’ a girl enjoys used more technical terms. Third, only o j which sends a ‘Please Call Immediately’ SMS when she lives in a small one-room house boys were interested in putting computers B to three people in case of an emergency.47 with many family members, in slums and other hardware together; and fourth, discuss, brag and vent about anything with Engrossed in The Cherie Blair Foundation report notes where there are no quiet spaces, or in boys and girls had different perceptions no limitation on topics tied to any traditional their mobile that: “Use of the SMS alert was extensive, communities where they are never allowed about the appearance of technology, boys feminine narrative. With the anonymity phones in and both female and male subscribers time to themselves. being attracted to functionality and girls to the internet provides, a diversity of themes South Korea. appreciated the sense of security provided by • Mobiles have a low entry and maintenance appearance. are up for discussion.” She points out the the feature.” cost – talk time is available in low pre-paid Other studies have also noted differences many innovative and creative ways in which denominations, so they can budget for it. in the way girls and boys approach girls use these sites and the major focus on Cheap China-made handsets are available technologies. Canadian research with middle community. in many countries. school students noted that: “Whereas Other studies also showed that in general • Mobiles help girls multi-task – they are boys were keen on technology used for girls were more interested in the aspects of an all-in-one communication device, FM entertainment and fun, girls preferred using technology that were about communication: radio, camera and calculator. technology for communication. In general, •A study in Norway found that boys were • However, the majority of mobile phones in boys were interested in playing video games more likely to use the internet for gaming, developing countries are entry-level phones on different computing platforms.”53 e-commerce and videos. In contrast, (not smartphones) and don’t have internet Girls in the study noted that: girls use the internet for chatting and access. Even as technology advances make “In sixth grade, I think girls are a lot better email. The authors classify female usage entry-level handsets internet compatible, at technology than boys, because the as predominantly ‘relational’, while male poorer sectors of society cannot afford boys just want the gory stuff – most of usage is described as ‘technical’ and internet data fees, though this is likely to the boys do that – they’d rather be outside ‘instrumental’.55 4 Breaking the silence: girls, change in the medium term.50 playing sports or attacking people with fake • In Canada, one study found that young the super-communicators? swords.” women generally use the internet to How adolescent girls and boys use “Girls are really good at cell phones, like socialise with friends (68 per cent) while “I was not computer literate when I started technologies differently I know a lot of guys, who can’t do [it]. I young men used it for gaming (68 per using the internet on my mobile phone so mean, they have cell phones… they know cent).56 it was quite an eye-opener. Now I want “I use the computer a lot. At least a couple how to call people, and that’s about it.” • Research by Nielsen Online in the UK to learn everything. My uncle bought a of days a week to help with my homework, Boys said that girls: “don’t waste their showed that young women aged 18 to 24 computer two months ago and his wife has and I keep an eye on [the social networking time trying to figure out – ‘oh, how does this accounted for 17 per cent of all users of been teaching me some basics.” sites] Bebo and Facebook every day to see work, how does that work, how does this social sites, compared to 12 per cent for Patience, a young refugee from Zimbabwe who’s on it. I’ll check shops to see if I can get through there’. They just go, ‘Oh, that’s young men of a similar age.57 living in South Africa48 buy things I want cheaper online or to make there, that’s there – that’s fine’.” • One study in Brazil found that between sure they have something in my size. I MSN In her study of adolescent girls’ personal the ages of 10 and 17, girls were more “Girls are creative, they are more into [instant message] my friends. The computer websites in the US, Michele Polak finds likely than boys to have used the internet history, English and art – it’s the boys who also makes it easy to stay in touch with my “a virtual space that is surfed, occupied, and were also more likely to own a mobile are more into the techie things.” dad because he lives in Los Angeles.” created, criticised, and well-managed by phone.58 Clover, 12, UK49 Clover, 12, UK51 tech-savvy girls”.54 Calling themselves • In the US, the study by Pew Internet found ‘gURLs’ she says, these websites are where that 35 per cent of girls, compared with 20 This section will show that adolescent girls Evidence shows that girls and boys use girls can “find a sense of self, creating not per cent of boys, have blogs; 32 per cent are competing with boys for the most use technologies in different ways. While most only a girl-space for their own voices, but of girls have their own websites, against of communications technologies such as of the research to date is in the North, the a space for other girls to interact, argue, 22 per cent of boys.59

110 the state of the world’s girls 111 a businesswoman, growing and selling SMS FOR LITERACY – MOBILES BOOST sesame seeds, and not just as somebody’s YOUNG WOMEN’S LITERACY IN wife or sister.” PAKISTAN64 Jasuben Malek, a member of the A partnership project in Pakistan Self Employed Women’s Association demonstrated the positive impact of mobile (SEWA), Gujarat, India60 phones on girls’ lives and is working to

overcome community resistance to female e “You’re a girl – a mobile can cause many ownership. problems, and so you don’t need it.” Pakistani mobile operator Mobilink has Lah or Father of Hiba, a young learned a great deal about attitudes regarding , o n , ati

61 d Palestinian woman women and mobile phones, especially as n

penetration rates soared in Pakistan in recent Fou D

5 Barriers – what is keeping Adolescent girls’ access to technology is times. In addition to creating a product NYA U adolescent girls from accessing limited by the societies, communities and tailored specifically for the women’s market, B communications technologies? families in which they live. In a patriarchal Mobilink has sought to demonstrate the messages a day on a variety of topics A group society, it is men who control technology, power of mobile phones to improve literacy including religion, health and nutrition, of young With the importance of communications whether this is ‘new’, such as computers and rates for adolescent girls in rural areas and were expected to practise reading and women technologies for adolescent girls established, mobile phones; or ‘old’, such as radios and where reading materials are often scarce. Yet writing down the messages and responding taking and with adolescent girls keen, willing and televisions. As one report notes: “At home, there is often resistance to girls having the to their teachers via SMS. Monthly part in the able to use these technologies, this section husbands might regulate the family radio, independence that mobile phones symbolise. assessments of participants’ learning gains programme. examines the barriers that are preventing mobile phone or television, controlling when For four months in 2009, Mobilink were conducted to assess impact. equal access with boys. and how other family members use them.”62 partnered with UNESCO and a local non- Programme organisers encountered The first barrier is the fact that women, Being in charge of tools and technical governmental organisation (NGO), Bunyad, considerable resistance on the part of and by extension adolescent girls who are skills has always conferred power on the on a pilot project in a rural area of southern parents and community leaders to the idea on their way to becoming women, are still user; power that is men’s not women’s. Punjab province. The project involved 250 of allowing girls to have mobile phones, viewed as second-class citizens in many The fact that technology is seen as high females aged 15 to 24 who had recently largely due to the conservative social societies. The second barrier exists in school, status and women as low status may mean completed a basic literacy programme. Each norms of the area. This resistance began to where boys both outnumber girls and tend that men and boys are given access where of the girls was provided with a low-cost soften, however, once people began to see to dominate access to computers. The third girls and women are denied it. Another mobile phone and prepaid connection. the nature of the messages the girls were barrier is psychological. Because they don’t paper notes: “What the research shows Teachers were trained by Bunyad to teach receiving and the benefits the programme have equal access at school, girls may be less us is that patriarchal habits persist in the students how to read and write using mobile conferred. Exams taken by the girls confident than boys when it comes to going family, school and mass media. Boys are phones. The company set up a system for participating in the programme showed into IT jobs, because they don’t feel they have educated to explore and conquer the world; the NGO to send out SMS messages in an striking early gains in literacy, with the the same skills and knowledge as the young girls, despite the advances experienced effort to maintain and improve participants’ number of girls receiving the lowest scores men competing for the jobs. Finally, there is by democratic societies, are still educated literacy, which often lapses because of dropping nearly 80 per cent. the issue of language – in order to use these to care for others.”63 This also means that Worldwide inadequate access to interesting reading Participants and their families are even technologies, English is usually a requirement, families may have different expectations the web material. Crucially, the low-cost phones taking advantage of other features of the and for girls with only basic literacy in their of their sons and daughters, which also is used to were enabled to send and receive messages phones, including the calculator. While own language, this is a major barrier. extends to whether they need mobiles or campaign for in Urdu, the local language, rather than 56 per cent of learners and their families Without the knowledge, language, skills the internet. equality. in English. The girls received up to six initially maintained negative feelings and confidence to use communications towards the programme, 87 per cent were technologies, adolescent girls are not only satisfied with its results by the end. Users missing out on a crucial part of youth culture can pay $6 to buy their phones at the end of and networking: they are being deprived the programme. There are plans to expand of the very skills that are needed for work the programme further. and life in the coming decades of the 21st Its success demonstrates how mobile century. phones can be used to increase the reach

e and effectiveness of basic education rror Access to technology – power i programmes. It also illustrates the fact Lah or y M and control l that suspicion of mobile phones can be

, o n , ati overcome by showing parents and leaders d n “I can immediately call the wholesale en / Dai how mobiles can be used to transmit Sending Fou D market to inquire about prices and place r All culturally sensitive information whilst a text in ge NYA o increasing girls’ sense of security. direct orders. I am now recognised as U Pakistan. R B

112 the state of the world’s girls 113 In addition, girls’ domestic roles, even at virtual leap over the many restrictions school is also true in many countries in CISCO NETWORKING ACADEMY74 a young age, mean they have less free time they face and connecting them, as never the developing world. Anuranjita Tewary, than boys to explore and experiment with before, to the outside world. Director of the Girls in Tech Mentorship “Because situating women in good new technologies. And they are less likely Most Saudi women cannot work, travel Program, based in Silicon Valley, California, jobs produces a wealth of social and than their brothers to have the financial or attend school without permission US, says: “I have noticed that at high economic benefits, Networking Academy resources to pay for, say, a mobile phone and from their husbands or fathers. They are school, boys will be the ones setting up is committed to promoting ICT gender its running costs, or access to the web in an forbidden to drive. Women generally the computer etc, while girls sit on the equality. We have recently become internet café – which is why we have seen do not participate in sports and the sidelines.”70 One report notes that: “In the the first private sector member of The that in many countries they have to borrow few public libraries that exist are open classroom, the expectations of teachers United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative, phones from friends and relatives. Boys are for women only a few hours a week. are also distinct. Scientific education is reaffirming our resolve to play an active also more likely to be allowed to use internet Socialising takes place mostly within considered more necessary for boys and role in the collective effort to promote cafés because parents are concerned about extended families because of the this creates barriers for girls: in class they girls’ education and gender equality their daughters going out on their own. For country’s strict gender segregation. are asked less, they are given less time to around the world.” example, in Ghana, only 6.6 per cent of Women whose families do not allow answer and are interrupted more.”71 One Coks Stoffer, General Manager, Cisco females use internet cafés compared with them to attend university can take online girl in Ghana notes that: “Some of the boys Netherlands 16.5 per cent of male youth.65 courses at home. And women starting a want us to think that as girls we do not need business or mobilising their sisters around a to know about computers. But we know it Cisco Networking Academy is a global ASHWAQ – THE SAUDI ‘INTERNET cause have found the internet a vital tool. really IS about knowing computers.”72 public-private education initiative ADDICT’66 For some Saudi clerics, this internet If girls do not equipping students with ICT skills and Ashwaq’s father had heard the scary socialising is another depravity from the have equal access knowledge so they can access jobs in the stories about men using the internet West that is “corrupting young people”. to computers at internet economy. Cisco’s academies are to seduce young, impressionable girls. As one preacher put it: “Facebook is the school, it is difficult for them to become currently training more than 900,000 So when his three daughters asked door to lust.” part of the digital world. IT requires not students in 165 countries across the permission to go online, the answer was Many Saudi women remain very just a familiarity and know-how with globe. In developing countries 26 per cent an emphatic ‘no’. cautious online. Ashwaq’s Facebook computers, mobile phones and other of these are women. Cisco firmly believes But the girls persisted and he eventually page, for example, has a photo of items technologies; it is also about being able that no country or region can fully relented – a bit. They could each spend on her desk, including a Post-It pad with a to think creatively. These technologies are participate in the global economy without half an hour a day browsing the web. note saying: “I’m a tired optometrist.” interactive and creative and young people a well-educated ICT workforce, and ICT With time, however, rationing fell by University student Juhaina Aljehni said in particular have shown that they are keen skills are necessary for individuals to the wayside and although Dad is still that she goes online every morning to to make their own videos, write blogs and engage in the global economy. not happy about it, his daughters now “check out some well-known forums for upload their music. In addition, Cisco are promoting a use the internet pretty much when they the latest news or trends in Saudi”. A review of the WorldLinks programme diverse and inclusive workforce, which want, said Ashwaq, 23. And for this self- It has also led her to this conclusion: “I in Senegal, Mauritania, Uganda and Ghana benefits Cisco financially by enabling the described ‘internet addict’, that has been found out that men have the upper hand which provides internet connectivity and company to do a better job of anticipating all to the good. and that a lot of women’s lives revolve training to secondary school students and global market demand, generating Ashwaq, who asked that her surname around men.” teachers, found that boys used computers innovative ideas, and responding to a not be used so she could speak frankly, more often than girls. As this young woman wide range of customers. Networking Young said that web access has given her “a School – computers are for girls too pointed out: Academy promotes diversity within Cisco women window to the outside world,” brought “Once the bell rings and it is time for and throughout the ICT workforce by attend a Cisco her “a lot of cyber-friends,” and “changed “The single most important factor for computer classes, boys run quickly to fill concentrating on bringing ICT education Networking my personality”. increasing the ability of girls and women up the computer room. They reach the to less-developed regions and proactively Academy. A few years ago, she was so anti- to take advantage of IT opportunities is computer room before us and take up social that she would not have returned education.” 67 the machines. We do not have a lot of a reporter’s phone call, she said. And chances to access the computers under such because of what she’s learned online, “Literacy now is not just learning to circumstances. Usually by the time boys including about religion, she’s become read and write but learning how to use a decide to get up it is already time for the more open-minded. computer.” computer class to end. Something needs to “When you grow up in a place with strict Rana 16, Alexandria, Egypt68 be done by the school to stop the boys from rules, you become intolerant of things dominating the computer rooms.’ 73 outside Saudi Arabia,” said the optometrist- A sticker on a computer in an African school In order to give girls the opportunity in-training. “I’ve changed in that way.” states: “IT is HOT for Girls.” A boys-only to learn about ICTs and to overcome any The internet has expanded most class scratched out the ‘H’ and replaced reservations about using them, a number of people’s horizons. But for Saudi women it with an ‘N’: “IT is NOT for girls.”69 This programmes run ‘technology camps’ aimed AN

it has been a critical boon, providing a prejudice against girls and computers in specifically at girls and young women. L P

114 the state of the world’s girls 115 old software engineer in the UK who has A call-centre their utility and profitability are established managerial levels.87 They are also well a website, Girly Geekdom. She says: “Even worker in – so women who do gain access to a represented in what are known as BPO though both my parents worked in IT, I was South Africa. technology do not see the economic benefits (Business Process Outsourcing) industries told to look at marketing and law by my associated with it.’”82 such as call centres. school careers adviser.” But she is hopeful for “The majority of people behind the web, • In Malaysia, women make up 30 per cent the future: “The message is slowly getting who programme sites and create the new of IT professionals.88 across to girls that the industry isn’t all about technologies, tend to be men,” says Bryony • Women constitute 20 per cent of the that clapped-out stereotype of geeky guys Matthewman, 24, a British artist and graphic software industry in Brazil.89 with glasses.”76 An Australian study found designer who is better known to her millions True, many of these jobs may be in data that social conditioning about technologies of fans as Paperlilies. She is one of the top 50 processing, or in call centres, but young meant that girls perceived ICT careers and most popular contributors to YouTube.83 women see them as an opportunity to build

es studies in a negative light: a different life for themselves, like Guizhen ur • It would be a boring job Xu, from China. ict The generation gap

s P •ICT attracts nerds Surprisingly, the difference between the o

an • You have to be good at maths proportion of men and women working in THE STORY OF GUIZHEN XU 77 r / P

e • It is too technical. computing jobs is wider among the younger Guizhen Xu, 23, has not had an easy life. ll i While data is limited, in Australia, women than the older generation. In 2006, some 3.5 Her dream is to go to college. She was

ic M make up only 20 per cent of ICT employees per cent of men in Europe aged below 40 abandoned by her parents at a young age Er and 25 per cent of ICT university students were employed in computing compared to and helped her foster father on the land seeking to enrol female students. and numbers are declining from year to year.78 less than one per cent of women.84 while studying hard in school. But then For instance, 31 per cent of students This is true in other countries. In the US, “Girls in my generation are not really her father was diagnosed with senile graduating from the Networking Academy the percentage of female computer science encouraged to go into IT. A lot of girls get dementia and cervical spondylosis. She courses in Africa are women. The majority undergraduates at major research universities into the sector via vocational colleges, and had to look after him at home and spent of female survey respondents said they has dropped from 37 per cent in 1985 to it can be intimidating being the only girl in a their small savings on his treatment. have more confidence and their career 14 per cent in 2006.79 In the UK in 2005-6, group of boys,” said Dawn Breen, who works When he died, she was on her own. opportunities are better as a result of the there were 75,360 male students studying for a software company in the UK.85 Neighbours helped her to travel to programme. computing at university compared to 23,370 However, once they are computer Nanjing, where she found work and saved In March 2010 Cisco became the first women.80 “An IT industry dominated by men literate, young women in countries in Latin from her meagre earnings so that she private-sector member of the UN Girls’ is only using half the available talent and America, East and Central Europe, South could go to college. She says: “I want Education Initiative (UNGEI) Global creativity. We know girls are turned off by IT and South East Asia, and South Africa, to go to college because I believe that it Advisory Committee, further cementing as a career option because it is not something see the computer industry as a route to would bring changes into my life. I also its commitment to gender equality. they connect with. Technology appears to independence. really enjoy studying.” be marketed by men for men. It’s time we • In South Africa, women hold 19 per cent Her dream was still a long way off Computing: jobs for the boys? started switching bright and talented girls of data communications and networking when she heard about the Community on to science and technology,” said the UK’s jobs, 18 per cent in information systems Technology & Learning Centre “I definitely wanted to do it, because way Patricia Hewitt when she was Trade and and information technology management, Programme (CTLC), a free computer back in high school, I really liked computer Industry Secretary.81 and 39 per cent in education, training and training project co-organised by Plan studies, but when I was in high school, I development.86 and Microsoft. With no previous could not go to a computer class because Basic education and training • In India, women occupy nearly 20 per cent knowledge of computer operation, she I could not afford to pay for a computer These comments are underlined by another of the professional jobs in the software successfully completed the course. At course. But when I cleared high school, I got research report which notes that: “Women in industry, including at technical and the same time she took quite a few other friends and told them about what I wanted developing countries do not receive the basic training courses to satisfy her quest for to do and they gave me a scholarship. I education and training needed to be ready knowledge. Since she could not afford studied IT for free… I was therefore among technology adopters and are often seen only college, this was the next best thing. the people who got the opportunity to as ‘users’ or ‘receivers’ of technology, rather Then in June 2007, a financial aid study IT.”’ than as innovators involved in technology programme for migrant workers to Young female web designer in Kenya75 design and development. continue their studies was officially co- “The more sophisticated the technologies, launched by the Asian Women’s Fund and Despite the fact that they are familiar with the less likely women are to be involved. As Nanjing Women’s Federation. Guizhen Xu the technologies and keen to use computers, one commentator points out: ‘At work, men was too excited to sleep. In the following in general young women are not studying may determine that operating … a computer days she completed the application form, IT at university or finding work in the is not something women should be allowed obtained the necessary certificates of computer industries. This may partly be to to learn. Even technology programmes that work experience and family background, CTLC project AN do with attitudes. Sarah Blow is a 26 year- target women can be co-opted by men once L and then contacted the Nanjing Radio in China. P

116 the state of the world’s girls 117 and TV University. Because of her In addition, there are few women in positions diagnose and repair technical problems, especially at a time of their lives when they good grades at high school, she was to make decisions about information and install and configure software. are beginning to develop sexually. offered a place to study administration technologies in developing countries, Perhaps most important though, through We also know that the majority of children management. She decided to go to whether nationally or on international AED’s ‘eMentoring’ methodology, affected by sexual exploitation worldwide evening classes so that she could work bodies, in private companies and standard- Arcanjo and 49 of her peers used email are girls,96 and that one in five women report during the day to support herself. setting organisations or in international and instant messaging to conduct having been sexually abused before the age Despite the harshness of her life, Guizhen development agencies. One study found conversations with working professionals, of 15.97 Although, as one expert noted, “by Xu always has a smile on her face. And at that in ministries of developing countries, who taught them marketable skills and large, the internet is just a new medium last she may be able to realise her dream.90 only 5.5 per cent of senior government and gave them career counselling. for old kinds of bad behaviour”98,ICTs officials are women. It noted, however, that One skill Arcanjo learned was to extend the possibilities of such abuse to an There are a few women who have made women are the ministers of communication present ideas professionally and accept altogether different arena. serious money from the internet – Martha or telecommunication in Mali, South criticism graciously. “No one from our Online abuse and exploitation can be Lane Fox, the co-founder of lastminute.com, Africa and Colombia, and deputy ministers communities could teach this,” because roughly classified into four broad categories and Natalie Massenet, who set up Net-a- of communications in Angola, Belarus, they do not have the same knowledge or – producing, trading or downloading Porter, have made their fortunes through the the Czech Republic, Ghana, the Kyrgyz experience as the mentors, she said. sexually abusive materials, and seducing web. But they are still the exceptions – and Republic and Tanzania. “These women children into sexual abuse and exploitation.99 mostly in the rich world. have the potential to influence the course of Finally, it is not just the jobs in IT, science or The UK’s Child Exploitation and Online information and technology development engineering that are the issue. Increasingly, Protection Centre (CEOP) has detected “a NOKIA: SCHOOL RELEVANCE in their countries as well as regionally and technology skills and access to technology significant shift by child-sexual offenders to THROUGH MOBILE CONNECTIVITY globally through participation in ITU regional are becoming as necessary as literacy for the use of P2P (peer-to-peer) technology TO THE WORLD OF LEARNING91 and world conferences.”92 21st century employment. One study in for the distribution of images, usually on Every day brings formal learning South Africa and Tanzania found that many a non-commercial basis. By operating challenges for girls in developing BECOMING WHO YOU WANT: respondents identified mobile phones as within networks, offenders normalise countries. Does a girl try to stay in ONLINE MENTORING FOR YOUNG essential for contacting employers and getting their behaviour through membership of school when there are few books and WOMEN IN BRAZIL93 contacted about job openings, particularly in a hierarchical community of like-minded only lightly trained teachers, or follow in Ana Célia Arcanjo, aged 22, lives with her remote areas and areas of high crime.94 individuals, gaining prestige by trading the footsteps of her peers by dropping parents in Recife, Brazil. While she was and introducing newer, more exclusive out? Millions of children are leaving growing up, her family and friends assumed images. The production of new images of school without having acquired basic she would become a poorly paid labourer, child exploitation is incentivised by access skills. If current trends persist, there will or maybe not find work at all. Despite to higher positions within the network be 56 million children out of school in Brazil’s recent economic boom, 40 per cent hierarchy. This type of behaviour provides a 2015. of youth in Recife are unemployed, and less gateway to further offending, where images In response to this global challenge than half of the city’s 18 to 24 year olds are are made to order through ongoing contact Nokia has partnered with the Pearson continuing their education. abuse with children accessible to one or more Foundation and others to significantly However, thanks to the Academy individuals in the network.”100 improve educational quality and student for Educational Development (AED)’s A programme In developing countries, poor girls who achievement in primary school level Programa Para o Futuro, Arcanjo is now participant have no access to the internet are still mathematics, science and life skills, a key breadwinner in her household. She meeting her potentially vulnerable – for example, their through the innovative use of cell learned to set up computer networks, mentor. photos can be taken and posted up on phones and digital technology. This 6 The dark side of cyberspace – the internet without their knowledge and technology provides schools with video how technology is increasing without them having access to a computer content that supports science, maths sexual exploitation themselves. and life skills teaching, and improves This section examines the factors the quality of interaction between “An average person with a computer, that make adolescent girls vulnerable teacher and student. modem and search engine can find violent, to exploitation via communications “The reaction of teachers and students degrading images within minutes – a search technologies. It looks at how ICTs have has been very positive,” says Mr that could have taken a lifetime, just 15 shaped and changed trafficking operations. D Mbogella, Chief Country Advisor for the years ago.” It assesses the significance of other forms f AE Tanzania project. “We have conducted Donna Hughes95 of internet-related abuse, like cyberbullying

research involving schools with and tesy o and cyber-harassment, and shows how these

without the video content, and the results our We have seen how ICTs can be very affect girls and young women in particular. , c are amazing. Students who watched the empowering for adolescent girls, socially, It also profiles new research and showcases sten videos showed greater motivation and u politically and economically. But we also IT solutions that come from young women achieved better test results.” ic R know that they can expose them to risks, themselves. It shows how ICTs can be used Er

118 the state of the world’s girls 119 in counter-trafficking efforts to ensure girls’ • As many as 70 per cent of internet sites The group has four major goals: example, they may give out information they security and protection. Finally, it makes are invisible – they have a reference but 1 research the current e-safety needs of wouldn’t share in another setting.117 The recommendations about how girls can better cannot be located – including most illegal young people in Egypt to understand speed of change, and the fact that young protect themselves, and be better protected, image sites. Young people downloading better the wide range of concerns shared people are accessing websites of which from harm. The potential of the internet is free DVDs, songs and games use the same by youth and their families; their parents have little knowledge, means vast; it is important that fear does not limit software as paedophiles.105 Peer to peer 2 assess the most appropriate guidelines for that they have little protection from abuse. that potential. (P2P) is the most common method of young people in safe use of the internet; Once an image is on the web, it is virtually sharing and accessing indecent images of 3 Create and design effective education impossible to recall it, meaning that images Facts on IT-Enabled Sexual children online.106 and awareness resources to communicate taken of girls will continue to affect them Exploitation • Some 60 per cent of parents in Europe e-safety information to young people and as they grow into adulthood. One study in • The Internet Watch Foundation reported whose children access the internet have no their parents; the UK found that adolescents, particularly a 34 per cent increase in reported internet rules on its use.107 4 Contribute to wider strategic programmes young girls in the 16 to 17 age group, were child abuse, with 91 per cent of the victims • Of young people surveyed in Thailand, 63 and assess those programmes from a in serious danger of ‘online seduction’.118 under 12 years old.101 per cent had stumbled on content which youth perspective. The internet is also being used for online • According to a 2007 study, 55 per cent of had shocked them.108 solicitation or ‘grooming’ (securing a girl’s all child abuse sites are hosted in the US, • In China, 44 per cent of children said they Why are girls and young women trust in order to draw her into a situation followed by 28 per cent in Russia; eight per had been approached online by strangers.109 particularly vulnerable? where she may be harmed).119 It enables sex cent in Europe and seven per cent in Asia.102 •A 17 year-old woman allows her boyfriend offenders to engage girls on many levels, from • In Malaysia, women’s activists have In Egypt a group of young people have to film them having sex. When they break sexual chat to enticing them into physical cited the use of intimate images to formed a Youth Internet safety group (Net_ up acrimoniously, he puts the material contact. There have been many cases where blackmail young women into staying in a Aman) with a mandate to increase awareness on the web. She is terrified from then predators contact girls for both online and relationship.103 about internet safety and the huge potential on that her family, her teachers or future then physical meetings, during which girls • One European study on internet use found of ICTs. Their aim is to offer children and employers might see it. are emotionally and sexually abused.120 that two in ten parents reported that their youth the chance to identify harmful content •A 15 year-old girl is contacted via instant Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable children had encountered harmful or illegal and decide on the best way to deal with that messaging by a much older man. He to this type of online solicitation.121 One content online.104 through a participatory approach. flatters her and persuades her to meet of the biggest challenges is making direct him. When she does, he sexually assaults connections between images of girls on the WHAT LAWS ARE THERE TO PROTECT GIRLS FROM VIOLENCE, EXPLOITATION AND ABUSE ONLINE? her. She does not dare tell her parents or internet and actual cases of trafficking; in “National governments are urged to devise and implement legislation and to harmonise laws to protect the police. other words, perpetrators are often marketing children from all cyber crimes, including online grooming, luring or stalking, exposure to illegal or • The female owner of an internet-based images, rather than real people.122 inappropriate materials and all actions related to child pornography (including creation, dissemination, modelling agency in Lugansk, Ukraine, And it is often the most vulnerable girls accessing, downloading, possession and incitement). National laws must mirror or surpass existing recruited 14 to 17 year-old girls under the who are most at risk. For example, a study international legislation.”110 pretext of modelling contracts but the in Latvia found that the most vulnerable The obligation to protect girls from violence, exploitation and online abuse is contained in several key victims were trafficked to the United Arab potential ‘victims’ were young women from international human rights instruments, including the UNCRC, the ICCPR, CEDAW, and the subsequent Emirates and the Seychelles and forced 10 to 22 years, primarily in the southern Beijing Platform for Action, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, ILO into commercial sexual exploitation.115 and Russian parts of the country, where Convention 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the unemployment is high and prospects are Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography and the Protocol to Adolescent girls are vulnerable to online poor.123 Research in the US found that girls Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, Supplementing the abuse for the same reasons they are and boys who feel isolated, misunderstood, United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (2000) (‘Palermo Protocol’).111 There are vulnerable to offline abuse. Physically, depressed, or lack support from family are also a number of regional frameworks. puberty is when girls begin to be seen as most at risk of aggressive online solicitations The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child sexually ‘available’, although adolescents, and are likely to send personal information prostitution and child pornography is perhaps the most detailed.112 It requires governments to criminalise regardless of age, cannot consent to sexual about themselves.124 producing, distributing, disseminating, importing, exporting, offering, selling or possessing child exploitation. In this sense, age of consent is pornography for the purposes set forth in the protocol. In combination with the provisions in the irrelevant. This has been argued by the UN KEEP YOUR CHATS EXACTLY THAT!125 Convention on the Rights of the Child, governments have an obligation to criminalise child abuse in all its Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, ‘Keep your chats exactly that!’ is a forms, including all the methods that can be used to perpetrate such abuse. their commercial sexual exploitation and South African advocacy campaign run by The international and regional instruments provide a structure for the protection of children from child pornography. Offenders seek to GirlsNet, a project that aims to “open up all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse with some providing detailed guidance on areas of legitimise their behaviour by stating that innovative opportunities of ICTs to girls protection.113 Though it is difficult for the law to ‘keep up’ with technological changes, the international adolescents should naturally engage in sexual and encourage girls to make use of ICTs standards are clear in imposing an obligation on governments to protect girls from abuse, violence and behaviour as they are ‘sexually available’.116 in order to make them active participants exploitation that is associated with new developments in, and increased use of, ICTs. The challenge is Psychologically, many adolescent girls are in the Information Age”. for states to create the legal frameworks that are necessary to effectively ensure girls are safe in the new not equipped with the skills and knowledge ‘Keep your chats exactly that!’ aims ‘spaces’ opened up to them by ICTs.114 they need to protect themselves; for to keep girls safe online and to prevent

120 the state of the world’s girls 121 them “becoming victims of violence or recreationally for profit. Pornographic • Victims are less likely to attract police Man: I enjoy it, you’re the sweetest in harassment when they use the internet images are created through online attention, and can be controlled.133 that age and cell phones”. It also aims to help stalking, where stalkers befriend girls in Criminals are able to more easily distance Girl: Aren’t you bored? Our peers are young people use ICTs to raise awareness. chat rooms and ask them to take pictures themselves from the crimes they commit boring to us of themselves.127 ‘Page-jacking’ involves and IT provides a degree of anonymity Man: I’m not bored, I want a young girl misdirecting or trapping people onto that enables exploitation to carry on and I’m talking with you, you’d be with pornographic websites. with impunity. It is difficult to determine me sometimes and I’d help you in a • Web-based chat rooms (including the profile of perpetrators of IT-enabled certain way… financially? Well? live video chat) and new social media abuse, since the very nature of exploitation Girl: How do you mean to help me? networking tools (Facebook, MySpace, is embedded in anonymity: “Global Man: Say, you make me happy quickly Craigslist) are an especially dangerous communications forums have increased the and get 100 euros, only 10-15 minutes, I and commonly used method for girls to privacy and decreased the isolation of the think it’s ok offer ’N et

s come into contact with traffickers or other men who exploit and abuse women and Girl: Well I’m not that kind of girl and I’m

rl 128 134 G i perpetrators of abuse. No messages are children.” only 15 archived or stored, and no log files are Man: Of course you’re not, and Leading up to the campaign, young maintained.129 everything will be between me and you, women from GirlsNet conducted focus- • File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a way of and you’ll always have cash group discussions to investigate their use exchanging files on the internet and used Girl: But why? I couldn’t tell it to my of social networks, which showed that to exchange child pornography. It allows friend? some girls said they had withdrawn from users to have direct access to another’s Man: You can say whoever you like. Is the mobile social networks because of sexual computer hard drive to upload and SERBIA: AN EXAMPLE OF INCITEMENT offer ok? harassment. They also found that young download files. TO PROSTITUTION OF A MINOR135 Girl: No people wanted to access, use and own • Search engines: misused by criminals to This is an extract from an online chat. It Man: Tell your offer technologies themselves. Women’sNet find illegal content. was logged as part of a research project Girl: I’m not offering anything Executive Director Sally Shackleton said: • Peer-to-peer networks and file swapping with young people in six Serbian towns by “Access to ICTs are mediated by gendered programmes are used to find and download the NGO ASTRA to monitor internet abuse. Trafficking via technology inclusion and exclusion. Women are files on online networks and misused to Man: Where are you from? You’re 15? “Traffickers in [some]countries are no still not in control of the tools they are share illegal material. Transmissions are not Girl: Yeah, you? longer uneducated, ‘paan-chewing’ men, using.”126 logged or traceable.130 Man: 29 but carry cell phones, video cameras, and • Mobile phones, as we will see below, are Girl: Ok speak cultured English, allowing them to What technologies are used to abuse also increasingly being used to abuse and Man: Go to school? exploit women and children more efficiently adolescent girls? bully, especially if they also include access Girl: Yes, primary, 8th grade and effectively than ever before.” 136 Technologies change with incredible speed. to the internet. Man: Have a boyfriend? For example, computing power is moving Girl: No The ILO estimates that 80 per cent of those increasingly from the desktop/laptop to How perpetrators are using Man: And you’d like to? who are trafficked are female and 50 per the mobile phone, at the same time that technology to recruit and exploit girls Girl: Well, of course I would, but he’ll cent are under the age of 18.137 There is still mobiles are being used by increasing Exploitation and sexual abuse of young come when he comes not very much information on how traffickers numbers of children and young people. This women is easy, anonymous and largely Man: Your girlfriends, they have are using communications technologies, change could bring sexual harassment and untraceable via the internet, and is thus an boyfriends, have sex with them? let alone how much adolescent girls are exploitation even closer to potential victims. obvious tool for perpetrators to use.131 Cyber Girl: Some yes, some no involved.138 But we do know that new places The Vienna Forum on Human Trafficking crime is attractive to perpetrators because:132 Man: Virgin? and locations for trafficking have emerged, identified various forms of technology which • It is easily committed Girl: I won’t tell you as the internet has enabled communication offer access to girls by traffickers and other • It is cheap for the criminal Man: Ok, I know... you’re embarrassed. with clients to go to nondescript addresses perpetrators of abuse. These include: • It is difficult to trace You’d like to lose your virginity soon? not previously associated with sex tourism or • Newsgroups: sites for exchange of • It is highly profitable and investment costs You’d play with my banana? C’mon, talk the sex trade.139 The use of new technology information can be misused to find young are low – though perpetrators are not to me, why you hesitate, say something in trafficking is particularly prevalent at the women to exploit and to upload and always motivated for commercial gain Girl: And how’s that you’re so rude and initial exploitation stage; people seeking download illegal pornography. • The criminal can be at home, while the you’re 30? to ‘buy’ adolescent girls are able to search • Web message and bulletin boards: crime can have consequences in various Man: Honey... you’ll see when you grow online through websites.140 One consultant exchange of information misused by sexual countries and for numerous victims up... you’ll be crazier than now… and notes: “I have heard of East European and perpetrators: similar to newsgroups but • It can be hard to locate, as criminals now tell me... you’d like to play with Balkan girls being advertised as ‘coming soon’ can be private and password protected. operate in various countries, making it banana? and providing contact details if you want to • Websites: can be misused as venues for hard for national police agencies to track Girl: And you really feel strong when you reserve some time with the girl. If they get distribution of pornography, maintained them down talk with girls? sufficient demand for a girl in a particular

122 the state of the world’s girls 123 place, off she goes. Really simple, and really Child-to-child abuse LEGAL RESPONSES TO YOUNG PEOPLE WHO SEXUALLY EXPLOIT OTHERS THROUGH NEW hard to crack.” (Brian Iselin, Syria.141) A teenager who posted death threats on TECHNOLOGIES148 While technology is used for trafficking Facebook has become the first person in The main international instruments on juvenile justice provide the standards for the response to young purposes, it is also being used to track Britain to be jailed for bullying on a social people who sexually exploit others through ICTs. These documents are Articles 37 and 40 of the UNCRC traffickers. The International Organisation of networking site. and the UN Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice, with further guidance from the Migration (IOM) has a Counter-Trafficking Keeley Houghton, 18, of Malvern, UN Guidelines on the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency, the UN Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Module Database.142 The private sector Worcestershire, was sentenced to three Deprived of their Liberty and the Economic and Social Council’s UN Guidelines on the Administration has also been working with governments months in a young offenders’ institution of Juvenile Justice149 According to these standards, responses to juvenile offending should be geared and international bodies on this issue. For after she posted a message saying that she towards “promoting the child’s reintegration and the child’s assuming a constructive role in society”.150 example, Microsoft’s Child Exploitation would kill Emily Moore. She pleaded guilty to Actions that respond to young people who sexually exploit others through ICTs should follow these Tracking System (CETS), is a “unique harassment. standards. software tool that helps governments store, On 12 July 2009, Houghton updated her The appropriate reaction to sexual exploitation of children through ICTs is difficult to achieve and search, share and analyse evidence in child status on Facebook to read: “Keeley is going remains a developing area of law, at an embryonic stage in many countries.151 exploitation cases across police agencies, to murder the bitch. She is an actress. What States face challenges in crafting legislation that protects children from online exploitation and harm, helping protect children from exploitation a ***** liberty. Emily ******* Moore.” while distinguishing between those actions that are “predatory and exploitative” from those that are online, and making possible more effective Moore, also 18, had been victimised by conducted by children who do not share the predatory and exploitative intent.152 In Australia, for example, identification and prosecution of offenders.” Houghton for four years, the court heard, the Crimes Legislation Amendment (Sexual Offences Against Children Bill) 2010, seeks to update criminal As of December 2009, the Child Exploitation and had previously suffered a physical legislation to combat “contemporary offending” including child sex tourism, overseas child pornography, Tracking System has been deployed in more assault as well as damage to her home.144 child sexual abuse online, postal and online offences.153, 154 In response to concerns that this legislation than 10 countries and is being used by more As the above story shows, not all abuse could lead to the criminal punishment of children who engage in ‘sexting’, a parliamentary committee than 1,000 investigators worldwide. via technology is carried out by adults on recommended that the Attorney General be given discretion over whether to pursue criminal charges The US and United Nations Office on children. Some is child-to-child. Emily’s against those under the age of 18.156 This would, according to the Committee, “take account of sexting as Drugs and Crime’s joint project, Operation mother Connie said: “The internet is a a common practice among young people, in order to avoid criminalising or stigmatising young people as Childhood, works with international partners sinister, silent enemy. You simply don’t know child sex offenders.”156 – Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam – to how to start to tackle the problem. But tackle child sexual abuse and trafficking faceless as a computer may be, it is every What happened to Emily is known as Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned on a national level through international bit as threatening as a physical bully, if not ‘cyberbullying’, defined as “when a child, Pregnancies noted that the line between cooperation and capacity building more so, because the audience reading these pre-teen or teen is tormented, threatened, public and private behaviour has become programmes.143 horrible messages can be enormous.”145 harassed, humiliated, embarrassed or blurred. “The technology is so new that otherwise targeted by another child, pre- people haven’t found their moral compass USING THE LAW TO PROSECUTE SEXUAL EXPLOITATION, ABUSE AND VIOLENCE ONLINE teen or teen, using the internet, interactive when using it. The problem is that even if There are several notable challenges associated with using the law to prosecute those who perpetrate and digital technologies or mobile phones. you think you are sending a picture only to cyber crimes. These occur at all stages of the process, from detecting the crime in the first place to taking a It has to have a minor on both sides, or at your boyfriend or girlfriend of the moment, case through prosecution. One immediate barrier to prosecution of sexual exploitation, abuse and violence least have been instigated by a minor against it can go from private to global in a nano- online is the lack of domestic legislation. Despite increased awareness of the problem, many countries still another minor.”157 second. And something like that can stick do not have adequate domestic provisions that criminalise relevant acts. While bullying online is an extension with you, almost like a cyber-tattoo, for the Legislation must address and take into account the fact that girls are more exposed to the risk of sexual of bullying offline, there are a number of rest of your life.”159 exploitation, violence and abuse through the channels of new technology. As the G8 Ministers stated in differences. First, it follows you home. Offline A Microsoft survey in Canada found that 2007, “[b]ecause producers, traders, and collectors of child pornography can be found in any country, bullying you can escape from, but if someone adolescents and teenagers are more likely to all countries must work together to solve the problem. If such images are legal anywhere, they are more is bullying you online, you experience it be cyberbullied than younger children – 51 available everywhere.”146 every time you turn on your mobile phone or per cent and 23 per cent respectively, and computer – which for many young people, is that on the whole, adolescent boys tend Jurisdiction much of the time they are awake, if they are to be the bullies and girls tend to be the Protecting children online is a global issue, so a global response is needed.147 While the lack of national not at school. This has huge consequences in victims.160 Focus-group discussions leading legislation is a significant problem, it can also be difficult to prosecute the perpetrators of child sexual abuse real life, as this 15 year-old girl from the UK up to the campaign in South Africa ‘Keep and exploitation that takes place online, due to the many different jurisdictions that are involved in the pointed out: “It’s easier to say horrible stuff your chats exactly that!’ (see page 121) commission of an offence. For example, if an indecent photo is taken of a child, the crime ‘takes place’ in the about people on [the internet]. It got really found that young people had shared nude jurisdiction in which the photo is taken, in the jurisdiction of the server to which the photo was uploaded, horrible in Year 10. Lots of people were being pictures of themselves with their friends. and in the multitude of locations in which the picture is downloaded and, potentially, shared and viewed. bullied over [the internet]. It gets brought into They also mentioned constant bullying, Effective prosecution of those participating at any stage of the process of producing, disseminating and school. When friends do this, it’s horrible. It stalking and harassment while using their viewing images of child abuse can be limited by extradition laws which sometimes require that the relevant makes you really upset. You don’t want to go phones.161 Seventy-five per cent of US act has been criminalised in both the location from which an individual is being extradited and in the state into school again.”158 teens in one survey said that they thought to which they will be extradited. International cooperation is essential for ensuring procescution of offenders Second, the consequences may be there there should be stricter rules about online who have committed online offences against children, owing to the transnational nature of these crimes. forever. In the US, Bill Albert of the National bullying.

124 the state of the world’s girls 125 Percentages of student experience of for young people, in September 2008 Sexting How can girls keep safe online? bullying and cyberbullying162 Sergeant Marko Forss of Helsinki Police Sexting is the practice of sending nude There has been much debate about how Male Female started a police profile – ‘fobba’ – on pictures via text messages, which is girls can keep safe online, both from adult Bully 40.8 27.8 IRC-Galleria,166 the most popular social something that happens between young predators and from other children. Many of Bully victim 53.7 44.4 media site amongst Finnish youth. Forss people themselves. It was brought to public these are an extension of programmes and Cyberbully 22.3 11.6 went on to invent and establish the attention by a case in the US in January services that aim to keep girls safe offline as Cyberbully victim 25.0 25.6 Virtual Community Policing Group. This 2009 where three teenage girls of 14 or 15 well. The Girls’ Net project in South Africa Aware of cyberbullying 55.6 54.5 revolutionary facility for young people who had sent such photos of themselves, has provided some safety tips aimed directly received national recognition for ‘Best and three teenage boys of 16 or 17 who at girls themselves:175, 176 Another study found that in the US, 41 per Practice for Cooperation’ in 2009.167 had received them, were charged with child • Never give your personal details to anyone cent of adolescent girls between the ages The police have created an online space pornography. Another US survey found you have met online. This includes the of 15 and 17 said they had experienced which works as a virtual police station, that eight out of ten female ‘sexters’ were name of your school, pictures of yourself, cyberbullying, compared with 29 per cent of enabling young people to report online under 18.169 This is not just a phenomenon the place you live, anything someone boys the same age, and 34 per cent of girls crime in confidence. that takes place in the global North, could use to identify where you live. and 22 per cent of boys aged 12 to 14.163 The police profiles are open and though it may be an urban one. As part • Do not send pictures of yourself to anyone undisguised: members of the group of a programme to develop community- – even if they send you one first (it might VIRTUAL POLICE – A PIONEERING use their own names and photos for based protection systems for children and not even be a picture of them). PROJECT FOR INTERNET SAFETY their web profiles. During the past adolescents in Ecuador, Plan carried out • If the person you are chatting to insists on Nearly a third of Finnish 15 year-old year, the police profiles have received a study in two cities and found evidence information, or keeps pressing you about girls have been sexually abused or nearly 50,000 contact requests.168 For a that boys were filming girls and sharing the your details – stop chatting! harassed on the internet; substantially small country like Finland this is a huge videos via Bluetooth.170 • If someone keeps trying to call or chat, or fewer boys have received similar success. According to one nationwide survey by threatens you, tell someone you trust and treatment.164 A growing, but usually The Virtual Community Policing Group the National Campaign to Support Teen get help. hidden, trend is violent bullying by girls has attracted great interest and is a and Unplanned Pregnancy, 20 per cent of • Report people who use abusive language, of other girls. According to new Finnish pioneer in global police work in social teenagers say they take part in sexting. harass or abuse you to the people who research,165 nearly half of the girls media. Its success is based upon public “This is a serious felony. They could be run the social network you use – the surveyed admit using such behaviour, trust in the police. facing many years in prison,” CBS News perpetrator can be banned from using it. whereas a third of the boys admit doing “The aim is not to limit freedom of legal analyst Lisa Bloom said. “What are so. Amongst the respondents, violence speech,” says Senior Constable Jutta we going to do, lock up 20 per cent of Online spaces for girls inflicted by girls tends to be more Antikainen, alias ‘jutta’. The work itself is America’s teens?”171 Witold Walczak, legal Girls are savvy internet users, carving out widely accepted than that by boys. For normal police work, only the environment From left: director for ACLU in Pennsylvania, who is new spaces for themselves online. The spaces example, nearly 40 per cent of girls is different. After a crime is reported, Jutta fighting the case on behalf of the pupils, created by girls are mostly aimed at ‘building thought it was all right to ‘assault’ the procedure is the same. The only Antikainen, said: “Child porn is about the abuse and a community’177, creating a supportive space a boyfriend. The prevalent forms of difference is that young people are now Mikko exploitation of minors by adults. That’s where they can play with their identity and ‘assault’ were bullying, mocking, more likely to talk to police and report Manninen not happening here. The kids who do this share their thoughts with other girls. This slapping and elbowing. Beating and web-based crime; trust is gained faster and Marko are doing potential harm to themselves. is of critical importance during adolescence kicking are equally prevalent behaviour using the internet. Forss. They are both the perpetrator and the as girls are “coming of age in a sexualised amongst girls and boys. victim. Why would you want to compound and media-saturated culture”178 where A public discussion focusing on the that with a criminal prosecution and body image can be a strong negative force. adverse side of the internet highlighted conviction?”172 In March 2010, the State The online space to share and find support that whereas boys are more likely to fight Senate of Illinois passed a law under which might not be available in offline with their fists or through direct verbal which under-18s who share nude photos environments is an important support mockery, girls are using the social media of their peers would not be subject to mechanism. to bully and insult. All too often the criminal penalties but would face juvenile Spaces created for girls by social abusers falsely believe that they are less sanctions.173 organisations such as girlsinc.org and lmk. liable for their actions on the web than in Sexting has also occurred in the UK, New girlscouts.org offer girls information, advice real life. Zealand and Australia. The New South Wales and a safe space to interact with their peers. Young Finns seem to make little state government in Australia launched an LMK, by US-based Girl Scouts in partnership distinction between the real and the education campaign in May 2009 after with Microsoft Windows, focuses specifically virtual world. But although they may receiving reports that girls as young as 13 on online exploitative situations including be openly and skillfully discussing their were sexting. “I urge parents to warn their cyberbullying and sexting and features a problems on the web, they are often ice children about the consequences of sexting,” group of 23 teenage girls who provide online unable to seek help in the real world. said state Community Services Minister advice to girls using the site. As their website 174 With the aim of making the web safer innish Pol Linda Burney. states: “These girls are stepping up to make F

126 the state of the world’s girls 127 the internet a safer place. Just like you, they about the dangers of the internet may lead Protecting girls online create physical space around them that have tons of opinions and stories to share, them to see these technologies as negative There are a number of initiatives aimed at deters men from approaching them. so check out their perspectives and discover and thus prevent their daughters from preventing online abuse of children. These also In Japan, the keitai (translated as how you too can improve the quality of your using them. This is particularly true as girls need a particular focus on adolescent girls. ‘something you carry with you’) – a life online.”179 enter the transition period of adolescence, • The Virtual Global Taskforce was created mobile phone particularly used for It also provides advice to girls on how to and parents try to use technology to in 2003 to “better protect children from emailing and sending photos – has been protect themselves against online sexual check what their daughters are doing. For sexual exploitation wherever they are massively adopted: 70 per cent of the predators and privacy breaches on social example, in some countries, brothers are in the world”.188 It has six members: the entire population carries one. According networking sites. monitoring their sisters’ access to ICTs, and Australian Federal Police, The National Child to one study, grade school and adolescent fathers and husbands may control their Exploitation Coordination Centre as part girls were almost twice as likely to carry a Parental involvement – safety or daughters’ and wives’ access to mobile of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, keitai. Of particular interest to producing surveillance? phones.183 Italian Postal and Communication Police urban space is the mobile use of the A number of surveys have examined how Service, the Child Exploitation and Online kogyaru – street-smart teenage girls – “Kids don’t need protection; we need much parents are involved in discussing their Protection Centre in the UK, US Immigration and oyaji – older men and fathers. Kenichi guidance. If you protect us you are making children’s online use. What emerged most and Customs Enforcement and Interpol. Fujimoto has focused on the dynamic us weaker: we don’t go through all the trial strongly in all countries was the difference Taskforce members work together to put and interplay throughout the 1990s, first and error necessary to learn what we need between what parents thought their children in place systems to “share information and with the adoption of pagers, and now to survive on our own… don’t fight our were doing and what the young people intelligence” in order to respond as quickly with the proliferation of the keitai. He battles for us; just give us assistance when themselves perceived. as possible to “cases where children are considers these “territory-generating we need it.” • In the UK, 81 per cent of parents are believed to be at immediate risk”.189 The apparatuses”, wielded by savvy teen girls From the Children’s Call for Evidence, confident they know what their children Taskforce’s projects include ‘Operation with a predilection toward loose socks Byron Review, UK180 are looking at online – 31 per cent of UK Pin’, a false child pornography website that and munching snacks on the train. children disagree. captures the details of people trying to The keitai offers a tactic in Michel de “My Mum and Dad haven’t got a clue, I • India has the highest level of use of safety download child pornography from it.190 Certeau’s definition, a means of fighting set up the virus software and parent filter software – 55 per cent of parents have set • The International Telecommunications the dominant male culture in Japanese to control my brother. They should make it controls on web usage. Union has created the Child Online urban space. The keitai does not even easier for parents to set up.” • In Brazil parents think their children are Protection Initiative. This identifies risk to need to be used: its presence creates Girl, 16, Cardiff, Wales, from the Children’s spending 56 hours a month online. They children in cyberspace, develops tools to its own meaning. Its social and cultural Call for Evidence, Byron Review, UK181 are actually spending around 70 hours. minimise such risks, creates awareness, constructions bombastically create • In the US 86 per cent of teenage girls said and shares knowledge with the public.191 kogyaru space. Fujimoto writes: “With a It is not surprising, with all these stories and they could chat in a chat room without • UNIFEM’S Say No-UNiTE platform was keitai, a girl can turn any space into her facts about exploitation and abuse of girls their parents’ knowledge and 30 per cent launched in November 2009. The ‘Say own room and personal paradise (kekkai), and young women via communications said they had been sexually harassed in a No’ website whether that be her favourite café or her technologies, that parents are worried chat room; but only seven per cent told allows own stall in a flea market. The keitai is a about their daughters’ safety when using their parents immediately, because they activists jamming machine that instantly creates the internet. In urban areas in particular, were worried they would be banned from working a territory – a personal keitai space – parents may feel happier about their using chat rooms again.184 on gender around oneself with an invisible, minimal daughters’ safety if they know they can • In Thailand, 46 per cent of parents had violence barricade.” Even when signals aren’t contact, and be contacted by, them. Overall, not given their children any guiding rules issues to sent out as voice or text, carrying a ‘cute’ mobile phones are used by girls more often for using the internet – 11 per cent had share ideas keitai is itself an effective visual anti- NIFEM for communication with their parents or not even thought about it. Sixty-seven per U by posting an oyaji signal.193 caregivers. In a UK study, girls were found cent of young people accessed the internet ‘action’ online. The action can be viewed to make 50 calls or texts to parents or on computers with screening software. But and commented upon by other registered This chapter has looked at the benefits caregivers a week, versus 29 calls made by 55 per cent of this group indicated they users, who can use the website to develop of communications technologies for girls boys. Girls also received 67 calls/texts from could get around such software.185 ideas and contacts with activists around and how they are keen to adopt them and caregivers versus 30 to boys. This heightened One 17 year-old girl said: “I wouldn’t listen the world. There are over 237,419 online become aware of how they can improve connectivity with girls is likely due to to my parents anyway, as they don’t know ‘actions’ to date and heads of state and their lives. They use them to communicate, increased concerns about safety and security enough.”186 Another young person noted: ministers from 69 governments have signed to learn, to network. But we have also of girls.182 “Parents could be better educated in the up to end violence against women.192 seen the barriers adolescent girls face in However, the line between freedom and way of computers, since kids are learning accessing these technologies, and the control is a fine one. On the one hand, young, and can use the internet easily. If PROTECTED SPACES – JAPANESE dangers that present themselves at the push there are hugely positive aspects of ICTs parents know the ins and outs of computers, GIRLS, THE KEITAI, AND URBAN SPACE of a button. The section on page 135 makes that can have immense benefits for young protecting kids from adult material on the The following account from Japan shows recommendations on keeping girls safe women’s lives. On the other, parental fear internet will be far easier.”187 that girls are using the mobile phone to online and unleashing their potential.

128 the state of the world’s girls 129 houses] can be arrested if not duly registered participants said it was safe, while in another – taken to a police station, where officers call all participants said it was not safe. One 12 Brazilian adolescent girls up their mothers and later on the teenager is year-old girl stated: “The problem is not the taken to Fundacao Casa [detention centre].” information you post, but the people you Girl, 13, São Paulo favela accumulate: friend or stranger.” In the boys’ group, boys said they believed in a digital world “A safe place is my brother-in-law’s home. that MSN was more dangerous than the He’s got a ‘big piece’ [38-revolver].” other social network sites because it was Girl, 11, São Paulo favela more one-on-one. Boys believed that girls face much more risk online than boys. One When asked to identify the three dangers 14 year-old boy explained how his friend they or their friends face online, the girls said “was online with a girl and asked her to For this year’s ‘Because I am a Girl’ report, logged on to the internet in the past being hacked, people not being who they take off her clothes when they were talking Plan commissioned original research in Brazil three years has increased by 75.3% to say they are, photos being spread around, at MSN with the camera turned on. She did from the International Institute for Child 56 million users. false Orkut [social networking] page, viruses. because he promised her a kiss. Suddenly the Rights and Development (IICRD) through the • Access to the internet has risen both for Other comments included: father of the girl arrived and took her out by Child Protection Partnership (CPP) Canada men and women in the past three years, pulling her by the hair.” which worked with NECA, Obra de Berco, from 21.9% to 35.8% for men, and “My friend met a girl and went to her and The young people in all groups were Secretariat of Social Inclusion of Municipality from 20.1% to 33.9% for women. he was a guy.” roughly split when asked whether a friend of Santo Andre, Estrela Dalva, Childhood • In 2008, 57.1% of users logged on to Girl, 13 of theirs had had a bad experience on Brasil, SaferNet, Plan Brazil. They held focus the internet from home, while 32.5% “My friend confided in a friend and showed Orkut, MSN or another relationship site. groups with 49 boys and 44 girls aged 10 to did so from Lan Houses (Local Area him a picture of her naked and then he Some of the bad experiences included being 14, developed and posted an online survey Network – internet cafés) and 31% spread it to the whole club.” contacted by someone or meeting someone which was filled in by 400 respondents, and from work computers. Girl, 12 who turned out to be someone else; a fake undertook a literature review and a review • By 2009 Brazil had over 90,000 Lan “The girls open the webcam and show parts account being made on Orkut just to offend of protection practices in Brazil on girls and houses, accounting for approximately that shouldn’t be displayed.” others; an account set up using someone information and communications technologies half all internet access. Girl, 13 else’s personal information; a virus, hacking, (ICTs). They were assisted by an advisory • Contacting or communicating with gossip being spread, and theft of passwords group of adolescent girls. friends is given as the main reason for The respondents from the focus groups and identity. The purpose of the research was to internet access – 83.2% – followed did not agree about whether it is safe to Virtually none of the girls had warned examine adolescent girls’ rights and by entertainment at 68.6% and share information online. In one group, all their friends about something bad online. protection in Brazil within the context of educational purposes at 65.9%. ICTs. The research showed that the use of Education had dropped from first to ICTs was growing very fast (see box below), third place since 2005. particularly among 15 to 17 year olds, where between 2005 and 2008 there had been the Online safety highest percentage increase of all sectors of Nearly all the girls and boys in the focus the population, from 33.7 to 62.9 per cent. groups thought there was more danger The majority of girls in this research had online for girls than boys. mobile phones (86 per cent) and used the Girls said they go online at home, at a internet (82 per cent). Just over a quarter friend’s or – for most of the girls living in said they were ‘always online’. For those shanty towns or favelas – at a Lan house. girls who had access to a computer, they Many girls say that there are no risks at generally spent from one to seven hours a these places generally or that there is no day online. risk because they are with people they can trust and who can protect them. Other girls THE FACTS ON BRAZIL indicate that there are risks such as theft of a AND INFORMATION AND cell phone, copying passwords or relationship COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES profiles, rape, people posing as other people, • More than 53% of Brazilians (86 kidnapping, shooting or illegal drugs. million people) over 10 own a mobile d n

phone, representing a growth of 54.9% “Lan houses are not safe. There is drug A group of o m 194 (56 million) since 2005. dealing and people do whatever they feel like. teenagers in ru

• The number of people over 10 who There are no conversations. Users [of the Lan Brazil. o D Le

130 the state of the world’s girls 131 When there was a warning, it was about a their guardians’ knowledge, where they indicated that they were reprimanded rather question was posed to the group: “Would computer virus. interacted with men aged 20 and over, who than helped. This was equally applicable you post your photo and details about your in some cases were more than twice their across the focus groups. This is probably life at the bus station?” Most of the young Links between online and offline age. In contrast, the girls from the Santo because many parents know very little about people said they would not. This provides behaviour André private school live in a middle-class the online environments navigated by girls. some insight into how young people regard Although the girls themselves did not make neighbourhood, all have computers and cell Most girls said their mother, teacher or the online environment. They may forget the connection between online and offline phones at home and live in an environment friends advise them about online safety. that posting information online means that behaviour, the research found that the where “we look for work on the internet or it cannot be retrieved and that there is the realities and risks girls navigate online appear things to help us do our homework”. “My mother said do not give my real name.” potential of it reaching a billion people, a to be shaped by their offline environments. The researchers noticed a marked Girl, 13 few more than at the local bus stop where a For example, girls from the São Paulo favela difference between the private school and “My teacher said not to pass personal poster is likely to fade and fall away before live with high levels of violence and drug favela girls in their focus-group participation. things and do not click on viruses.” long. Some young people do not see the trafficking, and poor quality education. They The Santo André favela girls, for example, Girl, 12 online environment for what it is. However, dress more provocatively than their private had difficulty understanding the scope of the “My friends told me to be smart, for me to this reality became very poignant for the school counterparts, and appear to be more issues raised in discussions. Their answers be careful with the sites I visit.” girls in the focus groups who indicated that sexualised at an earlier age, perhaps because indicated that the internet is an instrument Girl, 12 young girls are posting or are having others of the limited childhood they experience. that enables them to express their libido by It appears that the greater the awareness post sexualised images of them online. This enables them to participate with older visiting sexually oriented sites and meeting and knowledge about ICT use, the greater Widespread, targeted education initiatives age groups, interpreted by our researchers with boys to boost their sense of value. the degree of security the girls feel online, that engage both girls and their families in as a rise in social status within their but only 21 per cent said they felt safe. the locations where the girls may access community. They appear to engage in risky Protecting girls online Fewer than half of the girls who responded their virtual world would be a positive first behaviour with little regard for immediate While they may not appreciate the breadth to the survey indicated that their parents step. Such learning opportunities could consequences. of the online environment, the girls in this knew what they accessed online. However, demystify some of the online world for A flavour of the context in which the São research appeared to have some awareness about a third of them looked to their parents parents, while providing key information Paulo favela girls live is captured by one of potential online dangers. At the same time when they encountered online dangers. Only for the girls, and open a welcoming channel girl who says that at school “some students they clearly express a desire for their parents about a third of the girls knew how to report of communication between girls and their end up carrying guns, using drugs, boozing to be more involved in monitoring their a danger or something that makes them feel parents that can be accessed without fear and smoking cigarettes in the restrooms”. behaviour, providing advice and helping them bad online. Despite a majority indicating of rebuke. Similarly, the adolescent girls from the Santo determine what is safe online and what is not. they have learned about online dangers (60 André favela had all been to the funk music Ironically, many of the girls who did go to a per cent), slightly fewer than half the girls 2 foster child protection links between club between midnight and 6am without parent when something bad happened online still say they would go to meet someone in offline and online environments in person that they had met online. communities Online in Surprisingly, even with significant legislative In both the favela and private school context, a Brazilian improvements to the ECA Statute of the there are opportunities to build stronger internet café. Child and Adolescent (Law 8.069/1990) child protection practices between offline and in particular Articles 240 and 241, which and online environments. For example, one expressly prohibit the production, sale or of the Lan houses in the São Paulo favela is distribution of child pornography or explicit run by a good owner who offers a safe place sex scenes involving children or adolescents in to the adolescents and affordable access. Brazil, no documentation, published material This is one of the few places where the and/or scientific documents appear to focus adolescents feel safe. Building on this type of on violence inflicted on adolescent girls Lan house, offline protective practices such through ICT usage. as education that encourages safe online use, codes of conduct for behaviour on- and off- Recommendations line, and enforcement of applicable rules and 1 Connect families and caring adults so laws on- and off-line can serve to improve they are a protective factor in the online the opportunities and possibilities of even lives of girls the most vulnerable adolescents. The Lan Adults are discovering that they are way house may be intended to offer digital access behind young people in the use of ICTs, and but in the end may offer a socio-educational young people are realising that the internet base in the community. Similarly, a home, is not as safe a place as they might have school or community centre in other contexts thought. In a 2009 training session that may provide the natural nexus for protecting AN

L CPP led with adults and young people, the children on- and off-line. P

132 the state of the world’s girls 133 3 harness the potential benefits of ICT in the Child’s Optional Protocol on the Sale support of adolescent girls of Children, Child Prostitution and Child The research suggests that girls’ current Pornography, and the Rio Pact. In addition, Unleashing girls’ potential online activity is devoted primarily to law at the state level exists in the State of socialising and entertainment. While these São Paulo to register users of Lan houses, Recommendations on activities can foster girls’ development, there and additional legislation is being considered appear to be numerous additional ways to block pornographic sites for users under adolescent girls and ICTs that girls might be supported in the online the age of 18 years. While these laws provide environment to specifically support their safe a framework, there is a need for clarity about navigation of the virtual world. These might their application and enforcement so that “I feel that it’s important for teens to technologies bring, we do need to find ways include: they address the lived realities of adolescent advocate for online safety because the to balance this new, open and less censored Working with girls to create platforms, or girls in Brazil. internet is an amazing thing! It is a useful space with some level of regulation. strategies within existing platforms, where There appears to be an urgent need to and fun tool, and more and more kids are Power relations in society determine the they can share positive or negative things build confidence and trust in authorities at using it all the time… By teaching teens and costs and benefits from new technologies, they encounter online or off (for example, the local level, in the communities where their parents about dangers online, and how and so ICT programmes and policies are not sharing an alias used by ‘perverts’ in girls live. The vast majority of focus group to deal with them, we can help teens to gender neutral. Policymakers need to ask chatrooms so other girls can avoid them, or participants did not readily see a role for enjoy the internet safely and responsibly.” themselves who benefits from ICTs; who sharing information about safely using Lan police in helping to keep them safe online. In is at risk from access or no access to ICTs; houses). fact, in one of the boys’ groups it was noted Ada, 14, US195 who is dictating how these technologies are Fostering an online platform where girls that police will sometimes plant drugs on the developed, and how they can be used to can share information with security officers boys, arrest them and demand money for “When people share data on Orkut, they serve or defeat the larger goals of equality, and the stakeholders from the Brazilian their release. can find out where you live, may smuggle justice and safety. guarantee of rights system that furthers girls’ you, kidnap you.” International and national laws and protection. 5 Undertake further research on girls Girl, 12, Brazil196 policies are trailing the rapid advancement Accessing online advice or therapy that and ICT in IT platforms. Existing conventions and may not otherwise be available to girls. This More research is needed that specifically The very nature of online culture makes it national legislation need to be stepped up concept is in its infancy in Brazil and such targets adolescent girls and ICTs in order hard to control, and in many ways we lose and more rigorously implemented. The pace therapy could also be an opportunity made to understand better the realities of a lot when we try to do so. But in order of development in the ICT sector is only available to adults. adolescent girls online. Such research to protect girls and young women and to going to accelerate. The remaining question Create ICT education opportunities for might consider how online social norms enhance the opportunities which modern is – will the world work together to ensure girls to navigate ICT safely taught by girls. impact her protection and development. For example: 4 engage systems at all levels to uphold, What might be the implication of a implement and enforce laws girl’s status in the virtual world where Local, state and national actors have a role to there is pressure to have a high number of play in ensuring the online environments and ‘friends’ on social networking sites such points of online access used by adolescent as Orkut? Does this place adolescent girls girls are regulated and safe. There are at greater risk by encouraging them to also several additional private and public accept communications and invitations from actors in Brazil who operate as part of the strangers? system that affects girls who need to work What degree of self-protection do girls together on prevention, protection and engage in as a matter of course? For prosecution efforts, including internet service example, some girls in the focus groups providers, owners of social networking appear to provide fake names and ages to sites, Lan houses and internet cafés, law protect themselves while exploring online enforcement, prosecutors, judges, the communications and relationships. guardianship councils and non-governmental How do adolescent girls develop healthy organisations. sexuality when what is cool is determined With amendments to Brazil’s Statute of by online sites located in an environment UK students the Child and Adolescent that criminalises dominated by sexually explicit videos using possession of images of child abuse, Brazil and pictures? For example, a focus group computers has a strong, national legal framework to respondent mentioned that when going to a for a school protect children online. This is supported soap opera site, pornography sites pop up. linking by the UN Convention on the Rights of Where do they find healthy role models? an project. Pl

134 the state of the world’s girls 135 that the violence and commercial and own terms, and in ways that promote their DIGIGIRLZ: “I THOUGHT YOU HAD • Governments must regulate the sexual exploitation that girls are subject to overall development and build their future TO BE A GEEK TO WORK HERE” collection of personal information of in everyday life, is not simply translated and possibilities. Microsoft’s DigiGirlz programmes all children under 13 years of age on exacerbated by the power and reach of the The call to action in this section draws on give high-school girls in the US the commercial websites. Furthermore, online world? the primary and secondary research carried out opportunity to learn about careers in for youth over the age of 13, disclosed A balance must be struck between a for this report, and includes the experiences technology, connect with Microsoft information may only be used in relation child’s right to privacy, and their right to and opinions of adolescent girls. They are also employees, and participate in hands-on to the web content and only with the protection as set out in the Convention on based on the good practice which already computer and technology workshops. explicit consent of the teen user. Websites the Rights of the Child, especially Article exists, examples of which are highlighted both Its DigiGirlz High Tech Camps work must ensure their consent forms are 13197, Article 16198 and Article 17199. The here and earlier in this chapter. to dispel stereotypes of the high-tech youth-friendly and presented in simple, 2008 Strasbourg resolution on children’s industry. During the camp, the girls clear language.203 online safety called on all states to: Call to action listen to executive speakers, participate “Support the development of education- in technology tours and demonstrations, • Governments need to set up mechanisms based approaches… to ensure children and Increase girls’ access and control over network, and learn with hands-on to ensure that girls’ needs and rights young people around the world have access IT hardware experience in workshops. One of the girls are represented in government agencies to a safe online environment respectful of • Governments, the business sector and who attended the camps said: tasked with developing and implementing their privacy.” civil society should work together to “I am now much, much more interested ICT programmes and policies. More must be done to increase access invest in infrastructure. This should in technology-related careers. They are so and availability of technology throughout not be limited to hardware, but must much fun.” • Governments, donors and civil society developing regions. As mentioned earlier include large-scale investments in speed “I thought you had to be a geek to work organisations need to make sure that in this chapter, ICTs can leapfrog the broadband communication networks. here, but this camp changed my mind,” girls’ needs and rights are represented in development of emerging economies and Ensure computer centres are available in commented another.201 monitoring and reporting mechanisms for support developing countries to achieve the schools and ICT ‘nuts and bolts’ education ICT programmes and policies.204 Millennium Development Goals. Investing is mainstreamed into national curricula so Invest in maths, science and in ICT infrastructure is critical: “In the 21st girls will be able to access and use new vocational education Redesign online content and language century, affordable, ubiquitous broadband technologies. • Governments and international donors • Reclaim the word ‘GIRL’ from search networks will be as critical to social and • Donors and civil society need to conduct need to increase girls’ access to quality engines. Challenge internet service economic prosperity as networks such as better research to identify and document primary and secondary education providers to find ways to ensure that transport, water and power,” says ITU the differing needs and uses of ICT users, through financial or technical assistance, typing in the word ‘girl’ does not inevitably Secretary-General Hamadoun I. Touré.200 according to both their gender and their scholarships, quotas and other incentives lead to page upon page of pornographic We call on duty bearers at all levels to age, to ensure adolescent girl users are – in particular, science and mathematics and violent material. invest in creating the infrastructure needed ‘visible’ to policymakers. and vocational training. Girls must be • Lack of language skills places an additional to ensure girls and boys, in developing and •IT companies should invest in increasing equipped with the necessary skills to burden on girls’ ability to access the emerging economies as well as in richer girls’ access to technologies through prepare them for a full range of roles in internet and mobile phone programmes. IT ones, have access to ICTs and are given the community communication centres and information technology as users, creators, companies and internet service providers opportunity to use these technologies to the adoption of low-cost open-source programmers, designers, and managers should do more to break down language their, and their countries’, advantage. technologies that encourage knowledge- – and not just call-centre operators or barriers to information through the We call on duty bearers at all levels sharing and skills-building at the local level. administrators.202 development and roll-out of multilingual including governments, the business sector •IT companies need to go beyond just tools and databases, interfaces for non- and civil society to work together to do ‘listening to girls’ to proactively enabling Increase governance, accountability Latin alphabets and improved automatic more to protect girls online and to ensure girls to be involved in developing new and online protection translation software. that girls have the capacity and knowledge initiatives for future ICT planning and • Multilateral and donor agencies need • Governments and Civil Society to protect themselves and each other. policies. Consultative ‘girl only’ panels to allocate resources and establish Organisations should develop content While girls themselves may sometimes should be created and consultations should benchmark criteria for incorporating which is both locally relevant and conform to internalised traditional gender be held regularly to ensure girls are having gender dimensions into new or existing IT challenges social stereotypes. Priority roles, it is important for them to develop their say and influencing technological programmes. needs to be given to content that is their own knowledge and perspectives in developments. developed by girls and which helps them order for them to be genuinely present in •IT companies need to involve girls fully • Governments must regulate the support their needs, aspirations and well- these spaces. Girls may recognise the risks in the designing and monitoring of new commercial use of children’s online being, such as the US-based Girl Scouts of their online presence but they often lack technological applications with a view to play spaces. Thus governments would ‘Let Me Know’.205 the experience, knowledge and tools to the emerging risks they present, especially effectively stop children-orientated • Governments and industry regulators mitigate those risks. Adolescent girls must in mobile ‘smart’ phones which are readily websites from selling ad-space to must hold Internet Service Providers be empowered to use the internet and other available to adolescent girls in developed advertisements targeting children. accountable for defamatory and illegal communications technologies safely, on their regions. content. This includes social media sites,

136 the state of the world’s girls 137 and user-created content which is posted It is important that the content of any • Policymakers must ensure that PLAN’S CHILD PROTECTION ONLINE on a public profile. online education programme is accurate adolescent girls are empowered to use SAFETY RULES • Increase democratisation of information. and includes advice on reporting crimes the internet and other communications 1 No personal details Civil society organisations, UN agencies to law enforcement. technologies safely, on their own terms, 2 Don’t send pictures and gender activists should include and in ways that promote their own 3 Don’t hand out your password girls in formulating IT content in order to Stop violence against girls and overall development and build their future 4 Never arrange to meet anyone in make this information truly relevant and women online possibilities.213 person accessible. • IT companies, in collaboration with • Legal instruments need to be enacted, 5 Never hang around in a chat room if • Industry regulators must hold social governments, should conduct more research strengthened and implemented to someone says or writes something media website owners accountable for on how perpetrators use technologies protect adolescent girls from online that makes you uncomfortable or monitoring user-generated information against girls in order to introduce effective abuse. Governments should sign up to worried and content. Platforms which allow measures against them.207 the Council of Europe Convention, which 6 Never respond to nasty, suggestive or children and youth to contribute content • Governments should pass laws requiring is the first international treaty explicitly rude emails and interact through the website must be Internet Service Providers to report the calling for approximation of legislation, 7 Never believe junk or spam email required to enable full external moderation discovery of child sexual abuse images. cooperation between states and the 8 Don’t open files from people you of content. Such legislation has successfully been criminalisation of images of child abuse. don’t know enacted in both the United States and It also sets a common criminal policy for 9 Always report when you see bad SUPPORTING GIRLS: SUGGESTIONS Australia.208 images of child abuse. language or distasteful pictures FROM RESEARCH IN BRAZIL • Government agencies should establish • Increase collaboration between different 10 Always be yourself The Brazil research for this report206 national tip-line websites for reporting actors. Government, business and civil 11 What is posted online becomes public suggests numerous additional ways that the online sexual exploitation of children society sectors need to work together to and cannot always be removed. So, girls might be supported to navigate and ensure appropriate follow up. These tackle online protection effectively. This no post about friends, family and the virtual world safely. These might should be part of every country’s arsenal of includes sex- and age-specific training for teachers. include: child protection tools and could align to the girls on how to protect their privacy and • Working with girls to create format of the Child Help Line that places a keep safe when online, as well as how to The digital revolution is here to stay. The platforms, or strategies within duty on all adults to report suspicions that a report abuse; and building trust between big question is: how do we find the balance existing platforms, where girls can child is in need of protection. adolescent girls and authorities such as the between protection and participation share relevant information. For • Social media websites should all include a police and judiciary through joint activities and empower girls to navigate these example, sharing an alias used by ‘panic button’ option209 for children and and gender-awareness training. new technological frontiers? This will be paedophiles in chat rooms so other youth to report other users who make • Establish national and independent a continuing challenge as we consider girls can avoid them, or sharing them feel unsafe, or to report an abuse in watchdogs and strengthen mechanisms adolescent girls on the cutting edge of information about safely using progress. for consumer protection in the ICT change in the 21st century. internet cafés. Because they can be • Municipalities and local/community industry to monitor the portrayal of easily changed by offenders, these police should ensure girls can safely use stereotypical and/or negative images of ‘aliases’ should be shared between internet cafés such as the Philippine make- girls and women. girls and reported to law enforcers. IT-safe campaign.210 • The use of old laws and policies to enforce • Fostering an online platform where girls • Internet service providers (ISPs) should actions against defamation, malicious can share information with security develop effective codes of conduct speech, etc need to be widened to take officers. including the reporting and removal of account of virtually limitless and cross In an online survey, the girls themselves abusive websites by ISPs in conjunction border harm done to girls whose images suggested several ways that they with law enforcement agencies.211 For are appropriated for improper use on the themselves or others can help them to be example, the UK Code of Conduct for internet. safe online. These included: mobile phones, facilitated by the GSMA • The veil of anonymity on the internet “Do not give information about yourself in Europe, whereby child safety filters are needs to be pierced and governments must to people you do not know.” enabled by default. This can be applied in tighten privacy legislation aimed at the Girl, 13, Santo Andre other regions too.212 obligations of internet service providers. “My friend who I trust gives me guidance • Laws need to be designed and enforced and I give advice to her.” Implement international legislation that encompass a total prohibition on the Girl, 13, São Paulo and increase collaboration collection, use or disclosure of personal “Have a help bar.” • Legislation must address the fact that information of anyone under the age of Girl, 15, Espirito Santo do Pinhal girls are more exposed to the risk of 13, with or without any alleged consent. “A message highlighted in red when there sexual exploitation, violence and abuse Consent to the use of personal information is a risk of danger.” through the channels of new technology on the internet must be free and informed Girl, 17, Espirito Santo do Pinhal than boys. and therefore child and parent appropriate.

138 the state of the world’s girls 139 Conclusion

In this report we have heard the voices of truly remarkable. We need to celebrate adolescent girls from all over the world, these achievements and ensure that all living in many different circumstances and girls, wherever they live in the world, have facing many different challenges. No two the same chances in life as their brothers. girls will be the same, but, wherever they are and however they live, they have the Silent No More: same rights and the same call on all of us Child Rights in Egypt to make these rights a reality. “My mother used to listen to my brothers This is the fourth report in the and not to me. I used to be afraid and ‘Because I am a Girl’ series. In all of them never imagined I could do what I can do we have come across discrimination now. Now they listen to me as well and and neglect as well as resilience and treat me the same as my brothers. I am determination. Whether we look at girls the secretary of the school parliament. in war zones, girls in the global economy I want to be a child doctor. I want or girls in cities and in technology, we to distribute all the experience and find the same combination of girls getting knowledge I have to other girls around a raw deal and girls coping with all that the world.” life can throw at them. There are some Asalaa, 12, Alexandria who are overcome by the hardships they endure, who do not survive or thrive; but “To be honest, before I joined these many succeed against the odds. In this meetings I thought girls were useless and report there is Precious from South Africa, couldn’t do anything. Now I realise this is who survived the streets to become a not true and they can do as much as boys. mentor for other street girls; in the 2009 In fact, I went and talked to my parents report, we featured Geeta from Nepal about this. At first they were surprised who started her own business; and in but then they agreed with me.” 2008 we showed how Princess from Farouq, boy aged 12, El Marg Liberia was forced to fight in the war but is now working as a carpenter. We can “Nobody can take my rights from learn from their experiences, from the me now. These programmes are also stories they have told us and the common changing the behaviour of the families threads that run through girls’ lives and – they have stereotypes that a girl must through the report series. We have made stay at home with her husband, and at specific recommendations to improve the the beginning there was much resistance opportunities of girls in the two arenas to girls joining the programme. This is that this report has focused on, but now going away because parents are more generally we can all contribute. We seeing the difference in their daughters. need to listen to adolescent girls’ views We used to be silent at home and not say and ensure that their voices are heard what we thought. We will not be silent by decision-makers. We need to learn any more.” from what they have to say. We need to Manal, 15, El Marg, Cairo include them in research, in planning and in policies. We need to invest in girls’ skills and ensure that they have access to it

information, the skills to use it and the k power to protect themselves. And finally, k path

we have shown that what many of them a have achieved in the face of adversity is ur an

140 the state of the world’s girls 141 Section 2 Because We are Girls ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ cohort study update PLAN

142 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 2 143 Millennium Empowered and Lifted Out of Development Goals Poverty? ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ and the Millennium Development Goals Goal 1: Goal 5: Eradicate extreme Improve maternal poverty and hunger health “I want her to be a good person and I want failure of governments to invest in targeted her mother and her to prepare and have programmes that address the challenges a career. It is the only way to overcome faced by the world’s poorest girls is having poverty in an honest way.” a real and detrimental impact on the lives of grandmother of Saidy, this small group of girls from nine countries dominican republic around the world. this year’s research shows that many of The ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ study was the families taking part in the cohort study Goal 6: set up in 2007 to follow 142 girls from birth still face a daily struggle to ensure their Goal 2: Combat HIV/AIDS, until their 9th birthday in 2015 – the target daughters’ very survival. over the four years Achieve universal malaria and other year set by world leaders for achieving the of the study, five of the little girls have died. primary education diseases Millennium Development Goals. The study in togo this year, Izegbe sadly died before is now in its 4th year and continues to she could get to a healthcare centre, while follow 130 girls in nine different countries Essohana's life was only saved because she across the world – Brazil, El Salvador, had speedy and free access to a local health Dominican Republic, Benin, Togo, Uganda, worker. as we will see in the case of girls Cambodia, Philippines and Vietnam. from the cohorts in Benin, togo and Uganda what do the lives of the girls in the ‘real in particular, the lack of adequate Choices, real lives’ study tell us? are they Goal 3: being equipped to overcome poverty, to have Promote gender Goal 7: the career which Saidy's grandmother, quoted Girl with her equality and Ensure environmental above, says is the only way forward? in mother, Togo empower women sustainability september 2010, the world’s leaders, politicians and decision-makers will be meeting at the United Nations to discuss progress towards meeting the Millennium development goals (Mdgs): global poverty targets which should be achieved by 2015. the decisions they make will directly affect the lives of the 130 girls whose families have, Goal 8: for the last four years, given us detailed Develop a Global information about their daughters’ lives, and Goal 4: Partnership for their hopes and fears for them. the reality Reduce child mortality Development revealed is that girls do not have the assets they need – the health, education, or skills – to thrive, and the effect of this failure will be felt by their children and their children’s children. evidence from the ‘real Choices,

real lives’ study shows how a consistent lan P

144 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 2 145 healthcare and nutrition is already making its in-depth interviews across three generations families have already mentioned cost as mark. The effects of poverty on under-five revealed largely positive and progressive a factor in their decision not to send their year olds are often irreversible. views on girls’ education. These positive daughters to pre-school. the poorer the Researchers working with our cohort attitudes should help deliver the Millennium family, the larger the proportion of their study in El Salvador have expressed Development Goals, but they break down income that is spent on food – more than concerns that girls have no access to a in the face of poverty – families will still 90 per cent is spent by the families in pre-school programme and are not being choose to invest in a son’s schooling ahead Benin and togo. we also asked families to adequately nourished or stimulated at of a daughter’s. The lack of investment explain what they would do if there was an home. With only five years remaining in girls by their families, but crucially also Key targets: Reduce by half the number of unexpected expenditure, such as a family before the MDGs should be met, the reality by governments in key areas such as girls’ people living on less than a dollar a day by member requiring medical treatment. for the girls taking part in our study – who education and healthcare provision, has 2015; and reduce by half the proportion of More than 50 per cent of families in will be between 9 and 10 years old in 2015 ultimately meant that progress towards people who suffer from hunger by 2015 the seven countries where this data was – is that time is running out. meeting the goals is off-track. gathered said they would have to borrow This year, we examined the choices Indeed, one of the crucial targets affecting Globally, the majority of people living on the money, either from a relative, a money families are making. How do they feed and girls – to reach gender parity in primary less than $1 a day are female. The reality lender or a credit union, indicating that educate their families, what are the pressures school enrolment – should have been met of the female face of poverty has not their incomes are not sufficient for families around migration and family members by 2005. Several of the MDGs are directly been fully factored into the indicators and to have savings. working away from home? How do they at threat through lack of investment in girls, targets of the MDGs. Progress towards several families taking part in the make money, and what do they spend it starting with MDG 1. Crucial investments reducing income poverty is being measured, study in Cambodia, Philippines and on? We explored the attitudes of the girls’ are also needed in access to healthcare to but without a full analysis of the gender Brazil receive a small monthly grant from parents towards education, towards keeping stop more girls dying (MDG 4); to prevent component of poverty reduction. their governments to supplement their their girls safe, and we talked with them girls from missing out on school because of A closer look at how the families taking income, usually with the proviso that their about their hopes for the future. We also persistent illness (MDG 6); and to establish part in the ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ study children will be enrolled in school or will examined the views of the girls’ teenage pre-school education so that girls and their spend their meagre household incomes be vaccinated. this type of investment relatives and neighbours, and analysed families become more engaged in their shows the impact of poverty on long-term can make a big difference to the girls these interviews alongside the earlier education (MDG 2 and 3). The critical decisions they can make, and how these themselves, and can play a large part interviews with the girls’ grandparents. The moment for these girls is now. decisions affect their daughters. Several towards reducing the number of people suffering from hunger. the Brazilian Who is in the sample? Girl with her mother, Brazil government, for example, provides a The study is following a core group of 130 largely randomly selected girls from nine countries. From the package of social security allowances for original group of 142 families, eight have left the study due to migration and, sadly, five girls have died. low-income families. the foundation of Each country has a cohort of between 15 and 22 girls (see map page 156 for more details). The majority of this social security programme is called the girls live either in rural settings or on the outskirts of large towns. Many will not have easy access to Bolsa Familiar (family Package) – an a secondary school or to a major hospital. The majority are from farming families, and some supplement allowance of about $40 a month per child, their income by petty trading, particularly in El Salvador, Dominican Republic and Brazil. Others have granted on condition that parents send taken to seasonal migration for work, for example in Benin and Togo. their children to school and have them The ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ study is a relatively small sample study which allows Plan’s researchers vaccinated. the government also provides to examine, in detail, a range of issues affecting girls by using in-depth interviews, focus groups and a Bolsa de PETI (an ending child labour questionnaires. In the first two years of the study, baseline information was gathered through structured allowance) of $15 a month per child, to interviews. By year three, researchers began to explore the families’ lives further through semi-structured encourage children who are at risk of interviews with the girls’ parents, grandparents and other relatives. In year four, the researchers focused dropping out of school in order to work to on progress towards meeting the MDGs by examining how families generate an income and feed their remain in education. families, choices they make about migration and the reality of trying to ensure their daughters’ access to quality education. In addition to interviews with the older siblings, cousins and neighbours of the cohort Bianca, Brazil families, we also held a series of discussions with a wider group of teenage girls and boys in Brazil, El our researchers have met Bianca's mother, Salvador, Philippines, Togo and Uganda to understand their view of the changing world around them. silvana, and her four brothers several times There are some practical challenges to running this kind of study in a developing country. Individual now. they live in a rural area in the north family members or whole families may move to other regions, to larger towns or cities, providing little east of Brazil. Bianca's father works as a information about their whereabouts. In fact, eight of the girls are already reported as having moved poorly paid agricultural labourer. the family away. Where literacy rates are low, it can be challenging to communicate the value of the families’ qualifies for the Brazilian government’s Bolsa continued involvement in a study like this one. Families may choose not to continue to be interviewed familiar scheme, and receives a grant of $70 every year as a result – four families have chosen to leave the study so far and this year returns in two each month. although they grow vegetables countries, El Salvador and the Dominican Republic, were low. The intrusion into family life has also to be in their garden, almost 90 per cent of this carefully considered. family’s income is spent on food. CLAUDIA CANUTO

146 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 2 147 Coping with poverty – migration • To reduce family expenditure at home Girl with her family, Togo to cities • To raise money in order to build a house One response to poverty is for family in their village of origin members – or sometimes whole families • To pay school fees of their siblings – to migrate to the nearest town, city or • Ultimately to help other family even to a city in another country. Although members to get jobs in the city/town. the vast majority of the girls taking part in our cohort study and their families In the Philippines, teenagers we interviewed currently live in rural areas, the dramatic explained that the majority of those who changes described in this year’s ‘Because move away to work are mothers, and that I am a Girl’ report are certainly impacting they have observed that when mothers move on their families. Migration to cities is away, their daughters tend to marry soon impacting on the lives of the families in after graduating from secondary school. The Latin America (Brazil, Dominican Republic majority of the Brazilian teenagers felt that and El Salvador) and in West Africa (Benin migration to cities had a negative impact on and Togo) in particular. In Benin, for family members who remained. In El Salvador, example, a third of all the families taking two of the girls taking part in the study are part in the study are separated by seasonal being raised by their grandmothers, as their or long-term migration to nearby or capital parents have migrated to the United States cities. and to Italy. Others are being raised only l The views of the mothers of the girls by their mothers because their fathers have P an taking part in the cohort study in El migrated to cities abroad. “In my case, my REaL LIVES – MIGRaTION IN TOGO Togo. Abide left her family at the age 15 to Salvador capture this ambition for a better husband moved to the United States leaving Migration within Togo and to its earn money in Nigeria: economic life. Most of them would like to me alone with six small creatures [children],” neighbouring countries is widespread. “I come from a poor family and we had no migrate abroad to make a better life for one mother told us. More than 40 per cent of the Togolese money. I had nothing to do so I thought I themselves and their children. “The dream In Brazil, at least half of the parents population already lives in an urban area. may as well go to Nigeria. I went with my of everyone is to travel [migrate] to the interviewed were considering moving to a It is not uncommon for adolescent girls sister. I expected to find material things, United States.” At home in El Salvador, city, and 75 per cent of the girls indicated and boys to be sent to towns and cities to but when I arrived it was very different. work is seasonal and poorly paid. Those that their fathers had left home at various live with relatives and to work or to train I was working as a maid 18 hours a day who can secure a permanent job are paid times, seeking work opportunities. One girl as apprentices. Out of the 20 Togolese from 4am to 10pm for 5,000 cprs [$10] per slightly more – between $2.50 and $3.00 gave this account: families taking part in the cohort study, month. Now I am back home and have been per day. “My father left. He spent three years away at least 12 have reported that a close family training to be a seamstress for the past Research from across West Africa from home to work. The family was sad; member has moved in the past year. three years. The money is much better and confirms that the departure of girls and he didn’t even see my brother when he was Melyah's older siblings live in Gabon. it is safer. I know maids who were beaten by young women to cities can be perceived born, and when my brother died, my father Maninani’s mother works part of the their employers or who were not fed.” both as a ‘relief’ and as an extra source of couldn’t even come home to see him...” year in Lomé, the capital of Togo. One of Robeline and Joceline are both orphans, income for the family.1 And as one Brazilian Anti's older siblings lives in Ghana; a second now aged 18 and 20. Three years ago, they mother says: “When our daughters leave lives in Lomé. Nana-Adja has an older sister took the more traditional route of working home to move to cities, it is always for who lives in Nigeria. in the Togolese capital of Lomé. Robeline a better life… [they are] searching for Several of the families taking part in first worked as a maid.H er employer did not new work or study opportunities, which the cohort study mentioned that in order treat her well, making her work 18 hours a will provide them with a better, more for their daughters to pursue the kind of day with no holidays, and paying her $10 per comfortable life.” education they would like, they would have month. A neighbour helped Robeline find to move to Sekode, which has secondary a better-paid job at $15 per month with a FOR A BETTER LIFE and post-secondary education facilities. kindly employer. Soon after their father died, The teenagers we interviewed in Uganda Sekode is the nearest town for many of the their mother became ill. There was no money were motivated to move to cities and Key target: Ensure that all boys and girls families. It is on the main road running north for hospital bills so Joceline went to Lomé gave the following reasons: complete a full course of primary education to south through Togo – one of the major and became apprenticed to a hairdresser, • Lack of employment in their by 2015 child trafficking routes in West africa – an where she earned $25 per month. communities of origin added risk to counterbalance the educational All three girls were now happy to be • To send money back home and support Achieving MDG 2 is largely reliant on real advantages which the town has to offer. back home in a Plan-supported vocational their elderly parents progress being made on the MDG 3 target to In nearby Soutouboua we met with a training school for seamstresses. A trained • To live a more exciting life than they ensure gender parity in education enrolment. group of older girls – their stories illustrate seamstress can earn more than $1 per hour, have in the village This target should have been met by 2005. the pressures to migrate from this part of providing them with a much better future.

148 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 2 149 But of the 113 countries that failed to Girl with is three kilometres away. although Dembe's achieve gender parity in both primary and her mother, mother is not pleased with the performance secondary school enrolment by the target Uganda of this school, she said it was the only one date of 2005, only 18 are likely to achieve the family could afford. “i wanted so much the goal by 2015. Progress is slow and for Dembe to first join a nursery school, but increased investment in specific initiatives my husband couldn’t secure the money that encourage girls both to enrol and to needed. as a result, she will go straight to remain in school are crucial. these should primary school [when she is six].” include investing in pre-school facilities, as evidence from various studies shows that participation in quality early childhood care and development programmes, including pre-school, can have a positive effect on how girls and their families engage with Playing in the Philippines lan primary education and beyond.2 P our study shows that despite a major shift good to educate a girl because nowadays in attitudes towards the importance of girls’ women are taking up leadership positions in education in all of the countries taking part, politics.” she cites an example of the deputy parents still face immense economic difficulty speaker of the Ugandan parliament, rebecca Key target: Eliminate gender disparity in when it comes to providing for their families Kadaga. primary and secondary education, preferably and investing in their children’s education. by 2005, and at all levels by 2015 Combined with attitudes that determine Michelle, Philippines strict boundaries around gender roles and Michelle attends the local day care centre from Despite significant progress worldwide in responsibilities in the home, it is as yet unclear 7am to 9am. the centre is in the village, a 10- enrolling increasing numbers of girls into how much progress the girls taking part minute walk from Michelle's home. all of primary schools, secondary education

in the study will actually make. the study lan Michelle's siblings, except for her younger remains an unattainable goal for millions shows that girls are expected to combine a P sister, are in school. her mother explains: “it of adolescent girls. Targeted government heavy domestic workload together with their school: “education enables her to know the is important for all of them to finish their action is needed, particularly for girls from schoolwork, whereas boys have more time to right things… she has to be educated to be studies. girls need to be educated because the poor and marginalised families living in rural study and to socialise. able to work, not like us farmers.” time will come when they will have their own areas. Although the girls taking part in our almost half of the girls – 46 per cent families and they need to get a good job.” study are not yet in primary school, many of across the seven countries where this has Sokanha, Cambodia however, parents cite the various their parents are already expressing concerns been reported – have already started to Sokanha has been enrolled in the community difficulties they already face in securing about whether their daughters will access attend pre-school. Rubylyn's mother from pre-school in her village, as part of an early a place for their daughters in a local quality secondary education, as they live in the Philippines explains: “My eldest is now in childhood care and development programme pre-school. Many families simply do not have largely rural communities without facilities. grade 3, and my second is in grade 1, while supported by Plan. sessions run from 7am to a pre-school facility nearby – this is Attitudes to educating girls are positive across Rubylyn is enrolled in the day care centre. 10am and include a cooked breakfast. her particularly so for the families living in the the countries taking part in the study, with education of my children is very important so mother explained the immediate benefits for most rural areas in the poorest countries. parents and carers expressing confidence that they will have a bright future ahead…” Sokanha: “she is braver than before. she Most of the families taking part in the study in girls’ abilities as well as affirming the Mai's mother in Vietnam explains her knows how to respect people, especially in togo cited distance from the nearest pre- importance of investing in both girls and boys. motivation for enrolling her daughter in older people. she knows many friends. she school as the reason for not enrolling their Nicole's mother in the Philippines can sing songs and she likes singing and daughters. here, only 10 per cent of the dancing very much.” study’s girls are enrolled in a pre-school. in the case of four year-old Mangazia, the Sylvia, Uganda nearest pre-school facility is five kilometres Sylvia is attending a nursery school. she also away from her home, which is too great meets regularly with her local play group. in a distance to travel every day. the most the group, Sylvia likes singing songs. all of disadvantaged children, who would benefit her older siblings are in school. Sylvia's most from a pre-school facility, often have mother explains: “girls are good at bringing the least access. about change in society and, if educated, they can transform their family as well Dembe, Uganda as their community.” she goes on: “it’s there is no pre-school in Dembe's At home in Cambodia Girl with her family, the Philippines l lan community, and the nearest primary school P an P

150 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 2 151 explained that for her, “education is educational opportunities should be another of the teenagers, 17 year-old important because it is the only gift that i equal. “The boys leave school earlier Jaciara, agrees with Lydia: can give to my child. i have no wealth she because they want to travel. The girls “at home, my sister and I are responsible can inherit other than education. although have more opportunities to study because for washing the dishes, cleaning up i have only one child, i still believe that girls they want to have a good job in the the house, and preparing the food. Our and boys deserve an equal opportunity for future, and are more dominated by their brothers work and sometimes they wash education. it is their right to be educated.” parents.” their clothes. Boys have more freedom to Kyla's mother, also from the Philippines, The women admit that they “treat the hang out with their friends and have fun; we can see that by our brothers.” stated: “whether girl or boy, education is children differently, without meaning to”. Teenage girl important. especially nowadays, it will be But they said that this is due mainly to according to the women, men in their at home in very difficult for someone who has not the fact that girls are more vulnerable and communities largely believe that girls Brazil completed school. they are left behind and need greater protection. They felt that the “have to learn only enough to sign her lan victimised.” difference in treatment given by fathers to name and go to the supermarket”. P Bianca's mother disagrees: “The Mahalia's mother’s beliefs are firm: “of girls and boys is due mainly to sexism. girls from 10 to 14 is 18.4 per cent higher opportunities for education have to be the course it is important for girls to be able to The majority of the girls said that they in urban than in rural areas, and 37.5 per same for everyone, because the world is study and complete school. that’s to help her felt that they should be treated differently cent higher for young women between 15 offering equality of opportunities for both family later.” she explains why: “i cannot from boys and that girls need additional and 19.3 there are many reasons for this – genders. The person just needs to be help my husband because i wasn’t able to protection. They also acknowledged the schools may be more plentiful and closer qualified.” finish anything. education is important for influence of their upbringing on their to home in urban areas. as is the case of The mother of Juliana – another of the both girls and boys. that’s for their future.” attitudes. “Girls are more fragile, and this families taking part in the cohort study, four year olds in the study – added that in a departure from prevailing attitudes kind of upbringing has been passed from many girls and young women move to cities education starts in the home and that, “by towards investing in girls, several families parents to children.” specifically to improve their chances of studying they will learn more and have interviewed in Vietnam said that the fact that all of them acknowledged that girls and continuing with their education. there may further knowledge. Studying today means young women marry and move away from boys are treated differently and felt that also be less household work to do in the city a better future.” She went on: “Being the family home gives their parents more boys benefit more from this, particularly – there is probably no land to work on – and educated is the best thing in the world.” of an incentive to invest in them. a mother in in relation to the amount of time boys education may be seen as more of a norm Nonetheless, here is clear evidence that Vietnam stated, “[Both] our daughter and have to socialise. “at home, the girls have for girls and worth investing in. parents are making discriminatory choices our son are our offering. Besides, our to sweep the floor and do the washing Critics of the Mdg framework have in how they actually invest in their daughter will get married and will not live while the boys watch television. Boys outlined how a series of measurable targets children. “If the money isn’t enough for with us after that; therefore, we have to care don’t help with the chores at home, and such as the Mdgs can do little to track both [children], then the boys end up for her more.” go out to play football.” Such attitudes changing attitudes within families about taking the course,” remarked one Yet, despite positive affirmations of are encouraged by the adults around gender issues, and that understanding the Brazilian girl we interviewed. the importance of realising girls’ rights to them.“My brother doesn’t want to help way attitudes change is vital for achieving education and investing in them, the study is with anything in the house and my father More than half of the families taking part in gender equality.4 what is clear from our unearthing that these girls are growing up protects him,” said one girl. the ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ cohort study study is that attitudes to gender roles surrounded by a series of other attitudes This year we met Lydia, the older cousin would like to see their daughters pursue and responsibilities can change over time. that will do little to encourage them as they of Bianca, one of the four year olds in the careers that involve further education when we interviewed grandparents last reach adulthood. study. She spoke at length with and training to become midwives, nurses year, we discovered that there had been researchers about how the predominant and teachers. However, post-secondary a large generational shift in their attitude, Discussing gender roles ‘macho’ culture gives boys more free time education is not widely available in the particularly in relation to participation of with Brazilian mothers and than girls, as well as more time to focus rural villages in which most of the families girls and women in public spaces, and as daughters on their studies. live. Therefore parents’ aspirations for their a result, in relation to girls’ education. the As part of the study this year, 24 mothers daughters will inform the decisions they grandmother of Saidy from the dominican and 20 teenage girls, neighbours and At home in Brazil make about moving to cities. In Brazil, at republic speaks for many: “i want Saidy to relatives of the cohort group, took part in least half of the families interviewed already study and do what she likes. i want her to several group discussions held in north- have older daughters who have left home, have a future and be who i couldn’t be.” east Brazil. the vast majority either to improve their the vast majority of parents and Only 20 per cent of the parents educational prospects or to work. The sister grandparents have positive attitudes regarding interviewed confirmed that they aim of one of the girls taking part in the study their daughters’ and granddaughters’ futures, to bring up their sons and daughters explains: “I want to finish high school to with high ambitions for their careers, and equally. The women who took part in work, and maybe go to the university, and ambitions for their social mobility. it will, our discussion in Brazil believe that boys here in Codo there isn’t one…” however, take a great deal of investment from and girls themselves view education Girls are much more likely to go to school both inside and outside the families for these differently, despite recognising that claudia canuto if they live in a city – school attendance for high hopes to be realised.

152 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 2 153 Amelia, Uganda in the last year, Amelia fell sick with malaria and was taken to Kamuli government hospital for treatment. the hospital is four kilometres away from Amelia's home – her mother carried her there on her back. Amelia has made a full recovery. Justine, Uganda Key target: Reduce under-five mortality by Key target: Halt and begin to reverse the Justine was also treated at Kamuli government two-thirds by 2015 incidence of malaria and other major diseases hospital, where she was put on a drip after being diagnosed with in many parts of the world more girls than it is widely acknowledged that children malaria. the family took her to hospital on a boys die before the age of five. an important who face nutritional deficiencies in early motorbike, a three-kilometre journey. Justine factor here is that the birth preference for childhood also face learning difficulties, has also made a full recovery. boys is a major concern in the two most leading to lower educational attainment.5 we Nimisha, Uganda populous countries on earth, China and india. can already see from our questionnaires that Nimisha sometimes suffers from convulsive as our study shows, despite their Girl with her family, Uganda illness has kept Ayomide and Ala-Woni in malaria. her parents took her to the nearest lan families’ best attempts, girls in the world’s P togo from what would have been their first hospital, where they made a note of the drugs poorest countries are continuing to die Essohana too suffered from malaria but her year in school, and caused Nakry in she was prescribed. whenever she shows the from preventable diseases. five girls, from life was saved because her mother was able Cambodia to miss the formal school same symptoms, they purchase the drugs togo, Benin and Uganda, have died since to take her to a trained healthcare worker, enrolment date, and therefore an entire locally as the nearest health centre does not the study began four years ago. despite a who was both local and free. school year. as the study progresses we will always have supplies. natural biological advantage that sees more our study is showing that the ongoing be looking more closely at the impact of girls than boys born, survival rates to age challenge for the poorest families is how persistent illness and poor nutrition on the Towards 2015 five are higher for boys. Unless urgent action to secure the health and basic survival of girls taking part in the study. Izegbe and Essohana's story of death and is taken to address the reasons why more their daughters. families across the study in the countries with the lowest health survival sheds light on the immediate girls are dying, the target to reduce child have reported a range of health concerns, indicators taking part in our study – togo, investments required to make a difference in mortality will not be met. Izegbe, from togo, from serious illnesses like malaria, dysentery Benin and Uganda – the girls are not only the lives, not only of the girls taking part in a country with one of the highest child and dengue fever, to persistent respiratory the study, but of the millions of girls facing mortality rates in the world, died earlier this illnesses and observed malnutrition. these At home in 21st century challenges. the experiences of year. her family reported that she had lost are all preventable diseases, and are largely Uganda these two four year olds illustrate the sheer consciousness after a brief, undiagnosed caused by the lack of basic infrastructure, urgency of the need to increase investments illness. it is probable that she died from such as clean water and sanitation facilities. in basic services, and girls’ access to these malaria, but the family was unable to tell us girls will continue to die when, like Izegbe, services. more about the cause of her tragic death. they have no access to a health centre or as we have seen, migration to a city may the story of Essohana, also from togo, hospital nearby. provide a window to a new life for a girl as she lan illustrates how investment in healthcare can P approaches her teens. it may help her to make all the difference. Nakry, Cambodia facing a daily challenge of poor nutrition, but provide additional income for her family or Nakry's mother told researchers that they are also battling a constant onslaught of afford her the opportunity to go to secondary her four year-old daughter’s health illness and disease. Despite a high proportion school. But this new opportunity carries risks At home in Cambodia has been poor over the past year – she of the girls receiving both first and second too. in the next five years there is a lot to do if would sometimes have convulsions at the round basic immunisations – across six the girls in our survey and their families are to community pre-school she attended. Nakry countries where it was reported, all of the make real progress and achieve the goals that was taken to siem reap Children hospital, girls were immunised as babies and 94 per they have talked to us about. the current rate 50 kilometres from her home, where she was cent have received their second round of of progress towards meeting the Mdgs is diagnosed with multiple infections immunisations – many still face persistent simply too slow for a four year old in 2010. – meningitis, dengue fever, and acute illness. Malaria, for example, continues to be respiratory infection. although she is now a problem for the cohort in Uganda, Togo “We don’t know yet what she wants when better, Nakry is still being treated at the and Benin, with the majority of the girls being she grows up. Of course as a mother we will hospital. her mother needs to hire a motor treated at various times over the year either at support whatever she wants and, taxi at a cost of $5 per trip, and she now the local health centre or the nearest hospital. hopefully, we will have a better income owes her boss $50 as she requested a salary The call for governments to increase their when she grows up so that we can support advance during Nakry's illness; this salary investment in preventing and treating diseases her and all our children.”

l advance probably saved Nakry's life. like malaria cannot be louder. Mother of Jasmine, Philippines P an

154 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 2 155 Because We are Girls ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ Cohort Study Update Benin Alice Vietnam Annabelle Chau Hang Barbara Hoa Catherine Huong Eleanor Kieu Dominican Elizabeth Kim Republic Isabelle Ly Cara Jacqueline Mai Chantal Layla Nguyet Dariana Margaret Nhi Griselda Thea Oanh Katerin Ianna (m) Quynh Leyla Omalara (d) Sen Madelin Lillian (d) Tan Nicol Thi Raisa Tien Rebeca Trinh Saidy Thom Sharina Uyen Valerie Yen Ana (l) Oria (m)

El Salvador Andrea Bessy Doris Cambodia Bopha Gladys Togo Davy Hillary Adjoa Kannitha Raquel Ala-Woni Valeria Anti Leakhena Susana Anti-Yara Lina Philippines Karen Ayomide Mealea Gabriela Azia Mony Chesa Mariel Djoumai Nakry Christine Rebecca P Brazil Puthea Darna Essohana Uganda Stephany Amanda Fezire Reaksmey Dolores Amelia Bianca Folami Roumany Jasmine Catarina Iara Beti Sokanha Jocelyn Elena Isoka Dembe Sothany Kyla Feliciana Ladi Jane Thearika Mahalia Florencia Larba Joy Kanya (m) Maricel Juliana Lelem Justine Melanie Patrícia Mangazia Miremba Michelle Sancia Melyah Namazzi Nicole Sofia Nana-Adja Nimisha Reyna Nini-Rike Valentina Rebecca Rosamie Omorose Rubylyn Beatriz (l) Reine Sheila Luiza (l) Tene Shifa Angela (m) Margarida (m) Aisosa (d) Sylvia Pietra (m) Izegbe (d) Achen (m) (m) = migrated Nasiche (d) (d) = deceased (l) = left the study

156 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 2 157 Section 3

Because I am a Girl campaign...... 160 Introduction...... 161 Mapping the MDGs: MDG1 Proportion of girls under-5 years that are underweight...... 162 MDG2 Girls’ gross primary school graduation rate...... 164 MDG3 Proportion of girls aged 15-19 years married by age 15...... 166 Female transition from primary to secondary education...... 167 Estimated female earned income...... 168 MDG4 Infant mortality rates and Proportion of young women aged 20-24 years that have achieved at least secondary education...... 170 MDG6 Ratio of young women to young men living with HIV...... 172 References...... 174 Girls online...... 189 About Plan International...... 197 Plan Offices...... 198 ns orra a T n i D

158 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 159 Plan’s Because I am Introduction a Girl campaign

The Because I am a Girl campaign is Plan’s The Because I am a Girl campaign will be campaign to promote girls’ rights and lift geared towards equipping, enabling and millions of girls out of poverty. Across the engaging girls of all ages to acquire the world, girls face double discrimination due assets, skills and knowledge necessary to to their gender and age, leaving them at the succeed in life. bottom of the social ladder. For example, research has shown that girls are more likely For more information visit: to suffer from malnutrition; be forced into http://plan-international.org/what-you- an early marriage; be subject to violence or can-do/campaigns/because-i-am-a-girl- intimidation; be trafficked, sold or coerced campaign into the sex trade; or become infected with HIV. The ‘State of the World’s Girls’ annual reports provide and will provide year after Still in year tangible proof of the inequalities which secondary still exist between boys and girls and will school, support the campaign with specific girl- Moyamba, In this section we highlight indicators oriented data. Sierra Leone. that track the state of the world’s girls, and through tailor-made maps provide a N snapshot of the progress girls have made ck / IRI

since the last report. What progress are we la

making towards helping girls realise their eff B J rights, and what are the areas that require further investment? The Millennium Development Trying to This year we have also introduced an Goals and Girls ignore the analysis of the progress girls are making in The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) rubbish on a the context of the Millennium Development are eight goals set by the United Nations Cairo street. Goals. Ten years after the Millennium in an attempt to eradicate extreme poverty Declaration rallied governments to finally by 2015. The Goals were drawn from the end extreme poverty across the globe, we Millennium Declaration, which was adopted ask: what have these commitments meant by 189 nations at the United Nations for girls’ lives? Are they better off? And Millennium Summit in September 2000. where are the MDGs failing to reach the The eight goals are broken down into 21 most vulnerable – adolescent girls? The maps quantifiable targets and measured by 60 in this section correlate with the five MDGs indicators to monitor their progress. we focused on in Section 2 and provide a These maps prove that although global global backdrop to the lived experiences of investment in poverty reduction has our cohort girls. remained high, this is not being translated Our final resource section provides a into improvements in girls’ lives. More useful reference guide for information on needs to be done by donors, national organisations, campaigns, research and governments and civil society organisations databases which are focused on girls’ rights so girls don’t get left behind, uncounted and well-being. and unvalued. z arve P ia z Na

160 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 161 Proportion of girls under-5 years that are underweight

North Korea Nepal Afghanistan

Eritrea India LEGEND Niger Laos Bangladesh Proportion of girls Guatemala Yemen under-5 years that Ethiopia are underweight %

49.0

Timor Leste

1.0 Madagascar

Worst % Bangladesh 49 India 49 Timor Leste 45 Yemen 45 Niger 45 Afghanistan 40 Nepal 40 Eritrea 39 Ethiopia 38 Laos 30

162 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 163 Girls’ gross primary school graduation rate

Mongolia

LEGEND Algeria Girls’ gross primary school graduation rate Mauritania Djibouti Niger Pakistan Laos % Senegal 12.3

Burkina Faso 209.6 Benin DR Congo Burundi Malawi Mozambique Bolivia

Worst % Burundi 12.29 Niger 12.77 DR Congo 16.68 Burkina Faso 21.91 Djibouti 22.68 Malawi 23.40 Mauritania 24.10 Mozambique 27.30 Gross primary school graduation rate: the number of children graduating Benin 30.20 from primary school in any one year divided by the number of children Senegal 33.10 in the age group at which primary school completion should occur.

164 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 165 Proportion of girls aged 15-19 years Female transition from primary married by age 15 to secondary education

Ukraine Kazakhstan

Mauritania Mauritania Chad Chad Nicaragua Niger Senegal Niger Burma Guinea Bangladesh Suriname Ethiopia Mali Burkina Faso Uganda Mali Central African Indonesia LEGEND Brazil Republic LEGEND Burundi Tanzania Nigeria Cameroon Proportion of girls Female transition aged 15-19 years from primary to married by age 15 Mozambique secondary education % %

28.0 31.4

1.0 100.0

Highest % Worst % Niger 28 Burundi 31.39 Bangladesh 26.3 Cameroon 36.77 Mali 22.8 Niger 37.48 Chad 17.9 Chad 41.81 Central African Uganda 43.30 Republic 16.1 Burkina Faso 43.60 Nigeria 16.1 Tanzania 45.20 Mozambique 14 Mali 46.80 Mauritania 13.4 Mauritania 47.20 Ethiopia 12.7 Senegal 47.70 Guinea 12.2

166 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 167 Estimated female earned income (PPP*, US$)

Mongolia

Palestinian LEGEND Territories PPP, US$ Libya 191 Mexico India Niger Eritrea 31,663 Guayana Guinea-Bissau Sierra Leone

Liberia Togo DR Congo Burundi Timor Leste Angola Worst $ Best $ Bolivia DR Congo 191 Norway 31,663 Liberia 222 Hong Kong 31,232 Madagascar Burundi 291 Sweden 30,976 Guinea-Bissau 315 Denmark 29,796 Eritrea 349 Iceland 29,283 Sierra Leone 396 Australia 27,866 Timor Leste 428 Finland 27,667 Palestinian United Kingdom 26,863 Territories 432 Switzerland 26,278 Niger 437 Netherlands 26,207 Togo 478 Canada 26,055 Central African USA 25,613 Republic 517 France 24,529 Malawi 596 Ireland 23,295 Mozambique 663 Greece 21,181 Rwanda 696 Spain 20,174 Madagascar 723 *PPP is the cost of buying a similar basket of goods (such as Israel 19,653 Uganda 735 a Big Mac) in different countries, calculated in local currency Cote d’Ivoire 787 and expressed in US dollars using purchasing power parity.

168 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 169 Infant mortality rates / Proportion of young women aged 20-24 years that have achieved at least secondary education

Morocco

LEGEND Afghanistan

Infant Mortality rate Niger One per 1,000 Chad 165.0 Cambodia

Honduras Sierra Leone Philippines

1.0 Rwanda Somalia

Proportion of young Tanzania women aged 20-24 DR years that have Peru achieved at least Congo secondary education Paraguay

Mozambique 6.7 % 99.6

Infant mortality rates Proportion of young women aged 20-24 years that have achieved at least secondary education Worst Out of 1,000 births Worst % Afghanistan 165 Niger 6.7 Democratic Republic Chad 9.2 of Congo 126 Tanzania 10.4 Chad 124 Mozambique 10.6 Sierra Leone 123 Rwanda 10.7 Somalia 119 Burkina Faso 12.3 Guinea Bissau 117 Mali 12.8 Central African Republic 115 Senegal 14.8 Mali 103 Guinea 15.6 Liberia 100 Ethiopia 17.3

170 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 171 Ratio of young women to young men living with HIV

Ukraine

South Korea Prevalence of HIV among young women (15-24 years) 2007 Trinidad and Central Eritrea Tobago Arican More than 10% Republic Sudan High Guatemala Guyana Thailand Medium Low Liberia Cameroon

Burundi Malawi

Zambia Botswana

Namibia South Swaziland Africa

Ratio of young women to young men living with HIV Countries with the Ratio greatest imbalance Women Men Central African Republic 5 1 Swaziland 3.9 1 Cameroon 3.6 1 Malawi 3.5 1 Guyana 3.4 1 Sudan 3.3 1 Trinidad and Tobago 3.3 1 Burundi 3.3 1 Ghana 3.3 1 Liberia 3.3 1 Eritrea 3.3 1

172 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 173 References Introduction, Section 1: Chapter 1 Section 1: Chapter 2

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A Study of Childhoods, Migration and Adolescent UNICEF, 2004. 085 international Labour Organisation. Global Employment that Work to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, HIV & Sexually Aspirations Against a Backdrop of Exploitation and 065 interview with Marie Staunton, Director of Plan UK Trends Report 2009. Geneva, Switzerland: ILO, 2009. Transmitted Infections. Washington, D.C.: Advocates Trafficking in Burkina Faso.” Sweden: Nordic Africa 066 New Internationalist. “Street children, our lives our 086 UN-Habitat. The Challenge of Slum Global Report on for Youth, 2005. http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/ Institute, September 2007. words.” New Internationalist No. 377 (April 2005). Human Settlements 2003. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat, storage/advfy/documents/sciencesuccess_developing.pdf 050 Crivello, Gina. “Becoming Somebody: Youth Transitions http://www.newint.org/issue377/rukshana.htm. 2003. 107 Kumar, Maya, Kirsty McNay and Adriana Castaldo. Through Education and Migration – Evidence from Young 067 Plan International Egypt, CAP (El Marg) programme 087 UN-Habitat. “State of the World’s Cities 2008/2009 “Migration Affects The Health Of Mothers And Children Lives, Peru.” Young Lives Working Paper No. 43, February documents. – Harmonious Cities”. United Nations. http://www. In Rajasthan’s Slums.” Eldis. http://www.eldis.org/go/ 2009. 068 UNFPA. “Growing Up Urban, State of World Population unhabitat.org/content.asp?catid=7&cid=5964&subMen home&id=48196&type=Document (accessed June 15, 051 abt Enterprises LLC. “Rapid Situation Assessment of 2007: Youth Supplement.” UNFPA. http://www.unfpa. uId=0&typeid=46 (accessed June 15, 2010). 2010). Street Children in Cairo and Alexandria: Final Report”. org/swp/2007/youth/english/story/preface.html 088 Plan International and Justice for Girls, ‘Adolescent 108 UN-Habitat. The Challenge of Slum Global Report on Human Prepared for the U.N. Office for Drug Control and Crime (accessed June 9, 2010). girls’ experiences of detention and rehabilitation in the Settlements 2003. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat, 2003. Prevention, the World Food Program, and the U.N. 069 UNFPA. “Growing Up Urban, State of World Population Philippines’, 2010. 109 UN-Habitat. “State of the Urban Youth 2010/2011: International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF), March 2007: Youth Supplement.” UNFPA. http://www.unfpa. 089 Plan International. Interview conducted by Street Child Leveling the Playing Field.” United Nations, 2010. 29, 2001, pp17, 18. org/swp/2007/youth/english/story/preface.html Africa for the ‘Because I am a Girl’ report 2010. 110 interview with Nikki van der Gaag, for Plan International, 052 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). (accessed June 9, 2010). 090 New Internationalist. “Street children, our lives our ‘Because I am a Girl’ report 2010. Women, Slums and Urbanization: Examining the Causes 070 sabo, Donald, et al. The Women’s Sports Foundation words.” New Internationalist No. 377 (April 2005). 111 world Bank. Ready for Work? Increasing Economic and Consequences. Geneva: COHRE, May 2008. Report: Sport and Teen Pregnancy. New York: Women’s http://www.newint.org/issue377/rukshana.htm. Opportunity for Adolescent Girls and Young Women. 053 New Internationalist. “Street children.” New Sports Foundation, 1998. 091 UNFPA. “Growing Up Urban, State of World Population Washington D.C.: World Bank, 2008, p4.

176 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 177 Section 1: Chapter 2 Section 1: Chapter 2; Chapter 3

112 id 21 Health. “Reducing Maternal Mortality in Matlab, Communities for Women and Girls to Live a Life Free of 144 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). Communities for Women and Girls to Live a Life Free of Bangladesh.” www.id21.org/health/h8mec1g1.html Violence. Women in Cities International and Red Mujer y 145 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). Violence. Women in Cities International and Red Mujer y (accessed May 19, 2009). See also: Ellis, A., et al. Gender Habitat de America Latina, November 2009, p11. Women, Slums and Urbanization: Examining the Causes Habitat de America Latina, November 2009, p3. and Economic Growth in Uganda: Unleashing the Power 128 world Health Organization. World Report on Violence and Consequences. Geneva: COHRE, May 2008. 162 Plan Netherlands, ‘Safety in Cities: an online survey”, of Women. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2006. See and Health. Geneva: WHO, 2002. 146 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). conducted for Plan International ‘Because I am a Girl’ also: DFID. “DFID ’s Gender Equality Action Plan (GEA 129 New Internationalist. “Street children, our lives our Women, Slums and Urbanization: Examining the Causes Report 2010. P): First Progress Report 2007/2008.” http://www. words.” New Internationalist No. 377 (April 2005). and Consequences. Geneva: COHRE, May 2008. 163 Plan Sudan, Don McPhee, Country Director in dfid.gov.uk (accessed June 14, 2010). See also: Plan 130 we will be using the following definition of violence: Use 147 stanford, Peter. “‘They Like Us Naïve’: How Teenage correspondence for ‘Because I am a Girl’ Report March 2010. International. Because I am a Girl The State of the World’s of power, by an individual or group that results in or has a Girls are Groomed for a Life of Prostitution by UK 164 UNFPA. “Growing Up Urban, State of World Population Girls 2009: Girls in the Global Economy: Adding it all Up. high likelihood of resulting in actual or potential harm to Gangs.” The Independent, January 31, 2010. http:// 2007: Youth Supplement.” UNFPA. http://www.unfpa. 113 Nike Foundation. “The Girl Effect: Not Just about Girls: a girl’s health, survival, development or dignity (amended www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/they-like-us- org/swp/2007/youth/english/story/preface.html Engaging Men and Boys is Key to Girls’ Ability to Achieve from Pinheiro, 2006: 4). naive-how-teenage-girls-are-groomed-for-a-life-of- (accessed June 9, 2010). their Full Potential.” www.nikefoundation.com/media_ 131 United Nations Development Fund for Women. “Violence prostitution-by-uk-gangs-1880959.html. 165 UNFPA. “Growing Up Urban, State of World Population room.html (accessed May 19, 2009). against Women.” UNIFEM. http://www.unifem.org/ 148 findings from Hallman, K. and J. Diere. “Social 2007: Youth Supplement.” UNFPA. http://www.unfpa. 114 Bazan, Cesar. Learn Without Fear. Hamburg: Plan gender_issues/violence_against_women/ (accessed June Isolation and Economic Vulnerability: Adolescent HIV org/swp/2007/youth/english/story/preface.html International, November 14, 2009. 14, 2010). and Pregnancy Risk Factors in South Africa.” Poster (accessed June 9, 2010). 115 UN-Habitat. “State of the Urban Youth 2010/2011: 132 garcía-Moreno, Claudia, et al. Multi-country Study presentation at the Annual Meeting of the Population 166 garcía-Moreno, Claudia, et al. Multi-country Study Leveling the Playing Field.” United Nations, 2010. on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence Against Association of America, Boston, MA, 2005. on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence Against 116 UN-Habitat. “State of the Urban Youth 2010/2011: Women Initial Results on Prevalence, Health Outcomes 149 stanford, Peter. “‘They Like Us Naïve’: How Teenage Women Initial Results on Prevalence, Health Outcomes Leveling the Playing Field.” United Nations, 2010. and Women’s Responses. Switzerland: World Health Girls are Groomed for a Life of Prostitution by UK and Women’s Responses. Switzerland: World Health 117 UN-Habitat. “State of the World’s Cities 2006/2007 Organisation, 2005. Gangs.” The Independent, January 31, 2010. http:// Organisation, 2005. www.who.int/gender/violence/ – Urban Features: Children, Slums’ First Casualties.” 133 garcía-Moreno, Claudia, et al. Multi-country Study www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/they-like-us- who_multicountry_study/summary_report/summary_ United Nations. http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/ on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence Against naive-how-teenage-girls-are-groomed-for-a-life-of- report_English2.pdf). docs/5637_49115_SOWCR%2016.pdf (accessed June Women Initial Results on Prevalence, Health Outcomes prostitution-by-uk-gangs-1880959.html. 167 steele, Cynthia. Empower. http://www.empowerweb.org 14, 2010). and Women’s Responses. Switzerland: World Health 150 Mabala, Richard. “From HIV Prevention to HIV (accessed June 15, 2010). See also: Instituto Sou Da Paz. 118 UN-Habitat. “State of the World’s Cities 2008/2009 Organisation, 2005. Protection: Addressing the Vulnerability of Girls and http://www.soudapaz.org/ (accessed June 15, 2010). – Harmonious Cities”. United Nations. http://www. 134 Moore, A., et al. “Coercive First Sex among Adolescents Young Women in Urban Areas.” Environment and 168 Kruger, Jill S. and Louise Chawla. “We Know Something unhabitat.org/content.asp?catid=7&cid=5964&subMen in Sub-Saharan Africa: Prevalence and Context.” Paper Urbanization 18 (2006): 407. Someone Doesn’t Know: Children Speak Out on uId=0&typeid=46 (accessed June 15, 2010). presented at the IUSSP XXV Conference on Population, 151 although this study draws primarily from research with Local Conditions in Johannesburg.” Environment 119 UN-Habitat. “State of the World’s Cities 2006/2007 Tours, France, July 18-23, 2005. 13-20 year olds, the issues discussed affect a larger age & Urbanization Vol. 14 No. 2 (October 2002). See – Urban Features: Children, Slums’ First Casualties.” 135 Jejeebhoy, Shireen J., and Sarah Bott. Non-consensual groupThe use of “young women and girls” indicates this also: UNESCO. “Growing Up in Cities.” A UNESCO – United Nations. http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/ Sexual Experiences of Young People: A Review of the overlap in issues that affect adolescent girls and other MOST Project. http://www.unesco.org/most/guic/ docs/5637_49115_SOWCR%2016.pdf (accessed June Evidence from Developing Countries. New Delhi, India: young women. guicpubframes.htm (accessed June 15, 2010). 14, 2010). Population Council, 2003. 152 dowdney, L. Neither War nor Peace: International 169 UNFPA. “Growing Up Urban, State of World Population 120 speech to the 1st World Conference of Ministers 136 Moore, A., et al. “Coercive First Sex among Adolescents Comparisons of Children and Youth in Organised Armed 2007: Youth Supplement.” UNFPA. http://www.unfpa.org/ Responsible for Youth, Lisbon, Portugal, 1998, quoted in Sub-Saharan Africa: Prevalence and Context.” Paper Violence. Rio de Janeiro: Viva Rio, ISER, IANSA, 2005. adolescents/docs/urban_eng.pdf (accessed June 15, 2010). in World Bank. World Development Report 2007: presented at the IUSSP XXV Conference on Population, 153 Rodgers, Dennis. “Joining the Gang and Becoming a 170 women cops on trains for security of female passengers, Development and the Next Generation. Washington, Tours, France, July 18-23, 2005. Broder : The Violence of Ethnography in Contemporary Thaindian News, http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/ D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and 137 “Adolescent Girls Most Vulnerable To Sexual Nicaragua”, Bulletin of Latin American Research, Vol. 26, uncategorized/women-cops-on-trains-for-security-of- Development, 2006. Harassment.” The Daily Star, February 18, 2010. No. 4, pp444–461, 2007Brooks World Poverty Institute, female-passengers_100325508.html 121 world Bank. World Development Report 2007: http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. University of Manchester, UK. 171 from Laura Mack, Girls Getting to Secondary School Development and the Next Generation. Washington, php?nid=126860 154 soares, B. M. “Retrato das Mulheres Presas no Estado Safely: Combating Gender-based Violence in the D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and 138 UNFPA. “State of the World Population 2007: Unleashing do Rio de Janeiro - 1999/2000.” Boletim Segurança e Transportation Sector in Tanzania AED/Center for Development, 2006. the Potential of Urban Growth.” UNFPA, 2007. http:// Cidadania. Rio de Janeiro: CESeC 01(01), 2002. Gender Equity 2009. 122 world Bank. World Development Report 2007: www.unfpa.org/swp/2007/presskit/pdf/sowp2007_eng. 155 goldstein, D. M. Laughter Out of Place: Race, Class, Development and the Next Generation. Washington, pdf (accessed June 9, 2010). Violence, and Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown. London: Chapter 3 D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and 139 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). University of California Press, 2003. 001 Plan International. Transcripts from Interviews for the Development, 2006. Defending the Housing Rights of Children. Geneva: 156 wilding, Polly. “’New Violence’: Silencing Women’s Street Children’s World Cup, South Africa, 2010. 123 Perlman, Janice E., and Sarah E. Anthony. “Citizenship COHRE, June 2006. Experiences in the Favelas of Brazil.” Journal of Latin 002 Plan International. Transcripts from Interviews for the and Youth in the Favelas of Rio de Janeiro.” Background 140 Karim, Fazlul, Nayma Qayum, Ziauddin Hyder and Kazi American Studies, forthcoming. Street Children’s World Cup, South Africa, 2010. paper for the WDR 2007, 2006. Nazrul Fattah. Human Rights Violation in Bangladesh: 157 erulkar, Annabel S., Tekle-Ab Mekbib, Negussie Simie 003 UN-Habitat. “State of the Urban Youth 2010/2011: 124 UN-Habitat. Lucia Kiwala, Director, Gender Lessons Learned from the Information Gathering System of and Tsehai Gulema. Adolescent Life in Low income and Leveling the Playing Field.” United Nations, 2010. Mainstreaming Unit in correspondence with Plan BRAC Social Development Program. BRAC, October 2009. Slum Areas of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Population Council/ 004 anderson, Kristen for ‘Because I am a Girl’ Report 2010, International for ‘Because I am a Girl’ Report 2010. 141 Urban World. A New Strategy to Close the Gender UNICEF, 2004. Children’s Legal Centre Essex. 125 world Bank. World Development Report 2007: Divide. July 2009, p19. 158 safe Spaces Nairobi, Kenya. http://www.youtube.com/ 005 Plan International. Interview conducted by Street Child Development and the Next Generation. Washington, 142 women in Cities International. Results of FGDs carried watch?v=h7VqazOij1k (accessed June 15, 2010). Africa for the ‘Because I am a Girl’ report 2010. D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and out by Jagori in the framework of the Action Research 159 UN-Habitat. “Causes of the Increase in Delinquency.” 006 United Nations. CESCR. “The Right to the Highest Development, 2006. Project on Women’s Rights and Access to Water and http://www.unhabitat.org/content.asp?typeid=19&catid Attainable Standard of Health (article 12 of the International 126 world Bank. World Development Report 2007: Sanitation in Asian Cities. Canada’s International =375&cid=1437 (accessed June 14, 2010). Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights).” UN Development and the Next Generation. Washington, Development Research Centre (IDRC), 2009. 160 “Who’s at Risk: Factors Associated with Intimate Partner Doc. E/C.12/2000/4, August 11, 2000. http://www. D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and 143 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). Violence in the Philippines.” SocialScience and Medicine unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(symbol)/E.C.12.2000.4.En. Open Development, 2006. Women, Slums and Urbanization: Examining the Causes 55(8) (2002): 1385-1399. Document, quoted in COHRE. Defending the Housing 127 UNIFEM. Knowledge Asset on Safe Cities and and Consequences. Geneva: COHRE, May 2008. 161 UNIFEM. Knowledge Asset on Safe Cities and Rights of Children. Geneva: COHRE, June 2006.

178 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 179 Section 1: Chapter 3 Section 1: Chapter 3

007 “Amount of Street Children Rises.” Tempo Interactive, nspcc.org.uk/Inform/publications/casenotes/ 045 Bari, Shoshur. Street Children in Conflict with the Law, 064 wernham, Marie. An Outside Chance: Street Children February 5, 2007. http://www.streetchildren.org. CLcasenotesrunningaway_wdf53960.pdf (accessed: June Juvenile Justice Panel. UK: Save the Children UK, 2000. and Juvenile Justice – An International Perspective. The uk/_uploads/Publications/5_amount_of_street_children_ 24 2010) 046 human Rights Watch, “Children’s Rights: Street Consortium for Street Children, May 2004. rises.pdf. 027 New Internationalist. “Street children, Our Lives Our Childrem”. http://www.hrw.org/en/category/topic/ 065 Puzon, Marco Paa. Painted Gray Faces, Behind Bars 008 “Amount of Street Children Rises.” Tempo Interactive, Words.” New Internationalist No. 377 (April 2005). children%E2%80%99s-rights/street-children (accessed: and in the Streets: Street Children and Juvenile Justice February 5, 2007. http://www.streetchildren.org. www.newint.org/issue377/rukshana.htm. June 24 2010) System in the Philippines. University of the Philippines uk/_uploads/Publications/5_amount_of_street_children_ 028 Buncombe, Andrew. “All Aboard Delhi’s Beggar 047 human Rights Watch, “Children’s Rights: Street in partnership with the Consortium for Street Children, rises.pdf. Express.” The Independent, March 3, 2010. http://www. Childrem”. http://www.hrw.org/en/category/topic/ 2003. 009 Payne, Ruth. “Voices from the Street: Street Girl Life independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/all-aboard-delhis- children%E2%80%99s-rights/street-children (accessed: 066 Movimiento Nacional de Meninos e Meninas de Rua in Accra, Ghana.” CEDAR Research Papers Number beggar-express-1914922.html June 24 2010) (MNMMR). Street Children Latin America and the 40, January 2004. http://www.streetchildren.org. 029 hamza, Waqar. “Young Beggar Girls May End Up as 048 amnesty International. Children in South Asia: Securing Caribbean. Brazil: National Movement of Street Boys uk/_uploads/Publications/3.Voices_from_the_Street_-_ Prostitutes: Survey.” The Nation, May 11, 2009. http:// Their Rights. London: Amnesty International, 1998. and Girls, October 18, 2004. http://pangaea.org/street_ Street_Girl_Life_in_Accra%2C_Ghana.pdf. www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily- 049 Anderson, Kristen. 2010 Report. Essex: The Children’s children/latin/mnmmr.htm 010 National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH). english-online/Regional/Karachi/11-May-2009/Young- Legal Centre, 2010. 067 Butterflies Programme with Street and Working Children. “Homelessness Families with Children.” NCH Fact Sheet beggar-girls-may-end-up-as-prostitutes-survey 050 dean, Amber R. “Locking Them Up to keep them ‘Safe’: “Child Workers Union / Bal Mazdoor Union.” http:// No. 7, June 28, 2004. http://www.nationalhomeless.org. 030 Plan International. Interview with street girl for the Street Criminalized Girls in British Columbia.” Canada: Justice www.butterflieschildrights.org/union.asp (accessed June 011 Believe in Children Barnardo’s. “The Children’s Society’s Child Africa for the ‘Because I am a Girl’ report 2010, for Girls, 2005. 15, 2010). Still Running II.” http://www.barnardos.org.uk/news_ (Interviewer; Allabiah Kunje). 051 Bari, Shoshur. Street Children in Conflict with the Law, 068 eNDA, Fabrizio Terenzio in corredpondence with Nikki and_events/media_centre/press_releases.htm?ref=52474 031 samoun, S. “Violence Against Women in Urban Areas: Juvenile Justice Panel. UK: Save the Children UK, 2000. van der Gaag for Plan International ‘Because I am a Girl’ (accessed June 14, 2010). An Analysis of the Problem from a Gender Perspective.” 052 human Rights Watch. “Charged with Being Children.” Report 2010. 012 Compiled by the Consortium for Street Children, January Urban Management Programme Working Paper Series Human Rights Watch, February 18, 2003. http://www. 069 Plan International. “Each and every child”. 2009 No. 17. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat, 2000, pp29-30. hrw.org/en/node/12360/section/4 (accessed June 15, 070 Casa Alianza. “Street Children Programmes in Central 013 Compiled by the Consortium for Street Children, January 032 Justice for Girls. Submission to the United Nations 2010). America and Mexico.” http://www.casa-alianza.org. 2009. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights at its’ 053 Bari, Shoshur. Street Children in Conflict with the Law, uk/northsouth/CasaWeb.nsf/3/Honduras_Cherub_ 014 interviewed by Patrick Shanahan, Street Invest, for 5th periodic review of Canada: http://www2.ohchr.org/ Juvenile Justice Panel. UK: Save the Children UK, 2000. Home?OpenDocument (accessed June 15, 2010). ‘Because I am a Girl’ Report, March 2010. english/bodies/cescr/docs/info-ngos/justice-girls-new. 054 amnesty International. Document - Nigeria: Rape, 071 Perez, Hilda M. “Shelter Allows Girls to Escape 015 Plan International. Interview with street girl for the Street pdf (accessed: June 24, 2010) 33 Ministry of Women and the Silent Weapon. Amnesty International, November Exploitation.” CRS. http://crs.org/honduras/cherub- Child Africa in Accra, Ghana for the ‘Because I am a Girl’ Child Development. 2006. http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ home/ (accessed June 15, 2010). report 2010. 033 Ministry of Women and Child Development. Study AFR44/020/2006/en/d9dcf48c-d3e9-11dd-8743- 072 this research design was implemented and facilitated 016 Consortium for Street Children. http://www. on Child Abuse: INDIA 2007. Kriti, New Delhi: d305bea2b2c7/afr440202006en.html in collaboration with Plan Philippines, with many NGOs streetchildren.org.uk/ (accessed June 15, 2010). Government of India, 2007. http://www.indianet.nl/pdf/ 055 amnesty International. Document - Nigeria: Rape, in the country generously assisting us in gaining access 017 world Health Organisation, Department of Mental Health childabuseIndia.pdf. the Silent Weapon. Amnesty International, November to research sites and participants. The interview sample and Substance Dependence. “Module 1: A Profile of Street 034 Ministry of Women and Child Development. Study 2006. http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ consisted of 22 participants, 5 boys and 17 girls ranging Children. Working with Street Children: A Training Package on Child Abuse: INDIA 2007. Kriti, New Delhi: AFR44/020/2006/en/d9dcf48c-d3e9-11dd-8743- between the ages of 9 and 18 years of age. We also on Substance Use, Sexual and Reproductive Health, Government of India, 2007. http://www.indianet.nl/pdf/ d305bea2b2c7/afr440202006en.html spoke with key informants from community organisations including HIV/AIDS and STDs.” WHO/MSD/MDP/00.14. childabuseIndia.pdf. 056 human Rights Watch. Children of Bulgaria, Police and social workers. Geneva: WHO, 2000. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/ 035 UNICEF. “Girls’ Education Campaigns.” http://www. Violence and Arbitrary Confinement. Human Rights 073 save the Children UK. Breaking the Rules: Children in hq/2000/WHO_MSD_MDP_00.14_Module1.pdf. Quoted unicef.org/girlseducation/campaign_21877.html Watch, September 1996. Conflict with the Law and the Juvenile Justice System. in COHRE and CordAid. Defending the Housing Rights of (accessed June 15, 2010). 057 human Rights Watch. Still Making Their Own Rules: The experience in the Philippines. Philippines: Save Children. Geneva: COHRE, June 2006. 036 Child Hope UK. http://www.childhope.org.uk/ (accessed Ongoing Impunity for Police Beatings, Rape and Torture the Children UK, 2004. http://vac.wvasiapacific.org/ 018 girl participant. CRADLE / USK / CSC National Workshop June 15, 2010). in Papua New Guinea. Human Rights Watch, Vol. 18, No. downloads/SAVE5.pdf on Street Children and Juvenile Justice. Nairobi, Kenya: 037 Plan International. Street Child Africa survey for the 13, October 29, 2006. 074 save the Children UK. The Right Not To Lose Hope: March 6-7, 2003. ‘Because I am a Girl’ report 2010. 058 Puzon, Marco Paa. Painted Gray Faces, Behind Bars Children in Conflict with the Law. Save the Children, 2005. 019 wernham, Marie. An Outside Chance: Street Children 038 world Vision International, Gender and Development and in the Streets: Street Children and Juvenile Justice http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/en/54_2172.htm and Juvenile Justice – An International Perspective. The Department and World Vision. “Hope for the Girl Child.” System in the Philippines. University of the Philippines 075 save the Children UK. Breaking the Rules: Children in Consortium for Street Children, May 2004. A Briefing Paper to the United Nations Commission on in partnership with the Consortium for Street Children, Conflict with the Law and the Juvenile Justice System. 020 New Internationalist. “Brave New World – Housing and the Status of Women at its 51st Session, February 2007. 2003. The experience in the Philippines. Philippines: Save Homelessness.” New Internationalist Issue 276 (February 039 world Bank. World Development Report 2007: 059 rurevo, R. and M. Bourdillon. Girls on the Street. Harare, the Children UK, 2004. http://vac.wvasiapacific.org/ 1996). http://www.newint.org/issue276/scared.htm Development and the Next Generation. Washington, Zimbabwe: Weaver Press, 2003. downloads/SAVE5.pdf 021 Plan International. Transcripts from Interviews for the D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and 060 de Benítez, Sarah Thomas. “State of the World’s Street 076 department of Social Welfare and Development. Street Children’s World Cup, South Africa, March 2010. Development, 2006. Children: Violence.” Consortium for Street Children, “Number of Children in Conflict with the Law Served, 022 empower. Interview with Cynthia Steele, Chief Executive. 040 New Internationalist. “Street Children.” New 20 07. by Program/Project/Service, by Sex, by Age by Region- www.empowerweb.org (accessed June 14, 2010). Internationalist No. 377 (April 2005). 061 women Educational Researchers of Kenya (WERK). The CY2009.” www.dswd.gov.ph (accessed March 1, 023 interview with Nikki van der Gaag, for Plan International, 041 New Internationalist. “Street Children.” New Story of Children Living and Working on the Streets of 2010). ‘Because I am a Girl’ report 2010. Internationalist No. 377 (April 2005). http://www. Nairobi. Kenya: SNV Kenya and GTZ PROSYR, 2002. 077 Save the Children UK (2004). Breaking the rules: Children 024 in correspondence with Nikki van der Gaag, for Plan newint.org/features/2005/04/01/harare-zimbabwe/ 062 Puzon, Marco Paa. Painted Gray Faces, Behind Bars and in in conflict with the law and the juvenile justice system. International, ‘Because I am a Girl’ report 2010. 042 UNICEF. Executive Board Annual Session 2006, Item 13 the Streets: Street Children and Juvenile Justice System in The experience in the Philippines. Retrieved, December 025 Puzon, Marco Paa. Painted Gray Faces, Behind Bars of the Provisional Agenda, May 18, 2006. the Philippines. University of the Philippines in partnership 28, 2009, from http://vac.wvasiapacific.org/downloads/ and in the Streets: Street Children and Juvenile Justice 043 UNICEF. Violence Related To Children and Adolescents in with the Consortium for Street Children, 2003. SAVE5.pdf System in the Philippines. University of the Philippines Conflict with the Law: Oral Report. May 18, 2006. 063 Child Hope. “Bangladesh.” www.childhope.org.uk/article. 078 Council for the Welfare of Children. “Situationer on in partnership with the Consortium for Street Children, 044 wernham, Marie. An Outside Chance: Street Children asp?id=520 (accessed June 15, 2010). 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180 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 181 Section 1: Chapter 3; Chapter 4 Section 1: Chapter 4

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Available at: www.yapi.org at: http://www.aph.gov.au/Senate/committee/legcon_ over 0.5 million users and contains over 9 million photos. 120 hughes, Donna. “The Use of New Communications 137 Now Public. “A fundamental assault on liberties – ctte/crimessexualoffences/report/report.pdf Over 80 % of the Finnish girls were registered to IRC- and Information Technologies for Sexual Exploitation of Human Trafficking”. http://www.nowpublic.com/ 153 legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee, Galleria. The biggest user group was 14–20 years. 2/3 of Women and Children”. Hastings Women’s Law Journal world/fundamental-assault-liberties-human-trafficking Crimes Legislation Amendment (Sexual Offences the users registered daily, 80 % weekly. (Vol. 13:1, pp. 129-148). (accessed February 25, 2009). Against Children) Bill 2010 [Provisions], (2010), 167 award given by the Ministry of Transport and 121 internet Watch Foundation. See: Council of Europe. 138 ‘Technology and Human Trafficking ‘Vienna Forum to page 31, available at: http://www.ema.gov.au/ Communication in Finland. Trafficking in human beings: Internet recruitment. Fight Human Trafficking, February 2008 www/ministers/oconnor.nsf/Page/Speeches_2010_ 168 the site has had 70,000 visitors a year. The website Misuse of the Internet for the recruitment of victims of 139 Council of Europe. Trafficking in human beings: Internet FirstQuarter_11February2010-CrimesLegislationAmendm also includes useful information about the Police work trafficking in human beings. EG-THB-INT (2007, pg. 28). recruitment. Misuse of the Internet for the recruitment ent(SexualOffencesAgainstChildren)Bill2010. especially for the children and youth. 122 donna Hughes, in: Maltzahn, Kathleen. Digital Dangers: of victims of trafficking in human beings. EG-THB-INT 154 legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee, 169 Cox Communications Teen Online & Wireless Safety Information and Communication Technologies and (2007). Crimes Legislation Amendment (Sexual Offences Survey, in Partnership with the National Center for Trafficking in Women. APC Issue Paper, August 2006. 140 UN.GIFT. The Vienna Forum to fight Human Trafficking, Against Children) Bill 2010 [Provisions], (2010), Missing & Exploited Children® (NCMEC) and John Walsh. 123 Council of Europe. Trafficking in human beings: Internet February 2008, “017 Workshop: Technology and Human page 31, available at: http://www.ema.gov.au/ May 2009. http://www.cox.com/takeCharge/includes/ recruitment. Misuse of the Internet for the recruitment Trafficking”. www/ministers/oconnor.nsf/Page/Speeches_2010_ docs/2009_teen_survey_internet_and_wireless_safety.pdf of victims of trafficking in human beings. EG-THB-INT 141 Maltzahn, Kathleen. Digital Dangers: information and FirstQuarter_11February2010-CrimesLegislationAmendm 170 logrono, Julieta. Plan Ecuador. “Dimensions of Sexual (2007). communication technologies and trafficking in women, ent(SexualOffencesAgainstChildren)Bill2010 Abuse of Adolescent Boys and Girls, Cultural Practices 124 UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre and the Government APC issue paper. 2006. 155 legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee, and Mechanisms of Protection”, 2009 of the Netherlands. A Study on Violence against Girls: 142 international Organization for Migration: http://www. Crimes Legislation Amendment (Sexual Offences Against 171 CBS News. “Sexting” Shockingly Common Among Report on the International Girl child Conference. 9-10 iom.int/jahia/jsp/index.jsp (accessed: 24 June 2010) Children) Bill 2010 [Provisions], (2010), page 29-31, Teens.” Jan. 15, 2009. Available at : http://www. March 2009, The Hague, Netherlands. 143 eCPAT, Online Child Sexual Abuse: The Law Enforcement available at: http://www.aph.gov.au/Senate/committee/ cbsnews.com/stories/2009/01/15/national/ 125 girls’ Net, Women’s Net, UNIFEM. “Keep your chats Response, 2008, 18, available at: http://www.ecpat.net/ legcon_ctte/crimessexualoffences/report/report.pdf main4723161.shtml exactly that!” http://www.womensnet.org.za/sites/ WorldCongressIII/PDF/Publications/ICT_Law/Thematic_ 156 anderson, Kristen for ‘Because I am a Girl’ Report 2010, 172 BBC News. “Alarm bells ring over ‘sexting’. May 15, womensnet.org.za/files/resources/Brochure_design-1.pdf Paper_ICTLAW_ENG.pdf Children’s Legal Centre Essex, Legal and Constitutional 2009. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/ (accessed: 24 June 2010) 144 Carter, Helen. “Teenage girl is first to be jailed for Affairs Legislation Committee, Crimes Legislation americas/8043490.stm 126 Beeby, Nicolle. Texting and Sexting : Keep your Chats bullying on facebook”. Guardian, UK. August 21, 2009. Amendment (Sexual Offences Against Children) Bill 173 the Chicago Tribune, Sexting bill passes Illinois Safe. SA NGO Net. Available at: http://www.ngopulse. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/ 2010 [Provisions], (2010), page 30, available at: http:// Senate, 18 March 2010. Available at: http://www. org/article/texting-and-sexting-keep-your-chats-safe aug/21/facebook-bullying-sentence-teenage-girl www.aph.gov.au/Senate/committee/legcon_ctte/ chicagotribune.com/news/local/ct-met-illinois-sexting- 127 UN.GIFT. The Vienna Form to fight Human Trafficking, 145 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-1217289/ crimessexualoffences/report/report.pdf bill-0319-20100318,0,552959.story February 2008, “017 Workshop: Technology and Human Facebook-bullies-ruined-life-As-internet-bully-sent-jail- 157 Knight, Kathryn. “Facebook bullies ruined my life: 174 Burney, Linda. “Safe Sexting: No Such Thing.” Media Trafficking”, pg. 12-13. story-terrify-parent.html As the first internet bully is sent to jail, the story that Release. May 3, 2009. Available at: http://www. 128 Council of Europe. Trafficking in human beings:I nternet 146 Ministers’ Declaration, “Reinforcing the International will terrify every parent”. Mail Online. Oct. 1, 2009. community.nsw.gov.au/docswr/_assets/main/lib100039/ recruitment. Misuse of the Internet for the recruitment of Fight Against Child Pornography”, G-8 Justice and Home Available at: http://www.stopcyberbullying.org/what_is_ safe_sexting.pdf victims of trafficking in human beings. EG-THB-INT (2007). Affairs Ministers, May 24th, 2007, p. 2. cyberbullying_exactly.html 175 women’s Net. “Girl’s Net: Empowering Girls.” http://www. 129 UN.GIFT. The Vienna Form to fight Human Trafficking, 147 international Telecommunications Union, Draft Guidelines 158 summary for Children and Young People, Byron womensnet.org.za/node/863. (accessed : 24 June 2010) February 2008, “017 Workshop: Technology and Human for Industry on Child Online Protection (2005), available Review, (2008) UK. Available at: http://www.dcsf. 176 Beeby, Nicolle. Texting and Sexting : Keep your Chats Trafficking”, pg. 12-13. at: http://www.itu.int/osg/csd/cybersecurity/gca/cop/ gov.uk/byronreview/pdfs/A%20Summary%20for%20 Safe. SA NGO Net. Available at: http://www.ngopulse. 130 Council of Europe Group of specialists on the impact of guidelines/Draft/INDUSTRY.pdf. Children%20and%20Young%20People%20FINAL.pdf org/article/texting-and-sexting-keep-your-chats-safe the use of New Information Technologies on Trafficking 148 anderson, Kristen for ‘Because I am a Girl’ Report 2010, 159 BBC News. “Alarm bells ring over ‘sexting’. May 15, 177 Buckingham, David, Willett, R. ‘Digital Generation: in Human beings for the purpose of Sexual exploitation Children’s Legal Centre Essex. 2009. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/ Children, Young People, and New Media’. New Jersey: Strasbourg 17 February 2003, Document EG-S-NT (2002) 149 United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the americas/8043490.stm Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006 131 hughes, Donna. “The Use of New Communications Administration of Juvenile Justice (“The Beijing 160 Microsoft Canada News Center. “Fact Sheet: Microsoft 178 ibid and Information Technologies for Sexual Exploitation of Rules”).G.A. res. 40/33, annex, 40 U.N. GAOR Supp. Canada and Youthography Internet Safety Survey”. 179 girlScouts LMK: http://lmk.girlscouts.org/Meet-the-girls. Women and Children”. Hastings Women’s Law Journal (No. 53) at 207, U.N. Doc. A/40/53 (1985); United Available at : http://news.microsoft.ca/corporate/ aspx (accessed 26 April 2010) (Vol. 13:1, pp. 129-148). Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile archive/2009/02/25/fact-sheet-microsoft-canada-and- 180 Byron Review. “Safer children in a digital world: the report 132 Council of Europe. “Trafficking in human beings: Internet Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines), G.A. res. 45/112, youthography-internet-safety-survey.aspx of the Byron Review”. UK, 2008. Available at: http:// recruitment. Misuse of the Internet for the recruitment annex, 45 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49A) at 201, U.N. Doc. 161 Beeby, Nicolle. Texting and Sexting : Keep your Chats www.dcsf.gov.uk/byronreview/actionplan/index.shtml

186 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 187 Section 1: Chapter 4; Section 2 Girls online 181 Byron Review. “Safer children in a digital world: the that the child has access to information and material from report of the Byron Review”. UK, 2008. Available at: a diversity of national and international sources, especially A list of links to websites, reports, research United Nations Global Compact is a policy http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/byronreview/actionplan/index. those aimed at the promotion of his or her social, spiritual institutions, databases and agencies working initiative for businesses that are committed to shtml and moral well-being and physical and mental health. 182 devitt, Kerry and Roker, Debi. ‘The Role of Mobile 200 itU News. April 2010. Accessed online: http://www.itu. on gender-based discrimination, with a aligning their organisation with the humane Phones in Family Communication’; Mobile phone int/net/itunews/issues/2010/03/07.aspx particular focus on girls and young women. principles in the area of human rights, anti- ownership and usage among pre-adolescents.” Journal of 201 akhtar Badshah, Community investment, Microsoft corruption, labour and environment. By Telematics and Informatics. Corporation Business Sector implementing this, businesses can ensure that 183 Madanda, Aramanzan, Ngolobe, Berna and Goretti 202 Based on: Cisco, ‘White Paper: Women and ICT: Why Zavuga Amuriat. “Uganda: Violence against Women are girls still not attracted to ICT studies and careers?’ market and commerce benefit economies and Information and Communication Technologies.” accessed online http://newsroom.cisco.com/dlls/2009/ The Girl Effect is a shared initiative by the and societies everywhere. An important Association for Progressive Communications (APC) ekits/Women_ICT_Whitepaper.pdf Nike Foundation and the NoVo Foundation part of the programme is concerned with 2009. Available at: http://www.genderit.org/resources/ 203 Based on: Working Group of Canadian Privacy to create opportunities for girls. It maps empowering women in the workplace. More uganda_APC_WNSP_MDG3_VAW_ICT_ctryrpt.pdf Commissioners and Child and youth Advocates, ‘There the ‘girl effect’, showing how a girl’s information can be found here: 184 all the above statistics from ‘Child Online Protection’ ITU Ought to be a Law: Protecting Children’s Online Privacy 2009 in the 21st Century’, Discussion Paper, November 19, empowerment can impact the girl, her www.unglobalcompact.org/Issues/human_ 185 Michelet, Isabelle. ‘Our Children at Risk Online: The 2009 community and humanity at large; and also rights/equality_means_business.html example of Thailand.’ ECPAT International, 2003. 204 ibid provides tools and information for private 186 ‘Byron Review, Children’s Call for Evidence 2008, http:// 205 accessed online: www.letmeknow.girlscouts.org employers, NGOs, IGOs and policymakers World Economic Forum runs a Women publications.dcsf.gov.uk/default.aspx?PageFunction=pr 206 Child Protection Partnership and Plan International, oductdetails&PageMode=publications&ProductId=DCS original research undertaken in Brazil for the 2010 on how to empower girls. The ‘Your Move’ Leaders and Gender Parity Programme F-00333-2008& (accessed: June 24 2010) ‘Because I am a Girl’ Report (March 2010) report can be found at: www.girleffect.org/ which strives to promote female leadership 187 ‘Byron Review, Children’s Call for Evidence 2008, http:// 207 Council of Europe, Trafficking in human beings: Internet downloads/Girl_Effect_Your_Move.pdf and close the gender gapIt produces a publications.dcsf.gov.uk/default.aspx?PageFunction=pr recruitment. Misuse of the Internet for the recruitment Global Gender Gap Report which includes oductdetails&PageMode=publications&ProductId=DCS of victims of trafficking in human beings. EG-THB-INT Goldman Sachs 10,000 Women is an a full ranking of 128 countries from both F-00333-2008& (accessed: June 24 2010) (2007). 188 Virtual Global Taskforce. “A global response to child 208 working Group of Canadian Privacy, ‘There Ought To be initiative that works to provide under-served the developing and developed world. It sexual exploitation.” Pg. 2, available at: http://www. A Law: Protecting Children’s Online Privacy in the 21st women with business and management also monitors the change in rank from virtualglobaltaskforce.com/pdfs/VGTLeaflet120308.pdf. Century’, A discussion Paper, November 2009. educations and expanding entrepreneurial previous years to map improvements in the 189 Virtual Global Taskfroce. “A global response to child 209 skyNews, ‘Facebook to add panic button to CEOP’. talent in developing countries. Its goal is gender gapThe 2009 report can be found sexual exploitation.” Pg. 2, available at: http://www. Accessed online: http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/ virtualglobaltaskforce.com/pdfs/VGTLeaflet120308.pdf. UK-News/Facebook-Will-Add-A-Panic-Button-Link-To- to provide 10,000 women with a business here: www.weforum.org/pdf/gendergap/ 190 Kristen Anderson, Children’s Legal Centere, Essex Ceop-After-Public-Outcry-Over-Ashleigh-Hall-Murder/ and management education over the next rankings2009.pdf University . Virtual Global Taskforce. Available at: http:// Article/201005415639276. five years. ‘10,000 Women’ works with www.virtualglobaltaskforce.com/index.asp. 210 eCPAT International, Report of the World Congress III development, NGO and educational actors. Civil Society Organisations 191 international Telecommunication Union. Child Online against Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents, More information on the initiative can be Protection. http://www.itu.int/osg/csd/cybersecurity/ September 2009. gca/cop/ 211 UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre and the Government found at: Amnesty International (Stop Violence 192 UNIFEM. Say no- unite, end violence against women. of the Netherlands. A Study on Violence against Girls: www.10000women.org/index.html Against Women) is a campaign which http://www.saynotoviolence.org/ Report on the International Girl child Conference. 9-10 strives to end violence against women 193 steenson, Molly Wright. “Mobile Space is Women’s March 2009, The Hague, Netherlands. HP Global Social Innovation For 60 years, and girls in times of peace as well as war. Space: Reframing Mobile Phones and Gender in an Urban 212 eCPAT International. Report of the World Congress III Context.’ April 2006 Yale School of Architecture. against Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents, Hewlett Packard has supported innovation Its main themes are the empowerment 194 all research in this box IBGE Instituto Brasileiro de September 2009 in education, granting cash, HP technology of women, violence against women Geografia e Estatística December 2009 213 anderson, Kristen. 2010 Girls Report. Children’s Legal and other resources to learning institutions perpetrated by the state and the 195 accessed online : http://lmk.girlscouts.org/Meet-The- Centre, Essex. around the world. They are especially implementation of existing laws on rape and Girls/Rockstars/Ada.aspx concerned with fostering entrepreneurship sexual violence. For more information visit: 196 Child Protection Partnership and Plan International, SECTION 2 original research undertaken in Brazil for the 2010 001 Mobile Children: From Victims to Actors, Early Migration and developing IT skills. www.amnesty.org/en/campaigns/stop- ‘Because I am a Girl’ Report (March 2010) and Trafficking in West Africa, 2009, African Movement www.hp.com/hpinfo/grants/ violence-against-women. 197 article 13, CRC: The child shall have the right to freedom of Working Children and Youth/Enda Tiers. of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, 002 save the Children. State of the World’s Mothers: Investing Standard Chartered Bank – ‘Goal’ works to Campaign for Female Education (CAMFED) receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, in the Early Years. 2009. regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, 003 UNFPA. State of World Population 2007. Growing Up empower women in their communities in is an organisation which strives to eradicate in the form of art, or through any other media of the Urban. India through netball in order to help work poverty in Africa through girls’ education child’s choice. 004 sweetman, Caroline. Gender and the Millennium towards the MDGs. Working with grassroots and female empowerment. Its model 198 article 16, CRC: No child shall be subjected to arbitrary Development Goals, Gender and Development Journal, NGOs, it reach 3,500 young women in Delhi. has four stages. Girls complete primary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, June 2005 (accessed online: http://tiny.cc/5e2mv) To find out more about Standard Chartered’s and secondary school, then receive home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or 005 Young Lives, 2008. “Children and the Food Price Crisis”. her honour and reputation. The child has the right to the Young Lives Policy Brief 5, An International Study of MDG projects see here: business training for their own economic protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Childhood Poverty. Oxford:UK. www.standardchartered.com/sustainability/ empowerment and finally are able to lead 199 article 17, CRC: States Parties recognize the important our-approach/millennium-development- change in their community. For more function performed by the mass media and shall ensure goals/en/index.html information visit: www.camfed.org

188 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 189 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions Girl representatives from each of the G20 NGO Working Group on Girls’ Rights is an in partnership with organisations in the (CoHRE) is a Geneva-based organisation countries aim to bring the economic prowess international network which aims to ensure business sector, it works to train women campaigning for adequate housing for of women and girls to the attention of G20 domestic implementation of international leaders and entrepreneurs around the world the world’s population and promoting leaders and place girls firmly on the G20 standards relating to girls in all stages of who can then go back and train women compliance with international standards, agenda. their youth, as well as promote advocacy in their own communities. Of particular and has special consultative status with the www.girlsandwomen.com/home-1.html of girls’ issues in international policy. More interest is its Vital Voices Radio which Economic and Social Council of the United information can be found at: airs interviews with influential leaders in Nations. Of particular interest is their Girls, Inc. is a non-profit organisation www.girlsrights.org different sectors: www.vitalvoices.org/ extensive research on the impact of poor dedicated to empowering girls. It provides desktopdefault.aspx?page_id=448 housing and forced evictions on women, as educational opportunities to girls in the most The Population Council is an international, well as the right to marital property. Further vulnerable sections of society in the United nonprofit, nongovernmental organisation Womankind Worldwide aims to information can be found at: States. For more information visit: that seeks to improve the well-being and promote women as a force for change in www.cohre.org/women www.girlsinc.org reproductive health of current and future development. It works in 15 developing generations around the world and to help countries funding projects tied to women’s Clinton Global Initiative CGI Annual Girls in Tech is an organisation dedicated achieve a humane, equitable and sustainable legal rights and self-empowerment. Meetings bring together more than 125 to engagement, empowerment and success balance between people and resources. Of Their publications which are available current and former heads of state, 15 of women in the technology sector. They particular interest is their report on girls for download may be found at: www. Nobel Peace Prize winners, hundreds of host conferences to foster innovation education: ‘New Lessons: the Power of womankind.org.uk/publications.html leading global CEOs, major philanthropists and entrepreneurship among women Educating Adolescent Girls’ Their ‘Respect 4 Us’ campaign website and foundation heads, directors of professionals working in technology. They www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/2009PGY_ provides interactive tools for young people to the most effective non-governmental also blog about issues concerning women NewLessons.pdf explore issues of violence. organisations, and prominent members working in this sector: http://girlsintech.net/ www.respect4us.org.uk/container.html of the media. These CGI members A Safe World for Women: The 2011 have made nearly 1,700 commitments Girls Learn International is a US-based Campaign focuses on ending all forms of Women in Cities International is an valued at $57 billion, which have already organisation which pairs American middle- abuse of women and girls. It is an online organisation dedicated to the creation of improved more than 220 million lives and high-school chapters with schools in organisation that brings together NGOs, an international exchange network on in 170 countries. Of particular interest countries where girls have traditionally been groups and individuals committed to a women’s participation in the development is the action area on women and girls denied education. It promotes cross-cultural safer world. Their website contains useful of cities and communities as well as the empowerment: www.clintonglobalinitiative. awareness and understanding and trains girls information on the types of violence inflicted consideration of a gender-based approach org/ourmeetings/2010/meeting_annual_ to be leaders in the movement for positive against women and girls. in municipal planning and management. actionareas.asp?Section=OurMeetings social change. http://asafeworldforwomen.org/ Women in Cities International assisted the &PageTitle=Actions%20Areas&Action_ www.girlslearn.org/index. ‘Because I am a Girl’ 2010 report in the Area=Empowering_Girls_Women php?catid=1&over=1&color=White She’s The First is a media action campaign development of Chapter 2 – girls in cities, established by young women to promote and endorsed our call to action (page 91): Consortium for Street Children is a leading Ipas is an organisation focused on increasing girls’ education by attracting donors to an www.womenincities.org/english/sets_en/ international network committed to a better women’s ability to assert their sexual and online directory of schools with sponsorship set_intro_en.htm and sustainable future for the world’s street reproductive rights. It works in several areas, programmes. children. It takes a collaborative, partnership- focusing on sexual violence and youth. www.shesthefirst.org/about/ Women in Development Europe (WIDE) based approach to inform research and It works in advocacy, research, training is an umbrella organisation of European influence policy on street children. More health workers in safe abortion technique Soroptimist International is an organisation women’s organisations which monitors information, including resources and and technologies and advocacy. For more for women in management and professions and influences economic and development membership details, can be found at: information visit: www.ipas.org/Index.aspx who work to advance women’s status and policy from a feminist perspective. It www.streetchildren.org.uk/default.asp human rights through advocacy, awareness produces a monthly e-newsletter on its Justice for Girls International is a non- and action. For more information visit: activities and news relating to gender and Forum of African Women’s Educationalists profit organisation that promotes freedom www.soroptimistinternational.org/index.html development. To sign up for the newsletter (FAWE) is a pan-African NGO founded by from violence, social justice and equality follow this link: www.wide-network.org/ five female ministers of education. It works for teenage girls who live in poverty. Street Child Africa supports 12 partner blocks/join.jsp to improve access and quality of education to Based in Canada, it works with girls on the organisations working with children in girls in the region. It has national chapters in streets and girls in conflict with the law. street situations in eight African countries Women’s World Summit Foundation has 35 African countries. More information can JFGI collaborated with the ‘Because I am a by providing funding, capacity building, consultative status with the UN and strives to be found at: www.fawe.org Girl’ 2010 report to document and analyse advocacy and awareness-raising. alert governments and international bodies abuses against girls in conflict with the law www.streetchildafrica.org.uk to take an active role in the empowerment of Girls 20 Summit is modelled after the in the Philippines: www.justiceforgirls.org/ Vital Voices is a global partnership that aims women and children. More information can G20 summit and was held in June 2010. international_hr/jfgi.html to empower women worldwide. Working be found at: www.woman.ch

190 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 191 World Association of Girl Guides and poverty and achieving social justice. They The Coalition for Adolescent Girls is a Research Girl Scouts works worldwide to provide a place a particular focus on reproductive and partnership between the United Nations non-formal education through which girls sexual health and rights, as well as investing Foundation and the Nike Foundation, and Asia Pacific Women’s Watchis a regional can gain life skills and self-development. in and advocating for, adolescent girls More is committed to driving public and private network of women’s organisations. It works It reaches approximately 10 million girls information can be found at: investment in adolescent girls. Check out: to improve women’s rights by working with through 145 member organisations. For www.unfoundation.org/global-issues/ www.coalitionforadolescentgirls.org other NGOs, national governments and the more information visit: women-and-population/ UN. More information can be found at: www.wagggsworld.org/en/home The UN Foundation provides a vehicle World Bank Adolescent Girls Initiative www.apww.isiswomen.org through which donors can support the UN’s is an initiative hoping to improve girls’ YWCA is a global network empowering work on girls – The Girl Fund employment prospects tomorrow with Association for Women’s Rights in women around the world to enact social and www.thegirlfund.org training and education today. It works Development (AWID) is an international economic change. It works with 25 million in partnership with the governments of organisation working for women’s rights, women and girls in 22,000 communities. Girl Up is the United Nations Foundation Australia, the United Kingdom, Denmark, gender equality and development. It works It works in four priority areas: peace with awareness-raising campaign to harness girls’ Sweden and Norway, and private sector to build alliances and influence international justice, human rights, women’s health and energy and enthusiasm as a powerful force firms including Cisco, Standard Chartered institutions to advance women’s issues. HIV/AIDS, and sustainable development. For for change. Bank and Goldman Sachs. The initiative AWID provides current and up-to-date more information visit: www.worldywca.info http://girlup.org/ also offers incentives to employers to hire information on women’s rights in the news; and train girls. For more information visit: as well as profiling recent research and Foundations Multi-Laterals http://go.worldbank.org/I5PX4JETM0. information on a multitude of topics, themes and countries. See: www.awid.org The Cherie Blair Foundation works to provide Organisation for Economic Cooperation Practitioner Blogs on Aid / Also, a profile of the ‘YoungF eminist Activism entrepreneurship opportunities and access and Development (OECD) is an organisation Development / Gender Program’ can be found here: www.awid.org/ to technology for women worldwide. They which brings together governments eng/About-AWID/AWID-Initiatives/Young- provide finance, networking and business committed to democracy and the market AidWatch A project of New York Feminist-Activism-Program development support on the premise that economy. Its OECD Development Centre University’s Development Research economically empowered women not only has created Wikigender, a pilot project for Institute, the blog centres on the idea of Centre for Global Development (CGDev) is a have greater control over their own lives and the OECD Global Project on Measuring monitoring aid to ensure that it reaches the non-profit policy research organisation the lives of their children, but also signal a the Progress of Societies which provides a poor. focusing on reducing poverty. Of particular brighter future for their communities and free forum through which to exchange and http://aidwatchers.com/ interest is its report ‘Start with a Girl: A New economies. Their recent report ‘Women and collect information on gender issues. For Agenda for Global Health’ (2009): Mobile: A Global Opportunity’ highlights the more information visit: www.wikigender.org Blood and Milk examines the effectiveness www.cgdev.org/content/publications/ need to increase mobile phone ownership by of international assistance and development detail/1422899 women in the developing world in order to World Bank works closely with other programmes as well as issues regarding advance gender, social and economic goals. development organisations towards employment in the development sector. Child Rights Information Network (CRIN) is The report may be accessed here: improving girls’ education. It finances http://bloodandmilk.org/ a global network of children’s organisations www.cherieblairfoundation.org/uploads/ projects in developing countries as well as which coordinates and promotes information pdf/women_and_mobile_a_global_ providing technology and financial assistance Tales From the Hood is an insider’s on child rights. It has a membership of 2,000 opportunity.pdf to countries with high gender disparities in perspective on life in the humanitarian aid organisations, and its search facilities can education. Other excellent resources from industry. be narrowed down by region or theme with Girls Action Foundation runs innovative the World Bank on girls’ empowerment can http://talesfromthehood.wordpress.com/ extensive information concerning children’s girls’ empowerment programmes across be found at: legal rights. For more information concerning Canada, investing in girls and young women http://go.worldbank.org/B9VQI8YJT0 Wait…What? A personal blog written child rights mechanisms see at both a local and national level. The by an NGO worker on her involvement www.crin.org/docs/CRINmechs.pdf programmes foster community leadership Partnerships in integrating ICTs and social media in to skills and inspire action to change the world. community development programmes International Centre for Research on Many of the girls enrolled in the programmes Girl Hub is a collaboration between the UK and increasing youth participation at local, Women (ICRW) is an organisation which are from remote, marginalised and urban government Department for International national and global levels.. works on research, technical support for communities. Find out more at: Development (DFID) and Nike Foundation. http://lindaraftree.wordpress.com/ capacity building and advocacy. Its research www.girlsactionfoundation.ca/en Girl Hub aims to form a global network focus includes: adolescence, HIV/AIDS, of girls’ experts and advocates and link Wronging Rights is a group blog written by food security and nutrition, economic UN Foundation The Foundation’s Women them with development programmes and lawyers and is dedicated to writing about development, reproductive health and and Population section has been working to policymakers to promote girls’ rights, and and critiquing issues of human rights and violence against women. Regarding girls, empower women and girls worldwide, on the work to include girls in policy design and justice. it works towards improving sexual and premise that they are essential to eradicating implementation. www.girlhub.org/about/ http://wrongingrights.blogspot.com/ reproductive rights and combating child

192 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 193 marriage. Its many publications on the Girls Discovered is a comprehensive, society. A quarterly bulletin on the women, reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS subject can be found at: interactive resource of data relating to intersection of gender and migration issues among women and girls and achieving http://catalog.icrw.org/pubsearch.htm the welfare, health and education and can be found here: gender equality in democratic governance International Women’s Rights Action Watch opportunities of girls worldwide. It enables www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/about-iom/ in times of peace as well as war. A number (IWRAW) Asia Pacificworks to promote users to choose from over 200 datasets and organizational-structure/iom-gender/key- of their publications can be downloaded or domestic implementation of international view, compare and analyse their data on documents purchased at www.unifem.org. Their website human rights standards. It focuses on the maps or download it as a spreadsheet. http://endvawnow.org/ offers a knowledge CEDAW, facilitating a flow of information www.girlsdiscovered.org/create_your_own_ Say NO to Violence is presented by centre for training with programming, from the international to the domestic, map/ UNIFFEM, and records what individuals, resources for implementation, an expertise ensuring that women worldwide are aware governments and organisations are doing database and learning and training sessions. of their rights. More information can be to end violence against women worldwide found at: www.iwraw-ap.org and count the actions taken towards that United Nations Development Programme goal, with a view to reaching a count of one (UNDP) is the UN’s development The Population Council is an international million actions by November 2010. They organisation and works on the ground in 166 non-governmental organisation conducting provide free resources and publications to countries. Its yearly Human Development research into population issues worldwide. download at: Report monitors development on a national, It is merging its research areas into three www.saynotoviolence.org/issue/publication regional and international level, and can headings: HIV and AIDS; Poverty, Gender be found at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/ and Youth; and Reproductive Health. Their United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) reports/. Of particular interest: Its Human publications and resources can be found focuses on child development, education and Development Index (HDI) measures a here: www.popcouncil.org/publications/ gender equality, HIV/AIDS, child protection country’s development by considering index.asp and policy advocacy. Of particular interest education, life expectancy and income, but it to girls is the 2007 ‘State of the World’s also produces indices specific to gender: the Resources and Databases Children Report – Women and Children: the Gender Development Index and the Gender Double Dividend of Gender Equality’: www. Empowerment Index which can be found at: DevInfo is a powerful database combining unicef.org/sowc07/docs/sowc07.pdf and the http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/indices/ three databases to review the implementation 2009 State of the World’s Children Report: gdi_gem/. of the Millennium Development Goals. Of WomenWatch provides information and ‘Maternal and Newborn Health’: It also runs a Millennium Campaign to particular interest is its ‘Facts. You decide’ resources on gender equality and female www.unicef.org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09- support and promote awareness of the page which shows statistics on each of the empowerment. The girl child is one of its FullReport-EN.pdf. MDGs. The campaign produces ‘The MDGs. It can be found here: critical areas of concern. It is a useful source Millennium Goals Report’ which summarises www.devinfo.org/facts.htm?IDX=13 of information as it provides clear and easy UN Commission on the Status of Women the data and achievements of all the MDGs. Institutions and Development Database access to the various UN conventions, bodies is a commission of the Economic and Social It can be found at: (GID-DB) represents a new tool for and activities relating to gender in a user- Council dedicated to gender equality and the www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/ researchers and policymakers to determine friendly way. Information specifically related advancement of women. The 54th session The%20Millennium%20Development%20 and analyse obstacles to women’s economic to the girl child can be found at: of the commission, which reviewed the Goals%20Report%202008.pdf. development. It covers a total of 160 www.un.org/womenwatch/directory/the_ implementation of the Beijing Declaration countries and comprises an array of 60 girl_child_3012.htm and its contribution towards the realisation United Nations Girls Education Initiative indicators on gender discrimination. The of the Millennium Development Goals, can (UNGEI) aims to ensure that by 2015 the database has been compiled from various Young Feminist Wire is an exciting new be found here: www.un.org/womenwatch/ gender gap in primary and secondary sources and combines in a systematic and online community for young feminist daw/beijing15/index.html education will have narrowed and all children coherent fashion the current empirical activism, to showcase the work of young The 2011 session will focus on issues relevant complete primary education. Its ‘Gender evidence that exists on the socio-economic feminists, bring them together to enhance to this report, with the title being: ‘Access and Achievement and Prospects’ in Education status of women. their effectiveness, and offer resources. participation of women and girls to education, (GAP) projects works to assess progress www.oecd.org/document/16/0,3343,en_26 http://yfa.awid.org/ training, science and technology, including for towards MDG 2 (universal primary education 49_33935_39323280_1_1_1_1,00.html the promotion of women’s equal access to full by 2015) and identify obstacles and Another of their projects is the SIGI (Social UN Agencies employment and decent work.’ innovations. The GAP Report can be found Institutions and Gender Index), a new www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/ at: www.ungei.org/gap/pdfs/unicef_gap_ composite measure of gender discrimination International Organisation for Migration csw/55sess.htm low_res.pdf based on social institutions in 102 non- (IOM) provides research, advocacy and OECD countries. Users may build their own services in aid of migrants and migrant United Nations Development Fund for The E4 conference, held in April-May gender index by changing the priority of the communities all over the world. Their Women (UNIFEM) works on global gender 2010, aimed to promote partnerships social institutions in the SIGI. core principle is that humane and orderly issues in four different areas: reducing for girls’ education against the obstacles www.genderindex.org migration benefits both migrants and feminised poverty, ending violence against that violence poverty, climate change,

194 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 195 health and educational quality can pose. The ‘Dakar Declaration on accelerating About Plan International Girls’ Education and Gender Equality’ was unanimously adopted by the participants at Founded over 70 years ago, Plan is one of the oldest and largest international the conference: development agencies in the world. We work in 48 developing countries across Africa, www.ungei.org/index_2527.html Asia and the Americas. Plan directly supports more than 1.5 million children and their families, and indirectly supports an estimated further 9 million people who live in UN-Habitat works to promotes socially communities that are working with Plan. We make long-term commitments to children in and environmentally sustainable towns and poverty and assist as many children as possible, by working in partnerships and alliance cities, and improve the lives of the world’s with them, their families, communities, civil society and government, building productive 100 million slum dwellers. Of particular relationships and enabling their voices to be heard and recognised in issues that affect interest to this report is the ‘2008/2009 them. Plan is independent, with no religious, political or governmental affiliations. State of the World’s Cities’ Report: www. unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails. Our vision aspx?publicationID=2562 as well as the Plan’s vision is of a world in which all children realise their full potential in societies that Getting an forthcoming report on young people in respect people’s rights and dignity. education in a urban areas: www.unhabitat.org/pmss/ Ghana school. listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2928 Our mission They recently launched a co-operative Plan aims to achieve lasting improvements initiative of community bodies to sponsor in the quality of life of deprived children inclusive, safe cities for women and girls, in developing countries, through a process for them to live in and have access to city that unites people across cultures and adds services. Their global assessment report on meaning and value to their lives, by: women’s safety in cities can be found here: • enabling deprived children, their families www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails. and their communities to meet their aspx?publicationID=2848 basic needs and to increase their ability to participate in and benefit from their United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) societies; uses population data to ensure that every • building relationships to increase man, woman and child has the right to a understanding and unity among peoples healthy life. It produces a yearly ‘State of the of different cultures and countries; World’s Population’ report, several of which • promoting the rights and interests of the have focused on gender. 2006 focused world’s children. on ‘Women and International Migration’. (www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/650_ www.plan-international.org filename_sowp06-en.pdf)

UN Programme on Youth is the UN’s focus centre on youth. It produces a biannual World Youth Report. One of its areas of concern is girls and young women. Information regarding its work on girls and young women can be found at: www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/wpaygirls.htm. y gell k P e n k ar M

196 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3 197 Plan Offices

Plan International Headquarters Plan Denmark Plan Netherlands Christchurch Way Rosenoerns Allé 18, 2.sal Van Boshuizenstraat 12 Woking 1634 Copenhagen V 1083 BA, Amsterdam Surrey GU21 6JG Denmark Netherlands United Kingdom Tel: +45-35-300800 Tel: +31-20-549-5555 Tel: (+44)1483 755 155 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Web: www.plan-international.org Plan Finland Plan Norway Plan Asia Regional Office Pasilanraitio 5, 2nd floor Tullins Gate 4C 18th Floor, Ocean Tower 2 Building 00240 Helsinki Postboks 1 St. Olavs Plass 75/24 Sukhumvit 19 Rd. Finland 0130 Oslo Klongtoey Nua, Wattana Tel: +358-9-6869-800 Norway Bangkok 10110, Thailand Email: [email protected] Tel: +47-22-031600 Tel: +66 (0) 2 204 2630-4 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Plan France 11 rue de Cambrai Plan Spain Plan East and South Africa Regional Office 75019 C/ Pantoja 10 Grevillea Grove, off Brookside Grove, Paris 28002 Madrid Westlands, France Spain PO Box 14202-00800, Tel: +33-144-899090 Tel: +34-91-5241222 Nairobi, Kenya Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Tel +254-20-4443462/3/4/5 Email: Regis.nyamakanga@plan- Plan Germany Plan Sweden international.org Bramfelder Strasse 70 Box 92150 D-22305 Hamburg Textilgatan 43 Plan Regional Office of the Americas Germany SE -120 08, Stockholm Ciudad del Saber, Tel: +49-40-611400 Sweden Building 112, Ciudad del Saber, Email: [email protected] Tel: +46-8-58 77 55 00 Clayton, Panamá Email: [email protected] Apartado 0819-05571 Plan Hong Kong Panamá, Republica de Panamá Unit 1104 Plan Switzerland Tel: +507 317 1700 11/F Cameron Centre Toedistrasse 51 Email: [email protected] 458 Hennessy Road CH-8002 Zurich Causeway Bay Switzerland Plan West Africa Regional Office Hong Kong Tel: +41-44-288-9050 Amitié II Villa 4023, Tel: +852-3405-5300 Email: [email protected] BP 21121, Dakar, Email: [email protected] Senegal Plan United Kingdom Tel: +221 33 869 7430 Plan Ireland Finsgate Email: [email protected] 126 Lower Baggot Street 5-7 Cranwood Street Dublin 2 London EC1V 9LH Plan International Australia Ireland United Kingdom Level 18, 60 City Road Tel: +353-1-6599601 Tel: +44 (0) 20 7482 9777 Southbank VIC 3006 Email: Email: [email protected] Australia [email protected] Tel: +61-(0)3-9672-3600 Plan USA Email: [email protected] Plan Japan 155 Plan Way 11F Sun Towers Center Building Warwick Plan Belgium 2-11-22 Sangenjaya Rhode Island Galerie Ravenstein 3 B 5 Setagaya-Ku 02886-1099 USA 1000 Brussels Tokyo 154-8545 Tel: +1-401-7385600 Belgium Japan Email: [email protected] Tel: +32 (0)2 504 60 00 Tel: +81-3-5481-0030 Email: [email protected]/ Email: [email protected] Plan European Union (EU) Liaison Office [email protected] Galerie Ravenstein; 27/4 Plan Korea 1000 Brussels Plan Canada 2nd Floor, Cheongwoo BD, 58-4 Belgium 95 St. Clair Avenue West Samsung-dong, Gangnam-gu, Seoul Tel: +32-2-504-6050 Suite 1001 Korea 135-870 Email: [email protected] Toronto, Ontario M4V 3B5 Tel:+82-2-790-5436 Canada Email: [email protected] Tel: +1 416-920-1654 Email: [email protected]

198 the state of the world’s girls SECTION 3