Geomorphic Consequences of Hydroelectricity And
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GEOMORPHIC CONSEQUENCES OF HYDROELECTRICITY AND TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT NEAR CELILO FALLS, LOWER MID-COLUMBIA RIVER, WASHINGTON __________________________________ A Thesis Presented to The Graduate Faculty Central Washington University ___________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science Resource Management ___________________________________ by Noah I. Oliver August 2018 CENTRAL WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY Graduate Studies We hereby approve the thesis of Noah I. Oliver Candidate for the degree of Master of Science APPROVED FOR THE GRADUATE FACULTY ______________ _________________________________________ Dr. Karl Lillquist, Committee Chair ______________ _________________________________________ Dr. Lisa Ely ______________ _________________________________________ Dr. Patrick Lubinski ______________ _________________________________________ Dean of Graduate Studies ii ABSTRACT GEOMORPHIC CONSEQUENCES OF HYDROELECTRICITY AND TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT NEAR CELILO FALLS, LOWER MID-COLUMBIA RIVER, WASHINGTON by Noah I. Oliver July 2018 Along the Columbia River, hundreds of miles of transportation infrastructure and over sixty hydroelectric dams have been constructed. This altered a rich cultural landscape with evidence of 10,000 years of continuous occupation. Researchers have attempted to understand the impacts of anthropogenic factors on the Columbia River, focusing on the riverine environment. However, the effect of transportation and hydroelectricity developments to eolian landforms on the floodplains and adjoining slopes have not been studied. Focusing on 2,800 acres near Celilo Falls, this study 1) establishes a baseline condition of eolian landforms from 1805 to 1900; 2) conducts an air photo increment analysis from 1930 to 2015; and 3) compares the role of hydroelectricity and transportation with that of agriculture, built environment, temperature, and precipitation in the observed landform responses. Baseline data suggests from 1805 to 1900 large pointbars were sediment sources for barchan dunes, lee dunes, linear dunes, and sandsheets. Airphoto increment analysis indicates from 1930 to 1956, an overall increase in total eolian landform area occurred and reversed after the construction of The Dalles Dam in 1957. The dam eliminated the primary sediment source for dunes, suggesting hydroelectricity was the primary factor in overall eolian iii landform decline. Transportation development, although an influential factor in the observed distribution of eolian landform area, was not the primary factor. Other factors showed important information related to eolian processes. The built environment was linked to growth of linear dunes with a ρ of 0.8424, which suggests easterly winds are important to their formation. Precipitation was linked to eolian deposition as lee dunes with a ρ of 0.8061, suggesting it activated sediments for eolian transport. An alternating trend between a fluvial- and eolian-dominant environment may exist between anchor dunes, sandsheets, and lee dunes. Further research is suggested to quantify the role of hydroelectricity and transportation in shaping eolian landforms and transportation. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge my employer, Yakama Nation, who has influenced the mindsets and policies shaping the treatment of the natural environment in the Pacific Northwest for over a hundred years. The Yakama Nation’s Cultural Resource Program staff is dedicated to the protection, perpetuation, and preservation of the resources that cannot speak for themselves- yet sustain our lives. The staff at this program are dear to me and I could not have completed this work without their encouragement. I would especially like to thank Johnson Meninick, Jessica Lally, and David Powell for their continued support throughout this academic process. I am grateful for the dedicated staff at Central Washington University’s Resource Management Program. I have found that the diverse environment of faculty uniquely provided me with an opportunity to pursue my interdisciplinary interests. I had an exceptional committee with Dr. Pat Lubinski, Dr. Lisa Ely, and Dr. Karl Lillquist. I would also like to thank Dr. John Bowen, who shared his time and statistical knowledge. These are all hard working, punctual individuals that will always find time to meet with students. They are extremely helpful and knowledgeable mentors. I would also like to thank Dr. Steve Hackenberger and Dr. Morris Uebelacker who have been inspirational and supportive throughout my academic and professional career. I consider them to be strong advocates towards an interdisciplinary approach to resource management and supporters of the broader landscape perspective. To my wife, Corrine and daughter, Maille, I am thankful that we will be able to spend more time together enjoying life. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 Research Problem .................................................................................... 1 Research Objectives ................................................................................ 2 Significance ............................................................................................. 2 II PREVIOUS RESEARCH ............................................................................. 4 Fluvial Processes, Floodplains, and Floods ............................................ 4 Eolian Process ......................................................................................... 9 Fluvial and Eolian Interactions ............................................................. 16 Factors Affecting Geomorphic Response ............................................. 17 III STUDY AREA ........................................................................................... 23 Location and Access ............................................................................. 23 Climate .................................................................................................. 26 Geology and Geomorphology ............................................................... 27 Vegetation ............................................................................................. 31 Historic Land Use ................................................................................. 32 IV METHODS ................................................................................................. 40 Data Sources .......................................................................................... 40 Establishing a Geomorphic Baseline .................................................... 43 Identifying Landform Changes Over Time ........................................... 44 Determining Causes of Landform Patterns Over Time ......................... 47 V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................. 50 Baseline Analysis .................................................................................. 50 Landform Changes ................................................................................ 63 Factors Affecting Eolian Pattern ........................................................... 78 VI CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH ...................................... 97 Baseline ................................................................................................. 97 Landform Changes ................................................................................ 98 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED) Chapter Page Factors Affecting Eolian Patterns ....................................................... 100 REFERENCES ......................................................................................... 103 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Air Photos Used in this Study ..................................................................... 42 2 Landform Description Excerpts taken from Lewis and Clark Expedition . 53 3 Photo Location and Identification ............................................................... 56 4 1930 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 64 5 1935 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 65 6 1947 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 66 7 1956 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 67 8 1960 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 68 9 1973 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 69 10 1981 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 70 11 1990 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 71 12 1996 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 72 13 2006 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 73 14 2015 Transportation, Hydroelectricity, and Other Factors ......................... 74 15 Spearman Rank Correlation Calculations ................................................... 77 16 Pre-dam, Dam Construction, and Post-Dam Discharge ............................. 82 17 Changes to the Area of Landforms Identified by Air Photo Increments .... 93 18 Fluvial and Eolian Interaction ..................................................................... 96 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Average, highest, and lowest monthly discharge