LOCAL GOVERNANCE AND SUSTAINING PEACE Case Studies This publication is a product of Social Policy Section and the Humanitarian Action and Transition Support Unit, Programme Division, at the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).
Special thanks go to case study contributors Isatou Batanon (UNICEF Somalia), Adriana Carolina Cuevas (UNICEF Colombia) Gulzhigit Ermatov (UNICEF Kyrgyzstan).
© United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) July 2019
Permission is required to reproduce any part of this publication. For more information on usage rights, please contact nyhqdoc.permit@unicef.org
Cover photograph: © UNICEF/UN0307570/Knowles-Coursin Temirbek, 11 years old, and his sister Akbermek, 6 years old, stand outside their burnt-out home in Furkat District, in the southern city of Osh, Kyrgyzstan. Their house was destroyed during riots in the conflict. Their large ethnic Kyrgyz family now shares a tent in the courtyard of their home, 2 July 2010.
Contents page photograph: © UNICEF/UN0315486/English Boys play in a pool of standing water in Nugaal, Puntland, Somalia. Whilst much of Puntland has experienced a prolonged period of low rainfall, the long-awaited Gu' rains has brought relief to parts of the region, 22 May 2019. CONTENTS
COLOMBIA CASE STUDY 1 OVERVIEW 1 SETTING THE CONTEXT 1 UNICEF EXPERIENCES IN PEACEBUILDING AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE 2 CHALLENGES AND LESSONS LEARNED 5
KYRGYZSTAN CASE STUDY 7 SETTING THE CONTEXT 7 UNICEF APPROACH TO PEACEBUILDING 8 UNICEF ENGAGEMENT IN PEACEBUILDING THROUGH LOCAL GOVERNANCE 8 CHALLENGES AND LESSONS LEARNED 10 WHAT’S NEXT? 10
SOMALIA CASE STUDY 13 SETTING THE CONTEXT 13 UNICEF APPROACH TO PEACEBUILDING 14 CHALLENGES AND LESSONS LEARNED 17 CONCLUSION 18
ANNEX 1: SOMALIA SERVICE DELIVERY MODEL 20
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES iii Indigenous children havebeenparticularlyIndigenous conflict. the vulnerable throughout people inColombia whoareregisteredas victims arechildren. 2.5million conflict, of the of Awa children,3March2016. indigenous datashowsthat National out of 7.6 million Children wait to inline generalstudent bodycomprised the ElDivisoschoolwith enter the
© UNICEF/UN013357/Roger LeMoyne COLOMBIA CASE STUDY
OVERVIEW Colombia has been affected by armed conflict spanning more than 50 years, which has disproportionately affected children and adolescents. Conflict has exposed them to dynamics that violate their rights and subjected them to recruitment by armed groups, sexual violence, injury or death from anti-personnel landmines, and other forms of violence. Meeting the challenge of improving local governance in Colombia’s rural areas is crucial to ensuring a sustainable peacebuilding process.
SETTING THE CONTEXT its power by appealing to order and to the administration of justice. The resulting conflict led to amplified tensions, increased civilian General background casualties and the further geographical spread of Colombia has a population of over 47 million the conflict in the 1980s and 1990s. people, 32 per cent of which are children and adolescents. Today, 75 per cent of the population The root cause of the conflict is contentious, but lives in urban areas – and this is expected to depictions typically attribute it to the remnants 1 grow to 85 per cent by 2050. Colombia is an of inequality left over from the era of Spanish upper-middle-income country with an advanced colonialism. This inequality, opposition groups legal and political framework. Sustained claim, was amplified under decentralization economic growth and the expansion of social and local governance as racial groups and the protection programmes have contributed to the rural poor were marginalized by land ownership decrease in the proportion of the population practices and by the uneven or poor coverage of living in income poverty (from 49.7 to 28.5 per public services in these regions. This produced cent between 2002 and 2014) and to the fall in clientelism, a social hierarchy and provisions the extreme poverty headcount rate (from 17.7 that rendered local elites the predominant 2 to 8.1 per cent over the same period). beneficiaries of policy decisions.3
The conflict President Juan Manuel Santos and FARC-EP The armed conflict, which began in the commander Rodrigo Londoño finalized a peace mid-1960s, involved various guerilla groups, treaty in late 2016 following a long period of the largest and most influential of which is negotiations, which had commenced in 2012. known as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of During the formal conflict period, there were 7.6 Colombia – People’s Army (Fuerzas Armadas million registered victims, of whom 31 per cent Revolucionarias de Colombia – Ejército del were children and adolescents.4 Pueblo; FARC-EP). Each group framed its opposition to the Colombian government Despite a signed accord with FARC-EP, violence differently, but most mobilized supporters via a persists and children remain especially communist stance, campaigning on issues like vulnerable. Other major armed groups, like the poverty, political exclusion and social justice. National Liberation Army (Ejército de Liberación At the same time, the government fortified Nacional; ELN), still remain active.
1 United Nations Economic and Social Council, United Nations Children’s 3 González, Fernán E., ‘The Colombian conflict in historical perspective’ Fund Country Programme Document: Colombia, E/ICEF/2015/P/L.27, 10 in Alternatives to war: Colombia’s peace processes, Accord, no. 14, August 2015. Conciliation Resources, 2004. 2 Ibid. 4 Country Programme Document: Colombia.
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 1 Local governance and decentralization UNICEF EXPERIENCES IN PEACEBUILDING Colombia is a unitary republic with three tiers AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE of administration comprising 32 departments, the capital district of Bogotá and more than UNICEF Colombia aims to develop and invest in 1,100 municipios (municipalities). Historically, children, adolescents and youth since securing the country was characterized by its very their economic empowerment and combating centralized, presidential governance system. the inequality that underlies the conflict provides a more systematic and sustainable route towards In the 1980s, municipal authority was mostly peace. The country office has worked on a wide cosmetic and revolved around street cleaning array of initiatives to tackle the ways in which and the management of slaughterhouses. The children are affected by conflict. delivery of critical public services such as water and education was still largely the responsibility UNICEF Colombia has worked cooperatively of central government.5 with central and local government actors, most notably through the Colombian government’s In the 1970s and 1980s, poor public services led National Development Plan 2014–2018, which to political unrest in the form of civic strikes. prioritizes peace, equity and education. By These uprisings propelled reform, including the acknowledging that “La paz es territorial” (peace creation of a new constitution, and municipalities is local), the Plan creates the framework to were given more authority, administrative remedy preferential treatment, corruption and duties and resources. From 1988 onwards, the considerable variation in public services at local authorities oversaw education, health, the sub-national level to close the inequality and infrastructure related to transportation gap in rural areas. UNICEF has played a and agriculture, and mayors became popularly part in enhancing the Plan by strengthening elected. This is coincided with increases in both coordination between central and local intergovernmental transfers and local revenues.6 administrations through technical assistance, capacity development and targeted aid. Fiscal decentralization followed in 1993, with Law 60/1993 and Law 100/1993, changing how In terms of its engagement in local governance, local administrations received funding from UNICEF Colombia has taken a dual approach. On central government.7 The new approach was the one hand, the country office has supported more equitable than the previous, centralized the strengthening of local institutions and approach, which had favoured affluent areas. governance processes (Facts & Rights). On Towards the end of the 1990s, inequality had the other, it has worked on a complementary therefore significantly levelled off.8 approach by adding and developing models and methodologies to build peace through the active Decentralization was not without its problems, participation of children and youth in decision- however, as armed groups exploited the lack of making (Voices of Children). a concentrated executive and fortified rule of law to their advantage, and local politicians often Facts & Rights engaged in clientelism with them. Furthermore, The strategic alliance Hechos y Derechos (Facts local leaders, including mayors and councillors, & Rights), which encompasses a range of were frequently targeted during the conflict. national and sub-national government actors Mayors and local government staff were often from various sectors under the leadership and coerced to leave their post and operate instead support of the UNICEF Social Policy section, from the capital.9 This contributed to capacity organized a large consultation meeting gaps in poor rural localities. with mayors in 2014. Its aim was to develop consensual strategies to build peace in the municipalities most affected by violence and inequality (see Box 1).
5 Fiszbein, Ariel, ‘The Emergence of Local Capacity: Lessons from 8 Ibid. Colombia’, World Development, vol. 25, no. 7, 1997, pp. 1029–1043. 9 Sánchez, Fabio, and María del Mar Palau, ‘Conflict, Decentralisation and 6 Ibid. Local Governance in Colombia, 1974–2004’, Documento CEDE 2006-20, 7 Bossert, Thomas J., et al., ‘Decentralization and equity of resource Centro de Estudios Sobre Desarrollo Económico, Universidad de los allocation: evidence from Colombia and Chile’, Bulletin of the World Andes, May 2006. Health Organization, vol. 81, no. 2, 2003, pp. 95–100. Available at
2 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES Box 1. Risk-informed situation analysis
The United Nations Peace Group, which brings together managers and technical experts from United Nations agencies and affiliated organizations in Colombia, jointly identified the 125 municipalities most affected by FARC-EP violence. The geographic prioritization was based on a risk-informed situation analysis, which looked at official data on victims of the conflict, the incidence of armed actions, development and poverty indicators, humanitarian needs and local capacities. In addition, the prioritization was informed by the Index for Risk Management (INFORM), developed with input from UNICEF, which identifies the number and location of the most deprived and excluded children, with a focus on those municipalities that the United Nations System and the Colombian government have identified as the main areas in which short-term peace dividends can be generated.
The criteria for prioritization include: • environmental hazards such as landslides, flooding, volcanic eruptions • rates of homicides, kidnappings, expulsions, medical examinations for alleged sexual crimes, disappearances, interpersonal violence • mortality rates related to severe respiratory diseases and severe diarrhoea, maternal mortality rate, literacy rate.
The meeting tried to address three questions: • Strengthen school and non-formal education • What actions need to be taken to guarantee settings as spaces for the formation of the protection of child, adolescent and youth political culture, peace, truth and democratic victims of the armed conflict? coexistence. • What actions need to be taken to guarantee a • Generate spaces for dialogue between different basic package of social services for children, actors with the active participation of children, adolescents and youth who are victims or at risk adolescents and youth to improve decision- of the ongoing armed violence? making and rebuild trust among all actors. • What actions need to be taken to guarantee • Strengthen social cohesion by developing reconciliation and the construction of new peace awareness-raising activities and training initiatives with children, adolescents and youth? programmes for civil society and communities.
The meeting prioritized nine strategic actions: Based on these actions, UNICEF Colombia • Increase local resource allocation, allocation supported the identified municipalities through efficiency and budget transparency. technical assistance and capacity development • Strengthen cultural, recreational and leisure to make public planning and management activities for children, adolescents and youth. processes more responsive, particularly to • Strengthen families, educational entities excluded groups and to mainstreaming child and communities to provide a protective protection in the municipal development environment. plans. Efforts have also included advocacy and • Support local income generation, on-the- mobilization initiatives. This approach has, for job training and employment projects, and example, resulted in special local government programmes that support improved water, budget lines for children directly affected by the health and education services. armed conflict and who are in need of protection. • Allocate dedicated resources to guarantee the rights of children, adolescents and youth. • Decentralize and increase autonomy in decision-making, taking into account the specific context of each territory.
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 3 Voices of Children Taking into consideration the voices of children, adolescents and youth in peacebuilding is another key objective. The UNICEF Child Protection section has been developing the capacities of children and youth to actively participate in peacebuilding through participative methodologies and campaigns such as Somos paz (We are peace), Paz a la joven (Peace to youth) and Paz a tiempo (Peace in time) (see Box 2).
In addition, UNICEF is implementing the project Toward Reconciliation and Peacebuilding: Reintegration of Girls and Boys from the FARC-EP. This seeks to reintegrate into their families and communities children and adolescents separated from FARC-EP or other non-state armed groups (either formally or ‘by the back door’).
The Toward Reconciliation and Peacebuilding project supports reintegration by: • re-establishing child and adolescent rights • developing life projects • enabling access to comprehensive reparations
• encouraging participation in reconciliation LeMoyne © UNICEF/UN013310/Roger and peacebuilding.
Box 2. Participative methodologies and campaigns
Somos paz is a conceptual and methodological tool that seeks to promote and strengthen the capacities of children and adolescents as peacebuilders through art, music, sport and communications. Somos paz starts from the premise that peacebuilding is a process of capacity strengthening, in which children and adolescents acquire the tools necessary to take the lead in reconciliation activities in their own communities. Somos paz constitutes a proven strategy, having already been implemented in several parts of the country and engaged with more than 5,000 children and adolescents, and it is currently run in nine territories by local projects. Somos paz follows on from the two strategies below, which aim to equip children and adolescents to lead the peacebuilding process in Colombia.
Paz a la joven has targeted young community leaders for capacity building. They have been learning to organize peace movements in their communities and are trained to act as peace ambassadors.
Paz a tiempo provides an online six-month certificate course for young people aged 12 to 18 years on peace and peacebuilding at the local level. The initiative met with great interest, with more than 9,000 candidates – from across all 32 departments of Colombia – signing up for the course.
4 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES CHALLENGES AND LESSONS LEARNED
In UNICEF Colombia’s experience, it is crucial that peacebuilding programmes are based on a thorough analysis of local governance structures, mechanisms, processes and stakeholders. Given the complexity of the political system – both in areas directly affected by violence and not affected by violence – such knowledge should cover the national, departmental and municipal levels and should be shared with local governments.
To ensure that a peacebuilding programme is successfully implemented via local governance processes, one of the essential steps required following conflict analysis is to introduce and prioritize children’s rights in local planning processes. This has allowed UNICEF Colombia to support the capacity building of local governments to better respond to social exclusion, particularly in relation to the victims of the armed conflict and internally displaced persons.
Establishing a peacebuilding intervention through local governance processes also calls for mechanisms to enable meaningful participation, accountability and monitoring, especially given the prevalence of corruption. © UNICEF/UN013356/Roger LeMoyne © UNICEF/UN013356/Roger The UNICEF country office has thus supported various watchdog institutions in Colombia such as ombudspersons, prosecution authorities and accountability actors. governance processes. It is essential to find ways to add peacebuilding through local governance Timing of UNICEF input is an issue, however: efforts to existing results-based management given the high risk of youth being recruited by and monitoring and evaluation frameworks, criminal gangs and post-demobilization armed while relying on conflict analysis to develop groups, UNICEF was sometimes required to context-specific objectives and indicators. provide immediate and short-term input, which may not always allow for thorough analysis and UNICEF Colombia learned that implementing consultations. The question of timing is also peacebuilding activities at the local governance relevant to the transition from humanitarian level in Colombia is resource-intensive, both work to development work. in terms of time and human resources, and requires a more long-term approach given the Also, the potential ambiguities regarding the country’s deeply entrenched political problems. concept of peacebuilding make it difficult to define standard objectives and indicators for Finally, depending on the local context, the monitoring and evaluation, inhibiting a holistic choice of language and conceptual references approach. A shared understanding of the used in programming should be carefully concept within UNICEF and the United Nations assessed for any unintended associations with could therefore facilitate the coherent integration sensitive political or ideological movements of peacebuilding, including within local connected with the peacebuilding context.
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 5 Adulazis, 5 years old, stands in the doorway of his fire-gutted home in the southern city of Jalal-Abad. He, his three brothers, and their parents continue to live in the remains of their home, and are receiving relief from UNICEF and partners.
6 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES © UNICEF/UNI88541/liff Volpe KYRGYZSTAN CASE STUDY
SETTING THE CONTEXT development and, notably, the organization and implementation of measures relating to children Kyrgyzstan, a nation of nearly 6 million people, and young people. is located in Central Asia and borders China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. With The independence of Kyrgyzstan coincided with the gross national income for 2016 estimated a shift in inter-ethnic demographics, mainly at US$1,100 per capita, Kyrgyzstan was only due to the emigration of Russians from the recently classified as a lower-middle-income country: as a proportion of the total population, country.10 Approximately 2.3 million children the ethnic Kyrgyz population increased in size make up 37 per cent of the country’s population.11 from 50 to 80 per cent. Ethnic Uzbeks, based in the south, represent 14 per cent of the Kyrgyzstan gained independence from the Soviet population – currently the largest ethnic minority Union in 1991 and shortly after implemented a in Kyrgyzstan. Ethnic Russians, in the north, parliamentary democracy, which was a first for represent 6 per cent of the population. in Central Asia. In 2010, a liberal constitution was adopted, which guarantees the separation of Within a context of democratization, the change powers, fundamental human rights and a system in demographics provided politicians with of governance based on the rule of law. The an opportunity to gain votes through identity election of Almazbek Atambayev in 2011 marked politics and populist messaging. In 2010, ethnic the first peaceful transfer of presidential power. violence erupted in the south, resulting in 418 Two increasingly open, fair and transparent deaths12 and the destruction of 2,800 homes.13 parliamentary elections have since been held, Feelings of social injustice and of suspicion though it is clear that women and ethnic still linger, slowing recovery and inter-ethnic minorities have been under-represented in both. integration. The situation remains particularly fragile in the Fergana Valley, which spans The Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic (2010) Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and is also consolidated a system of local self- home to mainly ethnic Uzbeks from Kyrgyzstan. governance. The administrative system of In a context of unmarked and disputed borders, Kyrgyzstan is characterized by 3 sub-national recurring community-level conflicts over tiers of governance consisting of 7 regions and governance and access to resources give rise to 2 cities, including the capital Bishkek; districts a continual threat of further escalation. administered by government-appointed officials; and the local self-government (LSG) level, The lack of quality basic services, the weak which includes municipalities in urban areas capacities of local public servants and the public and ail okmotus, self-governing bodies that perception of pervasive corruption (according each cover up to 20 small settlements and are to opinion polls) add to this complex situation. headed by locally elected mayors and councils. A large percentage of the population has LSG competences embrace water provision, sought a better a life abroad – 30 per cent of the refuse collection, sports, culture, local economic Kyrgyzstan gross domestic product consists of
10 World Bank, ‘The World Bank in the Kyrgyz Republic: Overview’, World Helsinki Committee, Oslo, 2012, p. 193. Available at
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 7 personal remittances – causing families to be UNICEF ENGAGEMENT IN PEACEBUILDING separated, which in turn affects parental care THROUGH LOCAL GOVERNANCE and supervision.14 Young people increasingly resort to religion to achieve spiritual comfort The United Nations Country Team Peacebuilding and guidance, and a minority of them – more Needs Assessment conducted in Kyrgyzstan in than 500 according to some estimates – have 2013 highlighted the conflict potential related to travelled to the Syrian Arab Republic to join the lack of trust between citizens and the state the armed group Islamic State in the hope of a as well as among citizens, especially between better future.15 ethnic groups.17 The assessment found instances of weak state control and governance that UNICEF APPROACH TO PEACEBUILDING affect the trust of people in state institutions, as those institutions tend to provide an unequal or UNICEF Kyrgyzstan implements a variety of uneven access to quality public services, leaving conflict-sensitive programmes that support the the [sic] room for discriminatory approaches equitable delivery and effective management of and deprivation from social, economic, cultural, basic social services (education, health, social civil and political rights. It also identified an protection, and clean water and sanitation) in overall sense of impunity and a tendency to ways that build local and national capacities resort to violence to resolve disputes, leaving to address root causes of conflict at the policy, women, children and youth most vulnerable. community and individual levels.16 The three-fold A lack of civic identity and the prevalence of strategic approach to peacebuilding involves: ethno-nationalism further increase the potential for conflict. The assessment pointed towards the • strengthening vertical social cohesion by need for checks and balances mechanisms and promoting and channelling the voices of strengthened participation in public affairs adolescents through their participation by minorities, women, youth and other in local policymaking – this requires LSG excluded groups. capacity development to ensure the delivery of equitable access to quality social The Kyrgyz Republic Peacebuilding Priority services and to build legitimacy through Plan 2013–2016, which was developed following participatory processes the assessment, identified three desired • fostering horizontal social cohesion by outcomes. UNICEF prioritized two of these removing obstacles that keep social groups outcomes in line with the strategic approach apart or marginalized – this implies the need to peacebuilding: to protect the most vulnerable children and to build cohesion between law enforcement • LSGs, in partnership with related state authorities and vulnerable adolescents, institutions and civil society, should have the especially those in migrant communities capacity to bridge divisions and reduce • promoting civic engagement and competence local tensions. development (non-cognitive skills), particularly • Policies, pilot initiatives and approaches among adolescents – to boost individual that enable the further development of a capacities that contribute to horizontal social common civic identity, multilingual education cohesion at the community level and to vertical and respect for diversity and minority rights social cohesion. should be developed and implemented.
14 World Bank Open Data, ‘Personal remittances, received (% of GDP)’, Facility. The UK government began its peacebuilding partnership with World Bank Group,
8 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES LSGs and social protection they will instead focus their attention on LSGs are well placed to effectively promote the realizing their potential while contributing to the social inclusion of vulnerable groups through common good. the delivery of equitable and accessible public services. In 2013, the State Agency for Local In Kyrgyzstan, specific state institutions at Self-Governance and Inter-Ethnic Relations was the national level govern youth matters. For established, presenting a strong opportunity to example, the State Agency for Youth, Sports support LSGs to bridge existing ethnic divisions and Physical Culture is in charge of youth and reduce tensions. Thirteen LSGs and related policy. The National Youth Policy Strategy state institutions joined efforts with UNICEF and and its accompanying action plan are the the United Nations Development Programme primary documents guiding the youth sector in (UNDP) to model mechanisms to identify the Kyrgyzstan, and UNICEF Kyrgyzstan currently most vulnerable children and youth and their supports the process of updating the Strategy. families as a precondition for providing access to Youth affairs, in general, are formally a service basic services and appropriate case management. provided by LSGs. The enactment of youth- The joint programme analysed local legal and related services is at the discretion of LSGs operational mechanisms for reaching the most and is contingent on both their capacity and vulnerable, identifying both opportunities for financial resources. As a result, LSG youth work and deterrents to equitable service delivery. has ranged from being virtually non-existent to Local service providers from conflict-affected providing support for one-off sports or folklore communities were then trained to identify and events that have limited sustainable impact. respond to vulnerabilities in an inclusive manner. Linkages between national youth strategies and The approach was officially endorsed in 2015, local youth initiatives have been weak. when the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic passed Regulation No. 391 on the identification In the aftermath of the 2010 violence, UNICEF and case management for children and families Kyrgyzstan engaged in a partnership with central in a difficult life situation. The Regulation has government and local governments, international scaled up the approach nationwide, assigning development organizations and civil society clear roles and responsibilities to LSGs and organizations to create a network of youth central authorities and guaranteeing access to centres. The youth centres provided a safe space social benefits and social services for vulnerable for young people from different backgrounds to and poor children and their families. come together, learn technical and social skills, and discuss issues and possible remedial and LSGs and youth preventive actions. Since 2012, this programme of work has taken a more systemic approach, by Evidence suggests that in conflict situations in introducing common standards for professional Kyrgyzstan the disenfranchisement of youth youth work in conflict-affected communities, makes them susceptible to becoming both which include a focus on youth leadership, victims and perpetrators of violence. Young communication and citizenship skills; career people belonging to ethnic groups other than planning; youth participation in local government the Kyrgyz ethnic group may also be easily development planning and budgeting; and lured into participating in conflicts along ethnic monitoring of the delivery of local services. In lines. At the same time, the positive agency of parallel, the programme introduced a youth young people is increasingly acknowledged, policy course, aimed at local public servants, including in terms of their dual roles as rights at one of Kyrgyzstan’s graduate schools. holders and duty bearers and their ability to contribute to innovation and to the development Since the course launched, 50 LSG youth of their communities. In this context, UNICEF workers have been trained to date, which has Kyrgyzstan interventions have been guided by in turn resulted in the introduction of more than the following theory of change: If adolescents 60 youth initiatives and over 20 new LSG youth and youth acquire non-cognitive skills that services. In 10 pilot communities, youth now enable them to act as peace actors, and participate in LSG budget hearings, through professional skills and competences, they will which they can advocate for LSG funds to be be better prepared to engage in socio-political allocated to issues that matter to them. The and economic life, to find opportunities for self- programme also supported LSGs to engage the realization and to contribute to the improvement services of civil society organizations and private of living conditions at the local level. Narratives companies as a key means by which to support of extremism and radicalism will then be less local youth policy implementation. attractive to adolescents and youth, because
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 9 CHALLENGES AND LESSONS LEARNED government – this does not facilitate the responsiveness of an LSG to local citizens’ Contextual challenges needs and demands, and so institutional Political parties are articulated around accountabilities between the LSG and central divisions – whether relating to territory, lineage government are diluted or clan, religion or national identity – thus • of the high turnover of local public servants, making it difficult at times to communicate mostly due to low salaries, lack of career the debates and policies around issues, development and lack of motivation including youth issues. Local governments • there is no institutionalized culture of are primarily interested in local infrastructure evidence-based and participatory development, as action in this area will result policymaking/decision-making. in tangible outputs. Lessons learned regarding social protection Hence the population expects LSGs not to abide interventions by their own policy decisions, because: • On-the-job capacity development with LSGs • the fiscal system is centralized, and most will help to clarify roles and responsibilities LSGs depend on levelling grants from central at various political levels. © UNICEF/UNI89052/Josh Estey © UNICEF/UNI89052/Josh
10 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES • Aligning social protection mechanisms to actions that bring a peace dividend. UNICEF international standards will help to provide Kyrgyzstan thus adopts a holistic approach to better services to the most vulnerable make salient and viable the role of children, (central and local authorities primarily aim adolescents and youth as peacebuilders, by to reduce the number of beneficiaries, while addressing the following two dimensions: international criteria aim to reduce poverty headcount, severity and gap, or impact on Equitable access to justice for children consumption share). and adolescents • Supporting LSGs to enforce their own strategic UNICEF will partner with policymakers, plans and use them as tools to set the local ombudspersons and LSGs to model policy and funding framework will help to interventions that foster social cohesion ensure consistency across the priorities among adolescents and institutions by: and interventions of aid agencies, central • Improving the conditions and services for government and other stakeholders. children in contact, and in conflict, with the law. Lessons learned regarding youth interventions • Supporting regular interactions between youth • LSGs frequently support and benefit from and local authorities and law enforcement adolescent and youth engagement in decision- bodies to overcome stereotypes and build making. Efforts to institutionalize this approach greater closeness and mutual trust. within the existing legal framework and processes, particularly around LSG planning, Adolescent and youth inclusion budgeting and monitoring, will strengthen UNICEF will partner with line ministries, vertical social cohesion. the State Agency for Youth, Physical Culture • The peacebuilding case for increasing LSG and Sports and the State Agency for Local capacities to manage and benefit from Self-Governance and Inter-Ethnic Relations participatory processes must be coupled with to model the Youth- and Child-Friendly skills development for adolescents and youth so Local Governance initiative. This provides a they may contribute to local planning processes framework for introducing child and adolescent in a constructive and effective manner. rights in local development planning. This is particularly relevant for girls and for Together with their communities, children adolescents and youth from minority groups. and adolescents will be able to bring their • Special attention must be paid to the role of well-being priorities to decision makers for elders in communities – which is grounded in consideration and hold them accountable for custom and traditional values – in helping to their actions. The duty bearers will facilitate ensure that youth engagement is perceived as adolescent and child-centred participatory a positive contribution to be encouraged and planning processes and report to the public facilitated, and not as either inappropriate or on progress. Such an approach can strengthen a threat. social cohesion as it involves collaborative action by people of different ethnic groups and WHAT’S NEXT? LSG for the good of the entire community. In specific, UNICEF will ensure that: UNICEF has further refined its approach to peacebuilding to tackle the conflict potential of • LSGs will extend evidence and participatory- extremist and exclusionary ideologies in contexts based policymaking with the aim of where adolescents and youth feel disenfranchised improving the realization of child and and powerless. UNICEF seeks to fill in the gaps adolescent rights. between frequently short-term conflict mitigation • National institutions will provide the policy projects through longer-term engagement with framework and incentives. LSGs, understanding that peace is a social • Children and adolescents will be supported process in which well-being and the fulfilment to develop skills and competences that allow of material needs and expectations are also them to contribute meaningfully to local instrumental. The UNICEF approach is to adapt planning, budgeting and monitoring; and interventions to the local context, support LSGs civic education and youth-designed outreach and national institutions to learn lessons from actions will be implemented to address child, them, and advocate for the scaling up of those adolescent and youth issues.
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 11 Barwaqo, 7 years old, “I like when the teacher reads to me. I like English the most.” Ayanle School in Ainabo, Sool region is supported by UNICEF under the Education in Emergency programme.
12 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES © UNICEF/UN0199837/Rich SOMALIA CASE STUDY
SETTING THE CONTEXT consultation with traditional and religious leaders, as well as with Somali stakeholders Somalia, including the self-declared independent from around the world, resulted in a transitional Somaliland, remains a fragile and conflict-prone constitutional arrangement and the basis for country due to the presence of armed groups, state-building was formed. Somalia’s Provisional competition for scarce resources and power, Constitution (2012) frames decentralization by state fragility, environmental degradation, the articulating that services should be provided by lack of a common national vision and social the lowest level of government where there is cohesion, and the proliferation of small arms.18 capacity to do so. The Provisional Constitution This challenging context is reflected in Somalia’s further recognizes that there is a continued need poor rankings in the Fragile States Index and the to clarify functions and revenue assignments Corruption Perceptions Index.19 The country is among the federal, state and local levels of currently on a trajectory towards greater stability, government. At the federal member state level however. There has been relative peace and there are some laws, policies and practices that stability in Somaliland and Puntland State of designate service delivery responsibilities to the Somalia since the mid-2000s. While Al-Shabaab state and local government levels, however, the still controls large areas in the southern part legal framework has many contradictions and of Somalia, the Somali government’s efforts to does not extend to the whole country. push the armed group out of major town centres have, with the support of the African Union and It is against this background that the United the international community, yielded results. A Nations Joint Programme on Local Governance federal structure has existed in Somalia since and Decentralized Service Delivery (JPLG) – 2012 and the Somali Compact has enabled the implemented by UNICEF, the United Nations emergence of new federal member states in Human Settlements Programme (UN Habitat), the southern part of the country.20 Although the United Nations Development Programme the state-building exercise is far from over, (UNDP), the International Labour Organization the process of establishing federal and state (ILO) and the United Nations Capital levels of government is largely complete. Local Development Fund (UNCDF) – was introduced governments (district/municipality) have been in 2008.21 At that time, district investment in operating in Puntland and Somaliland for service delivery was minimal and sporadic, and many years, but their establishment in the new state ministries continued to deliver services federal member states – a process closely tied in parallel to local government. A series of to other stabilization, conflict resolution and negotiations held between central and local reconciliation efforts – is just commencing. government authorities on the sharing of responsibilities for service delivery resulted in Trust in government was low among the the development of a decentralization policy population after a long conflict, and governance (and an accompanying road map) in Somaliland arrangements were deeply contested. Lengthy and Puntland, in 2013 and 2014 respectively.
18 After the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991, and in the absence of a for engagement in fragile states’ agreed at Busan in 2011. Its aim was to unified national government, Somalia split into three main zones: Somaliland provide ‘… an overarching strategic framework for coordinating political, (seen as a ‘special arrangement’ due to its self-declared independence), security and development efforts for peace and state building activities’”. Puntland State of Somalia, and South and Central Somalia. Manuel, Marcus, et al., The new deal in Somalia: An independent review of 19 Somalia is the second most fragile country in the world and the most the Somali Compact, 2014–2016, Overseas Development Institute, London, corrupt. See: Fund for Peace, Fragile States Index, 2016; Transparency April 2017. International, Corruption Perceptions Index, 2016. 21 The United Nations Joint Programme on Local Governance and Decentralized 20 The Government of the Federal Republic of Somalia and its partners agreed Service Delivery (JPLG) has since been implemented over two 5-year phases the Somali Compact in September 2013: “It was based on the ‘New Deal (2008–2012), entered its third phase.
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 13 The policy sets out the existing service UNICEF APPROACH TO PEACEBUILDING functions of local governments, such as waste management, business licensing and birth Theory of change (see Annex 1) registration, as well as a strategy for devolving The SDM is a ‘learning by doing’ exercise intended to local governments key functions in the to support local governments to carry out basic education, health, natural resources, roads, and devolved functions and contribute to improving water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sectors. access to, and the quality and consistency of, basic services available to the public. It seeks As a global advocate for children and the lead to demonstrate that districts can and should be United Nations agency in a number of service actively engaged in local service delivery. delivery sectors that have a direct impact on children’s well-being (e.g., health, education, The theory of change for the SDM is as follows:22 WASH, child protection), UNICEF has a keen • If a strong enabling environment for district- interest in strengthening systems and capacities led service delivery is established through the at all levels of the Somali government to deliver clarification of roles and responsibilities shared services effectively and equitably. By investing in among different tiers of government, better local government institutions that are uniquely collaboration and coordination on service positioned to support service delivery by virtue provision, and strong community engagement of their mandate and proximity to populations, and oversight, and UNICEF is able to expand and sustain people’s • If the ability of districts to effectively support access to social services, and safeguard health, service delivery is demonstrated through the education, WASH and child protection outcomes strengthening of their technical, management for children and their families. and oversight capacities and rigorous testing of their planning, procurement and financial In 2014, UNICEF led efforts to pilot decentralized management systems, and service delivery, in line with the Puntland and • If tangible evidence is provided of the added Somaliland decentralization road maps. The value of district engagement in local service service delivery model (SDM) piloted supports delivery, in terms of improving access to, and districts to perform their devolved service the quality and consistency of, basic services delivery functions in the areas of education, • Then there will be greater ownership and health and water. As a result, 12 districts have investment by districts in their service delivery been able to carry out minor rehabilitation and role, and greater recognition of and support and extension of primary schools and health and investment in district-led service delivery on the water facilities; oversee maintenance, repairs part of citizens, state and central governments, and garbage collection; regularly pay the implementing partners and donors. salaries of guards and cleaners as well as utility bills; establish public–private partnerships to In addition: manage water infrastructure; and support social • If districts secure sustained multi-stakeholder mobilization efforts, including hygiene and support and investment in their service delivery sanitation awareness and the promotion of girls’ role, then they will be able to effectively, access to education. consistently and equitably deliver on their service provision mandate, and thus contribute to community well-being • As a result, the social contract will be strengthened and there will be greater government legitimacy and improved resilience and social cohesion, which will contribute to more sustainable peace and human development outcomes for children, women and men.23
22 A major precondition is that local governments, through the JPLG and similar 23 For more literature on the evidence base regarding service delivery and programmes, receive the necessary legislative and capacity-building investments government legitimacy, see: Hamish Nixon, and Richard Mallett, Service needed to support their service delivery role. Such investments include broader delivery, public perceptions and state legitimacy: Findings from the Secure decentralization policy reforms and the strengthening of each district’s planning, Livelihoods Research Consortium, Secure Livelihoods Research Consortium, human resources, procurement and financial management systems. London, June 2017.
14 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES Key assumptions: • Provision of grants as co-funding to support • When local governments support the delivery districts to carry out their decentralized service of basic services, it helps to build their delivery functions and to test procurement, legitimacy. While increased access to services human resources management and other core does not necessarily result in increased district systems as they engage in the planning, government legitimacy, the manner in which tendering, contracting and monitoring of services are delivered (e.g., how people are rehabilitation, equipment, staffing and other treated, whether they have access to channels service delivery-related activities. of redress) – whether by state or non-state • Use of social accountability tools such as the providers – can have a positive impact on community scorecard to support citizens to perceptions of government. provide feedback and engage in dialogue with • When local governments are responsible district and regional authorities on local for implementing service delivery functions, service delivery. they will be more engaged in resolving • Advocacy efforts aimed at sharing district service delivery challenges in their localities. progress and achievements with the In a context where local governments have Somali public, state/central government, previously had limited involvement in local implementing partners and donors, and at service delivery, supporting them to carry out encouraging greater recognition and support specific service delivery functions increases for the service delivery role of districts. their contact with these services and the populations that use them, and makes them Key achievements better equipped and more likely to take Dialogue and coordination forums have action to resolve service delivery bottlenecks brought together state and local governments and grievances. to clarify functions and strengthen collaboration. UNICEF support for regular Programme interventions intergovernmental meetings, including inter- SDM inputs can be summarized as follows: ministerial committee/technical working group • Sector decentralization strategies that clarify meetings, sector coordination meetings and the service delivery functions, roles and joint monitoring visits, has contributed to responsibilities of different tiers of government. the building of trust and the strengthening • Dialogue and coordination platforms (e.g., of collaboration among different tiers of technical working group, sector coordination government. Regional and state authorities meetings) that bring together authorities from increasingly recognize, appreciate and support all levels of government to discuss issues the service delivery role of districts. For related to decentralized service delivery. example, the Ministry of Education devolved • Joint missions among officials from each level additional functions to districts in Somaliland in of government to monitor service delivery in 2016, including the payment of teacher top-up district-supported facilities. incentives and awareness-raising activities on • Technical consultants placed within key student enrolment in rural primary schools. ministries, tasked with supporting the roll-out, oversight and coordination of SDM activities Another product of the improved dialogue in target districts. has been the development of sector • Technical and oversight training for staff in decentralization strategies that present a district social affairs departments who have road map for the expansion of decentralized responsibility for overseeing social services in service delivery in the health and education their localities. sectors. As a result of these efforts, the latest • Service delivery planning and budgeting exercises Education Sector Strategic Plan for Somaliland that bring together district, regional and state (2017–2021) now includes a policy objective authorities to discuss service delivery priorities, to decentralize primary education functions target facilities and financial contributions (from to local governments, which demonstrates JPLG, district and ministry sources) as part of the growing alignment between decentralization provision of grants (see below). and sectoral policies and plans.
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 15 Increased local government ownership of and managed through public–private partnership investment in service delivery has resulted in companies. Strong district oversight has ensured significant increases in contributions to services that the population is able to access clean water from local revenues.24 Significant progress has at affordable prices. been made in stimulating district ownership of and investment in local service delivery. Of the With JPLG support, district authorities have also US$3.7 million in funding mobilized for the SDM demonstrated their ability to promptly respond pilots since 2014, district authorities in Puntland to service delivery challenges and thereby and Somaliland have invested more than US$1.1 contribute to the continuity of local services. million. In Somaliland alone, revenues from local This has included responding promptly to health sources represented 46 per cent of the SDM facility maintenance requests; acting fast to budget for 2017, with another 10 per cent of the rehabilitate schools affected by fires and strong budget coming from sector ministry sources. In winds, allowing the affected children to quickly Somaliland’s Berbera district, the revenues from return to their lessons; and making efforts to fill local sources directed towards service delivery gaps left by other service providers.25 District increased from US$40,000 in 2014 to US$242,705 officials are also emerging as strong advocates in 2017 (up by more than 600 per cent). for improved local service delivery, regularly raising concerns with sector ministries regarding Local government engagement in local service the management of front-line providers.26 delivery has increased service coverage and improved consistency. In 2017, 61,000 students in Local government authorities have progressively 272 primary schools in Puntland and Somaliland established legitimacy and increased public trust. benefited from improved learning environments The enhanced capacity of local governments to as a result of district support for classroom provide services that better respond to citizens’ rehabilitation and extensions, regular electricity needs has improved state–society relations. and water supply, and improved hygiene and Members of community education, health and security.8 Overall enrolment in public primary water committees now feel empowered to schools in Berbera district increased by 32 raise service delivery concerns directly with per cent between 2014 and 2017, while girls’ district officials and monitor their responses. enrolment increased by 36 per cent over the The community scorecard approach has been same period. Schools receiving support from instrumental in mobilizing citizen feedback and Garowe municipality in Puntland saw a 20 per dialogue with local governments and, ultimately, cent increase in overall enrolment in the 2017/18 stimulating demand for greater accountability in academic year as compared to the previous year, local service delivery. Target districts in Puntland while the enrolment of female students increased and Somaliland have also seen significant by 32 per cent year-on-year. As a result, these increases in tax revenues over the duration of schools have now achieved gender parity. the JPLG. Property taxes alone have increased by Users of 74 health facilities in Puntland and 485 per cent in Somaliland and by 196 per cent Somaliland have benefited from regularly in Puntland since 2008.27 The fact that citizens maintained and better equipped infrastructure, are now more willing to pay taxes is a strong improved hygiene due to the construction indicator of their trust and confidence in their of toilets and incinerators, and community local governments, and suggests that citizens sensitization to maternal and child health. Some have been able to make the connection between 6,000 households benefit from the rehabilitation their payments and improvements in local and extension of water facilities, which are now service delivery.
24 Unless otherwise stated, all figures in section 4 are taken from UNICEF service non-governmental organization that supported the facilities was forced to delivery model monitoring data, 2014–2018. withdraw due to funding constraints. 8 The Berbera, Boroma, Burao and Gabiley district authorities in Somaliland now 26 During a recent Education Sector Decentralization Coordination meeting in support 100 per cent of public schools in their localities. Hargeisa (Somaliland), the mayor of Berbera district raised the issue of the 25 In Boroma district (Somaliland), staff in one health facility lauded the 53 teachers in his locality who are not on the government payroll – cases responsiveness of district officials to their concerns and reported that they for which he has strongly advocated for regularization by the Ministry of had previously had to wait several months for broken windows to be repaired Education. He also urged the Ministry to quickly replace the 54 teachers who because of the long chain of accountability to state authorities. The district also had recently been transferred from his locality to work in other regions. stepped in to cover the salaries of guards and cleaners at several maternal and 27 UN Joint Programme on Local Governance and Decentralized Service Delivery in child health facilities not previously targeted by the SDM, after the international Somalia, Programme Annual Progress Report Period: 2017, Nairobi, February 2018.
16 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES © UNICEF/UN0315464/English
CHALLENGES AND LESSONS LEARNED High turnover has been a barrier to capacity- building efforts, as has low state investment, Challenges and risks both in terms of deploying qualified staff to • Delays in attracting additional funding for the districts and supporting their long-term service delivery at the local government level capacity-building needs. Until recently, local has exerted pressure on the SDM grants, which governments have also not prioritized the were designed to serve as catalytic funds to recruitment of skilled staff, particularly women, be replaced over time by funds from domestic to oversee service delivery. sources and bilateral donors. While the JPLG • Service delivery roles and responsibilities are has successfully leveraged funds from local still not fully understood, despite investment revenues to support service delivery, the in sector decentralization strategies and volume of economic activity, particularly for dialogue forums. Some sector ministries have rural local governments, remains low and shown resistance to the decentralized service consequently constrains the level of revenue delivery agenda, while there are districts that mobilization. Somalia’s nascent national public continue to invest in areas that fall outside of 28 financial management environment means their mandate. that the appetite for budget support is still very • A challenging operating environment, resulting limited, and delays in finalizing and formalizing from high operating costs and poor access and relevant functions and revenue assignments communications, continues to make it difficult has resulted in few intergovernmental transfers to support decentralized service delivery – and reaching districts. local governance programming in Somalia • Chronic capacity constraints mean that few more broadly – particularly in a context where of the district social affairs departments strong investment in capacity- and relationship- responsible for overseeing service delivery are building is needed within and among the three fully staffed and their skill levels remain low. tiers of government.
28 Some districts in Puntland and Somaliland continue to invest significant resources in secondary and tertiary education institutions even though local government laws restrict their mandate to primary education institutions only.
Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES 17 Lessons learned and recommendations CONCLUSION • Decentralized service delivery requires coordinated engagement by all relevant Through the decentralized SDM pilots ministries and levels of government, backed up implemented in Puntland and Somaliland, the by strong political will.29 JPLG has shown that local governments can • Sustaining decentralized service delivery have a clear and active role in local service depends on predictable funding and financing delivery, and that their investments can help arrangements. Policy discussions on the to improve access to, and the quality and transition to domestic financing must be an consistency of, basic services for the populations integral part of programming. they serve. JPLG experiences will be used to • Sustained advocacy is needed to further advocate for a clearer division of functions and articulate, align and implement the division of responsibilities for service delivery between state functions and responsibilities between state and local levels of government, and for greater and local levels of government, as a means technical and financial support for districts in of creating a stronger enabling environment their service delivery role. for decentralized service delivery. Continued advocacy that targets communities, state and As the JPLG moves into its third phase of central governments, donors and implementing programming, the focus in Puntland and partners is also important, both to raise the Somaliland will be on expanding decentralized profile of local governments as credible service service delivery by supporting the recruitment delivery partners and to mobilize greater of skilled staff at district level and investing in support for this role. their oversight and management capacities. • Sustaining local governance reforms in fragile The programme will further leverage revenues states calls for prolonged technical assistance from local sources to support service delivery to address systemic capacity gaps and to while advocating for additional domestic and provide stability in a turbulent political climate. international support (including from UNICEF • Engaging local government in service delivery programmes) to progressively replace the contributes to the improved resilience of, trust JPLG funding. A comprehensive yet realistic in and legitimacy of government. The role of approach to supporting decentralized service local government should therefore feature delivery will be adopted in the emerging federal more prominently in the peacebuilding and member states and districts, recognizing that development strategies of governments, their capacity levels vary significantly and donors and implementing agencies. that their revenue mobilization capacities in particular may be very limited. Building on the experiences in Puntland and Somaliland, UNICEF will strengthen local government capacities to gradually take on service delivery functions by investing from the outset in state dialogue and coordination platforms that can help to clarify service delivery roles and responsibilities and ensure the alignment of decentralization and sectoral policies and plans.
29 The Vice Presidents of Puntland and Somaliland have served as champions of local governance and decentralized service delivery. They have played a critical role in bringing together key stakeholders to drive policy change. A similar strategy will be adopted in the emerging federal member states.
18 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES A student writes on the blackboard at Qansahley Primary School in Dollow town, Somalia. The school has 851 students (of which 59 per cent are girls). The majority are from the nearby Qansahley settlement for internally displaced people and previously have not had access to formal schooling. © UNICEF/UN0316271/Knowles-Coursin ANNEX 1 SOMALIA SERVICE DELIVERY MODEL (SDM)
Theory of Change
SDM inputs
Sector decentralization strategies/plans Strong enabling environment • Clear roles and Coordination responsibilities platforms • Collaboration between tiers of government Sector • Community Local decentralization oversight governments strategies/plans take ownership of Demonstrated and invest in Local Stronger Technical local government local service governments social contract, consultants capacity delivery effectively increased contribute government • Technical, to equitable legitimacy, management and Training of local service and improved oversight capacity government delivery and resilience • Strong planning, staff community and social procurement well-being cohesion and financial Key Planning and management stakeholders budgeting systems recognize, support support and Sustainable invest in local peace and Demonstrated government- human SDM grants value-add led service development (co-funding) • Increased access delivery outcomes to, and quality and consistency Social of, basic services accountability tools
Other JPLG policy and Peace and development Advocacy capacity-building inputs programmes
20 Local Governance and Sustaining Peace CASE STUDIES Mohamed, 11 years old, had never been to school before he came to Ainabo to live with his relatives. “There are two things I like about school,” he says. “One, because I like to learn. Two, I want to serve my country. I want to go to university and become a teacher.” Ayanle School in Ainabo, Sool region is supported by UNICEF under the Education in Emergency programme. © UNICEF/UN0199838/Rich
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