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Farming Opportunity and Constraint in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania

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Farming Opportunity and Constraint in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2015 Changing Vulnerabilities in a Changing Climate: Farming Opportunity and Constraint in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania Paul O'Keefe Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Recommended Citation O'Keefe, Paul, "Changing Vulnerabilities in a Changing Climate: Farming Opportunity and Constraint in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania" (2015). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 6343. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/6343 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Changing Vulnerabilities in a Changing Climate: Farming Opportunity and Constraint in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania Paul O’Keefe Dissertation submitted to the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography Brent McCusker, Ph.D., Chair Karen Culcasi, Ph.D. Robert Maxon, Ph.D. Jeremia Njeru, Ph.D. Bradley Wilson, Ph.D. Department of Geology and Geography Morgantown, West Virginia 2015 Keywords: Livelihoods, Vulnerability, Climate Change, Tanzania, Kilimanjaro Copyright 2015 Paul O’Keefe ABSTRACT Changing Vulnerabilities in a Changing Climate: Farming Opportunity and Constraint in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania Paul O’Keefe This dissertation demonstrates that the vulnerability of households to both socioeconomic and environmental processes is found in unequal, differentiated ability to access the means of social production and reproduction. Place specific environmental and social factors co-produce specific manifestations of vulnerability, but the underlying causes and driving forces are to be found in the social formation and social relations of households in the case study area. The major finding of this dissertation is that changes in the social relations of production and reproduction are creating as much risk to livelihoods as climate change does, or is likely to do in the future. Vulnerability is not necessarily caused at all by a changing climate, rather it is found in the daily struggles over social production and reproduction. Most so called ‘environmental sources of vulnerability’ are not experienced equally, and their ultimate roots are found not in the ‘natural’ environment but in social relations. Household exposure and vulnerability to drought varied hugely over small distances, suggesting that environmental conditions do not affect all households equally. Vulnerabilities are experienced locally but are generated in socially scaled processes beyond household control. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the help of many people. My advisor, Brent McCusker has guided me through my doctoral studies with the wisdom of a sage and the patience of a saint. For this, I am eternally grateful. I must also thank the other members of my committee, Dr Karen Culcasi, Dr Robert Maxon, Dr Jeremia Njeru and Dr Bradley Wilson. They have provided fantastic advice that will stand me in good stead for the future. The support from those closest to me personally has also been invaluable. Thanks to Jess, who has stuck by me through thick and thin. I cannot thank you enough. Equally, my mother, father and my siblings who have encouraged me, or kept me thinking positively when I thought the end would never come. Fellow comrades and travellers under the tutelage of Brent: Jenn, Maingi, Josh, Joyce, Naomi and Franklin. We’ve all made it through or will do soon. I hope at points I can help you as you have helped me. This has been a journey that simply wouldn’t have been successful without the support of all these people, and many more. For that I can only give my humblest thanks, and eternal gratitude. Paul O’Keefe Morgantown, 2015 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page ...................................................................................................................................... i Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... v List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vi Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Climate Change and People Change: Dancing the Dialectic. ................................. 11 Chapter 3: Vulnerability and Capitals Generation in Tanzania: a case study of Kilimanjaro District ...................................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 4: Vulnerability and Livelihoods on Mt. Kilimanjaro ...................................................... 40 Chapter 5: Exploring radical conceptions of vulnerability in Tanzania ....................................... 58 Chapter 6: Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 74 References ................................................................................................................................. 79 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: The Livelihoods Framework ..................................................................................... 20 Figure 3.2: Case Study Location ............................................................................................... 22 Figure 3.3: Transect Locations ................................................................................................... 23 Figure 3.4: Rainfall variability in Rombo District Highlands 1995-2006 ...................................... 25 Figure 3.5: Rainfall variability in Rombo District Lowlands 1995-2006 ....................................... 26 Figure 4.1: Map of Research Location ....................................................................................... 43 v LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Research Methods .................................................................................................... 21 Table 3.2: Last Drought Experienced in Kilimanjaro Region ...................................................... 24 Table 3.3: Population Change in Kilimanjaro Region ................................................................. 26 Table 3.4: Results from Seasonality Calendar ........................................................................... 28 Table 3.5: Summary of Seasonal Vulnerability ........................................................................... 29 Table 3.6: Type of Building Material for Main Residence ........................................................... 32 Table 3.7: Membership of Formal Organizations ....................................................................... 35 Table 4.1: Results from Seasonality Calendar ........................................................................... 48 vi Chapter 1: Introduction This dissertation demonstrates that the vulnerability of households to both socioeconomic and environmental processes is found in unequal, differentiated ability to access the means of social production and reproduction. Place specific environmental and social factors co-produce specific manifestations of vulnerability, but the underlying causes and driving forces are to be found in the social formation and social relations of households in the case study area. The major finding of this dissertation is that changes in the social relations of production and reproduction are creating as much risk to livelihoods as climate change does, or is likely to do in the future. Vulnerability is not necessarily caused at all by a changing climate, rather it is found in the daily struggles over social production and reproduction. Vulnerability is only reduced in absolute terms when real development occurs, and the most vulnerable population groups in this case study are at best, only just coping with multi-scalar processes without the potential for real transformation to occur. Genuine vulnerability reduction will only occur if there are real changes in the mode of production that structures contemporary livelihoods, and most current attempts to identify adaptive pathways to reduce vulnerability within this mode of production are destined to be, at best, ‘sticking plaster’ temporary solutions. At worst they serve to reinforce existing
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