Tana River County This Project Was Supported by the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ)

Home , Central Province (Kenya), Tana River County, Western Province (Kenya)

FARM MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK OF KENYA

VOL. II

– Natural Conditions and Farm Management Information –

ANNEX: – Atlas of Agro - Ecological Zones, Soils and Fertilising by Group of Districts –

Subpart C2 Coast Province Tana River County This project was supported by the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ)

Farm Management Handbook of Kenya

VOL. I Labour Requirement, Availability and Costs of Mechanisation

VOL. II Natural Conditions and Farm Management Information

Part II/A WEST KENYA Subpart A1 Western Province Subpart A2 Nyanza Province

Part II/B CENTRAL KENYA Subparts B 1a/b Rift Valley Province, Northern (except Turkana) and Southern Part Subpart B2 Central Province

Part II /C EAST KENYA Subpart C1 Eastern Province, Middle and Southern Part Subpart C2 Coast Province

VOL. III Farm Management Information - Annual Publications were planned. The idea changed to Farm Managament Guidelines, produced by the District Agricultural Offices annually and delivered to the Ministry in April every year.

VOL. IV Production Techniques and Economics of Smallholder Livestock Production Systems

VOL. V Horticultural Production Guidelines

Publisher: Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya, in Cooperation with the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ) VOL. II is supplemented by CD-ROMs with the information and maps in a Geographical Information System. Additionally there will be wall maps of the Agro-Ecological Zones per district group (= the former large districts) for offices and schools. There is also a CD with the maps and the most important information for each district group (now county).

Layout by Ruben Kempf and Mike Teucher, Trier, Germany. Ministry of Agriculture

FARM MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK OF KENYA VOL. II

Annex: - Atlas of Agro - Ecological Zones, Soils and Fertilising by Group of Districts in Coast Province - Subpart C2 Tana River County

by Dr. Ralph Jaetzold Prof. emeritus of Geography, University of Trier / Germany

Helmut Schmidt Former Farm Management Research Officer from the former German Agricultural Team of the GIZ in the Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi

Dr. Berthold Hornetz Prof. of Agricultural Geography, University of Trier / Germany Dr. Chris Shisanya Prof. of Agroclimatology, Dept. of Geography Kenyatta University, Nairobi Contributions to the 1st Edition by: C.M. Kang´e & J.G.M. Muasya – assessment of farm management data; Dr. Mechthild Kronen – soil requirements list; Prof. Dr. H. Kutsch – computing of crop-water relations for yield probabilities; F.N. Muchena, B.J.A. van der Pouw, W. Siderius and W.G. Sombroek – basic soil maps; H. Ritz – district climate tables; R. Swoboda – execution of Small Farm Survey; C.G. Wenner & S.N. Njoroge – soil conservation; W. Zettelmeyer – computing farm data. Additional Contributions to the 2nd Edition by: Dr. J. Ahenda & P. M. Maluku, KEPHIS; G. Awinyo (GIZ) – as- sisting R. J. & digitizing of soil maps into GIS; Th. Buettel – support by analyzing remote sensing data; M. Fiebiger – rainfall data analysis, probability calculations, yield probabilities by simulation programs; B. Girkens - final computerized drawing of maps in GIS and other maps; Heike Hoeffler – project coordination in GTZ Nairobi; Ph. Karuri – assistance in the Farm Survey; Anna Kaufhold - final computerized drawing of fertiliser maps; Ruben Kempf – typing and layout; Elizabeth Kimenyi & Anne Njoroge – coordination of farm survey; Z. Mairura, Dir. of Farm Business Sub- division; S. N. Maobe (KARI); N. M. Maweu (KARI); Susanne Meissner - water availability & requirement diagrams, typing; M. Mueller – calculation and diagrams of growing periods, ENSO influence; Dr. Anne W. Muriuki & J.N. Qureshi – soil and fertiliser recommendation maps and information; Francis Muthami (GIZ); Dr. Dorothy Mutisya and Dr. J Ochieng – crops and fodder list; Birgit Schmidt – basics for maintaining and regaining soil fertility; Joshua Shivachi & Ch. R. Wambongo– analysing the Farm Survey data using SPSS software; M. Teucher - final computerized drawing of soil and fertilizer maps; Dr. Lusike Wasilwa – horticult. part of the crop list; J. Wieczorek – computeriza- tion of maps in GIS; tables and diagrams. PREFACE TO THE ATLAS The internet and CD versions of the handbook have technically a reduction of details: The most important information, the maps, are due to reduction of the 24 MB to the CD-size of 6 MB, not well readable (esp. formulas of the AEZ Subzones and of the soils). Therefore we prepared additional Atlas- CDs for each group of districts, containing the maps of Rainfall, Agro - Ecol. Zones and Subzones, Soils, anhd Fertilizer Recommendations together with the legends. These maps are produced as pdf-files and can be zoomed for easy reading.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT for the Support to the First Edition In compiling this Handbook, we have relied on the support of many officers from a variety of institutions too numerous to mention, who made available their data and experience. We would like to thank them for their invaluable assistance. I would also like to thank my colleagues, the Research Officers, the District Land and Farm management Officers, for their cooperation, and a special thank you to those who typed the draft edition. Our particular thanks go to Prof. Dr. Ralph Jaetzold, University of Trier, for his selfless support in compiling this handbook and for his assessment of the natural conditions including land and population. His deep understanding of the needs of agricultural extension officers and farmers was a great asset. Our thanks also to Dr. H. Kutsch, University of Trier, who computerized a large and complex amount of information involved in establishing the AEZs. Many thanks also to the staff of the Geographical Department of the University of Trier, Germany, for their major effort in drawing up maps of outstanding quality, the centrepiece of the work.

Helmut Schmidt Farm Management Research Officer Nairobi, May 1982

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT for the Support to the Second Edition In revising this Handbook, various personalities and institutions were relied upon to provide the necessary data required to update the previous data sets. In this regard, we would like to sincerely thank them for their invaluable input in the exercise. Special thanks go to the Ministry of Agriculture staff who undertook the Farm Surveys to elucidate on the fundamental changes that have taken place in farming at the household level. We are indeed very grateful to the people of Germany, who despite their limited financial resources, have continued to support Kenya. Of importance here is the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the German scientists who have been working for Kenya over the years. Last but not least, thanks to Mr. Reimund Hoffmann, the PSDA Coordinator, Nairobi, whose office ably managed the Handbook revision project.

Prof. Dr. Chris Shisanya Elizabeth Kimenyi Professor of Agroclimatology Assistant Director of Agriculture Dept. of Geography FMD, MOA Kenyatta University, Nairobi Kenya Nairobi, January 2009 Nairobi, January 2009

We want to thank very much also Mr. Zachariah Mairura, Deputy Dir. of Agri-Business Dep., for his engaged support of our inquiries in the districts 2009 and 2010.

Prof. em. Dr. Ralph Jaetzold Prof. Dr. Berthold Hornetz Retired Professor of Geography Professor of Agricultural Geography University of Trier, October 2010 University of Trier, October 2010 PREFACE to the Second Edition

Institutional memory is of paramount importance for planning and development. For any research or agricultural extension to be successful, information on the natural farming potential is equally important.

In an effort to consolidate research - extension work of many years, the first edition of the Farm Manage- ment Handbook (FMHB) of Kenya Vol II (Natural conditions and farm management information), which described the conditions of the Kenyan farming community at that time, was produced in 1982/83. The handbook was in three parts i.e.:

A – for Western Kenya (Western and Nyanza provinces) B – for Central Kenya (Central and Rift Valley provinces). C – for Eastern Kenya (Eastern and Coast provinces)

For more than two decades, the handbook has proved very valuable to researchers, planners, extensionists, developers etc. This is a document that has been sought for enormously and hence the need to revise it in order to accommodate the changes that have taken place in our country since the production of the first edition. Some of these include: changes in the administrative boundaries, opening up of new farming areas due to population pressure, many new crop varieties, etc.

This second edition has been produced on the basis of Provincial administrative boundaries for the six Provinces i.e. Western, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Central, Eastern and Coast. The information will be availed in hard copies and in CD – ROMS to facilitate updating any future changes.

It is not possible to acknowledge the contribution of all the individuals who made this edition a reality but I need to mention the following individuals:

Thanks to the Ministry of Agriculture officers, especially the Farm Management Division officers at the headquarters (Mrs. E.W. Kimenyi, Mr. F.N. Nderitu, Mrs. H.W. Njoroge, Mrs. A.W. Njoroge, Mrs. A. W. Wanyama, Mr. P.T. Karuri and most engaged Mr. Z. Mairura), and the District staff, for their selfless contribution; Prof. Dr. Chris Shisanya, leader of the revision team, for his tireless efforts and guidance; Prof. em. Dr. Ralph Jaetzold for his enormous knowledge on the definition of the agroecological zones and his great contribution to their mapping; George Awinyo (German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) – Private Sector Development in Agriculture (PSDA)) for his expertise and contribution in the area of Geographical Information Systems (GIS).

I also wish to thank the GTZ who have facilitated the production of this edition both financially and by the use of their personnel, specifically the late Prof. Werner van der Ohe who supported the idea of the revision, and Mr. Reimund Hoffmann (GTZ – Team Leader Private Sector Development in Agriculture PSDA), for supporting and taking up the task to completion.

Dr. Wilson Songa, OGW AGRICULTURAL SECRETARY Nairobi, January 2009 TANA GROUP 1 TANA GROUP 2

3.5 TANA group of DISTRICTS (South Eastern Part = Tana Delta District)

TABLE OF CONTENTS District Page

3.5.1 Natural Potential (R. Jaetzold et al.) 3 Introduction (R. Jaetzold) 3 Table 1: Rainfall Figures 4 Annual Rainfall Map (R. Jaetzold) 5 Seasonal Rainfall Maps (R. Jaetzold) 6 Table 2: Climate in the Agro-Ecological Zones 8 Agro-Ecological Zones Map (R. Jaetzold) 9 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones - Introduction (R. Jaetzold) 10 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones (= Legend to the AEZ Map), with Land Use Potentials and Water Availability & Requ. Diagrams (R. Jaetzold, B. Hornetz) 10 Soil Map (R. Jaetzold, M. Teucher & KSS) 15 Soil Distribution, Fertility and Major Characteristics (B. Hornetz & W. Siderius) 16 Legend to the Soil Map (KSS) 17

3.5.2 Population and Land (C. A. Shisanya, R. Jaetzold & C. Bureau of Statistics) see the big Vol. C2

3.5.3 Agricultural Statistics (R. Jaetzold & Min. of Agriculture) see the big Vol. C2

3.5.4 Farm Survey (Min. of Agriculture & C. A. Shisanya) 21 Table 11: Farm Survey Sites Representative of the Most Important Agro-Ecological Subzone and Unit 21 Farm Survey Area Map (R. Jaetzold) 32 Table 12: Assets, Land Use, Farming Intensity and Inputs see the big Vol. C2 Table 13: Cropping Patterns see the big Vol. C2

3.5.5 Introduction to the Actual Land Use Systems and to the Potential Intensification by Better Farm Management in the Most Important Agro-Ecological Subzone (Min. of Agr., C. A. Shisanya & R. Jaetzold) 23 CL 3 m i (vs) of the Coconut - Cassava Zone 24 Table 14: Increase of Yields by Better Farm Management in CL 3 m i (vs) 25

3.5.6 Final Statements (R. Jaetzold) 26

Note: Numbering of chapters is equivalent to numbering in Farm Management Handbook of Kenya TANA GROUP 3

3.5.1 NATURAL POTENTIAL

INTRODUCTION

The Tana River Group of districts is almost all Ranching Zone CL 6, except for the moist or irrigable areas near the river and a higher rainfall area near the coast in the southeast, adjoining Lamu West District. There extends the recently separated Tana Delta District. Therefore the maps and texts concentrate on this district of the group resp. county. There the average annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm and a Coconut-Cassava Zone CL 3 occurs. Within this zone, however, large stretches of soil are not suitable for these crops due to seasonal flooding or waterlogging (see Soil Map). The same is true for the Cashewnut-Cassava Zone CL 4 and partly for CL 5. In this Livestock-Millet Zone the problem of too short, scattered and unreliable rains dominates (see Diagram Ngao). Near the coast, the second rainy season is not pronounced.

On the other hand, there is some potential in the Tana valley and delta which is not shown by this climatic zonation: Crops are grown with soil moisture, and even rice is cultivated in some places. In future there will be large scale irrigation and water regulation project 1).

The large projects which will transform the delta are presently in the public focus but the traditional farming systems existing here should not be forgotten. The Farm Man. Guidelines2) list for the AEZs 5 and 6:

1. Traditional Riverine Agriculture This system uses residual moisture after the flooding in rainy season, groundwater and a bit irrigation. Cultivated are maize, rice, pulses, cassava and the perennials mangoes, some bananas and pawpaws. This system is practiced by Pokomos and some Ormas. They allso keep some livestock. Recently members of other tribes are settling too along the Tana River.

2. Pastoral Systems With Opportunistic Cropping on Residual Moisture This is found along the seasonal rivers which join the Tana. Wells are dug in the river bed after the rainy season for ground water. Maize and pulses are the major crops.

3. Crop Production Without Livestock This is practiced along the Tana River by pastoralists who have lost their livestock in a very hard drought. The main crop is maize, some fields are still in shifting cultuvation.

1) See the Reports of the Kenya Soil Survey and the special and sustainability maps for large-scale irrigated rice of the KSS. 2) Farm Management Guidelines, Tana River District 2011. Hola p. 4 TANA GROUP 4

TABLE 1: RAINFALL FIGURES FROM SELECTED TYPICAL STATIONS IN TANA TABLE 1: GROUPRAINFALL OF FIGURES DISTRICTS FROM HAVING SELECTED RECENTLY TYPICAL STATIONS AT LEAST IN TANA16 YEARS RIVER OF RECORDSGROUP OF DISTRICTS HAVING RECENTLY AT LEAST 15 YEARS OF RECORDS

Agro-Ecol. Annual Monthly & seasonal average rainfall in mm No. and Name of Kind of Zone and rainfall altitude Station records Subzone in mm J FMAMJ J A S OND

9139000 Bura Police outside of Average 467 13 10 48 82 30 11 11 10 82 25 85 61 90 m Station map Seas. Avs. 171 171

9140005 Galole Tana outside of Average 421 16 15 36 61 40 25 19 17 30 31 80 50 63 m Irrig. Scheme map Seas. Avs. 163 161

9140006 Tana Experim. outside of Average 423 14 15 29 59 60 35 18 19 18 36 62 57 71 m Station map Seas. Avs. 183 155

9240003 Witu, CL 3 Average 1203 47 4 39 129 285 162 91 54 32 113 136 111 1) 3 m D.O. m i (vs) Seas. Av. 706 360

Average 974 32 5 55 185 262 105 74 49 41 26 61 79 9240000 Kipini CL 3 Reliability* 895 0 0 11 117 169 62 39 26 8 4 22 5 3 m District Office m i Seas. Avs. 607 166

Average 708 15 12 41 87 126 65 40 36 79 59 95 53 Ngao CL 5 9240004 Methodist (vs/s) i Reliability* 589 3 0 5 58 81 53 19 19 14 23 42 10 19 m Mission + (vs) Seas. Avs. 319 207

Average 540 20 7 39 82 98 51 31 36 24 30 84 38 9240010 Garsen Water CL 5 Reliability* 465 1 0 20 57 58 29 24 11 16 7 78 20 20 m Dev. Dept. (vs/s) + vu Seas. Avs. 270 152

9240012 Karawa Vet. CL 5 Average 685 7 4 33 77 180 74 65 44 41 58 66 37 3 m Station s/vs i + vu Seas. Avs. 428 161 * 66% reliability = this amount will be surpassed in 10 out of 15 years 1)outside the district but very near to the boundary TANA GROUP 5 TANA GROUP 6 TANA GROUP 7 TANA GROUP 8

TABLE 2: CLIMATE IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Agro-Ecological Subzone Altitude Annual Annual 66% reliability 60% reliability of growing Zone in m mean average of rainfall 1) period temp. rainfall st nd st nd 2) in °C in mm 1 2 1 rainy 2 rainy Total rainy rainy season season season season in days in mm in mm in days in days 4) CL 3 m i vs 1050-1160 630-660 150-160 135-155 45-55 180-210 Coconut-Cassava m i (vs) 2-10 26.9-26.5 1000-1100 580-630 110-160 135-155 40-50 175-205 Zone m i 1000-1050 550-620 80-130 135-155 - - m/s i (vs) 950-1030 560-620 120-160 115-135 40-55 155-190 m/s i 950-1030 520-600 50-110 115-135 - - s/m i (vs) 980-1020 540-610 110-160 105-115 40-55 145-170 CL 4 s/m i 880-1020 500-560 50-110 105-115 - - Cashewnut- 1-50 26.9-26.4 s/m 900-950 400-520 50-80 105-115 40-55 145-170 Cassava Zone s i (vs) 820-1000 500-600 100-160 85-105 40-55 125-160 s i 800-1010 440-500 50-90 85-105 - - s/vs i (vs) 800-880 440-540 120-160 75-85 40-55 115-140 s/vs i 740-900 220-450 50-90 75-85 - - CL 5 vs/s i (vs) 690-800 180-500 90-160 55-75 40-55 95-130 Coastal Lowland (vs/s) i 1-60 27.03)-26.6 690-790 180-430 70-110 55-75 - - Livestock-Millet (vs/s) i + vs 580-740 180-300 110-160 55-75 40-50 - Zone (vs) + vu 520-690 150-180 80-140 40-55 <40 - CL 6 Coastal Lowland b r 20-100 28.03)-26.3 420-640 60-150 50-120 30-40 20-30 -- Ranching Zone

NOTES: 1) Amounts surpassed normally in 10 out of 15 years, falling during the agro-humid period which allows growing of most cultivated plants. 2) Only added if rainfall continues at least for survival (>0.2 E0 resp. 0.25 PET) of most long term crops. 3) Higher temperatures in the hinterland 4) Interrupted by a period with water supply between 0.2 and 0.4 E0 (resp. 0.25-0.5 PET) for more than 50 days (intermediate rains) AEZ map

TANA GROUP 9 TANA GROUP 10

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND SUBZONES

Introduction The Tana Delta District shows the typical zonation of the Kenyan Coastal belt from a Coconut-Cassava Zone = CL 3 to a Ranching Zone = CL 6 in the hinterland. But here the river Tana plays a big part in the agricultural potential (see Introduction to Chapter 3.5.1) which is now realized. The large delta plain is dominated by the hydrological situation and therefore the climatic zonation is very secondary there.

Legend to the Map

CL = COASTAL LOWLAND ZONES CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone with a medium cropping season, m i vs intermediate rains, and a very short one

Very good yield potential (av. more than 80 % of the optimum) Whole year: Mangoes

Good yield potential (av. more than 60-80 % of the optimum)1) 1st rainy season start norm. end of March: Coast comp., WS 202 and PH 4 maize, m. mat. white sorghum, m. mat. finger and bulrush (pearl) millet; dolichos beans2), green grams2), cowpeas2), yam beans (tubers), sweet potatoes, sunflower, m. mat. soya beans,trop. Lima beans7), groundnuts3), bambara groundnuts3)6), cotton (with danger of rain in open bolls), roselle; tomatoes, egg plants, kales, Chinese cabbage, chillies, sweet pepper, pumpkins, onions, water melons, cucumbers, garlic, guar beans10) Whole year, best planting time b. of April: Sisal; cashew nuts3), bixa, pawpaws, West Indian avocadoes; cassava; guavas, senna, castor

Fair yield potential (av. 40-60 % of the optimum)1) 1st rainy season: Rice in seasonal flooded grasslands or semipermanent swamps5); late mat. sorghum, pigeon peas (1st-2nd r.), chick peas on h. bl. soils after flooding (July-S.); simsim2) (fair-good); cabbage 2nd rainy season, start indistinctly m. O.: E. mat. foxtail millet, v. e. mat. sorghum; green grams (fair-poor) Whole year: Coconuts3), bananas, lemons and limes, oranges and grapefruit4), pineapples4), curcuma

Some marginal crops with poor yield potential (av. 20-40% of the optimum) 2nd rainy season: Sweet potatoes (necessary to cultivate to keep plant material for the next long rains); cowpeas; simsim

Pasture and forage Almost 1 ha/LU on secondary high-grass savanna between relicts of semi-deciduous tropical forest. Grazing also in seasonal waterlogged areas; down to about 0.2 ha/LU feeding Napier or Bana grass, siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum) and centro (Centrosema pubescens); fodder legumes also to improve pasture and soil horse tamarind (Leucaena tricandria)1) for browsing, Mimosa pudica under coconut trees CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone with a medium cropping season, m i (vs) intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short one

Small, potential almost the same as CL 3 m i vs but no reliable cultivation in 2nd rainy season. Special conditions on the banks of Tana River for fruit trees, rice, and dry season cultivation of maize and chick peas with soil moisture in delta flood plains

CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone with a medium cropping season m i followed by intermediate rains

(see Diagram Kipini) TANA GROUP 11

Good yield potential 1) 1st rainy season, start norm, end of March: Coast comp. and PH 4 maize, m. mat white sorghum, m. mat. finger and bulrush (pearl) millet (bristled var. PM 1); cowpeas2) , yam beans (tubers), sweet potatoes, sunflower like Kenya Almasi; m. mat. soya beans, tomatoes, egg plants, kales, Chinese cabbage, chillies, sweet pepper, pumpkins, onions, water melons, cucumbers, garlic, okra, roselle, trop. Lima beans7), guar beans10) Whole year: Sisal; mangoes, cashew nuts3), pawpaws, West Indian avocadoes, cassava3); bixa (good-fair), senna, castor

Fair yield potential1) 1st rainy season: M. mat. rice in seasonal flooded grasslands or semi-permanent swamps5); dolichos beans2), green grams2), m. mat. groundnuts3), bambara groundnuts (Apr.-Aug.)3)6) simsim2), cotton, cabbage Whole year: Coconuts3) (danger of bollrot disease), drought resistant bananas like Bocoboco and Zanzibarini, pineapples4), citrus (fair poor)

Pasture and forage More than 1 ha/LU on secondary high-grass savanna, feeding Napier or Bana grass and fodder legumes down to 0.2 ha/LU, siratro and centro to improve pasture and soil, horse tamarind for browsing1), Mimosa pudica under coconut trees; mangrove leaves

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a medium to short m/s i cropping season followed by intermediate rains

(See also Diagram Kipini)

Good yield potential 1) 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: M. mat. maize Coast Comp., e. mat. like Pwani Hybrid PH 4, m. mat. sorghum, m. mat. bulrush and finger millet;cowpeas (~ 60 %)2), dolichos beans; groundnuts3), bambara groundnuts3)6) (Apr.-Aug.); e. mat. trop. Lima beans7), yam beans (tubers), sweet potatoes; m. mat. sunflower like Kenya Almasi; m. mat. soya beans on h. and m. soils, e. mat. soya beans on light soils; kales, onions, pumpkins, chillies, sweet pepper, okra, egg plants, Chinese cabbage, garlic, water melons, cucumbers, guar beans 10) Whole year: Cashew nuts3), cassava3); sisal, mangoes

Fair yield potential1) 1st rainy season: E. mat. rice5) in semiperm. swamps; green grams (May/June-Aug./S.) and simsim2); cotton, safflor; cabbages, tomatoes Whole year: Pawpaws, senna, bixa

Some marginal crops with poor yield potential Whole year: Bananas, coconuts

Pasture and forage More than 1.5 ha/LU on secondary high-grass savanna; down to about 0.3 ha/LU feeding Bana grass, centro, siratro and Stylosanthes hamata (legumes also to improve pasture and soil), and planting horse tamarind for browsing. Mangrove leaf. Dry forest patches on free draining land, doum palm savanna on lower places; tsetse flies near forest

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a short to medium cropping season s/m i followed by intermediate rains

Potential almost as CL 4 m/s i but Pwani Hybrid maize, finger millet, sunflower Kenya Almasi, soya beans and cashew nuts only about 60 %, Coast Comp. maize and cowpeas2) only fair

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a short to medium s/m cropping season

Potential almost as CL 4 m/s i but cowpeas and simsim planted towards the end of 1st rainy season give only poor yields TANA GROUP 12

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a short cropping season, s i (vs) intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short one Small and varying soils, potential see Lamu Group of Districts

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a short cropping season s i followed by intermediate rains

Very small, climatic potential see Lamu District, but local flooding and soils in Tana River Delta must be observed

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a short to very short s/sv cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) i (vs) very short one Potential almost as CL 4 s i (vs) but 1st rains start normally b. of April; soya beans only fair CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone

CL 5 = Livestock-Millet Zone with a short to very short cropping season s/vs + vu followed by a very uncertain one

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start normally mid April: E. mat. sorghum, e. mat. pearl/bulrush millet (bristled var. PM 1)1), chick peas (late planted on heavy black soils) Whole year: Buffalo gourds (on light soils)8), Marama beans8)

Fair yield potential1) 1st rainy season: Cowpeas and grams (May-Aug.); e. mat. sunflower, e. mat. groundnuts3); e. mat. bambara groundnuts3)6), e. mat. soya beans; guar beans 10); onions Whole year: Drought resistant cassava, castor TANA GROUP 13

Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. local maize

Pasture and forage More than 3 ha/LU on dry acacia bushland; down to about 0.5 ha/LU on art. pasture of buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), feeding hay or silage of Mauritius and moth beans during dry season, and planting fodder shrubs like saltbush (Atriplex nummularia); mangrove leaf CL 5 = Livestock-Millet Zone with a very short to short vs/s i cropping season, intermediate rains, (vs) and a (weak) very short one

Good yield potential1) 1st rainy season, start norm. Apr.: E. mat. foxtail millet; green grams; luffa gourds, water melons Whole year: Buffalo gourds(on light soils)8) and Marama beans8) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. pearl/bulrush millet (bristled var. PM 1)1), v. e. mat. sorghum (both grain crops fair-good); chick peas (late planted on h. bl. soils), cowpeas1), black grams1), e. mat. bambara groundnuts1); v. e. mat. dwarf sunflower1), simsim (May-Aug.)1) 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: Cowpeas for leaves, green grams (fair-poor) Whole year: Sisal1), castor1), drought resistant cassava (fair-poor)1), jatropha

Pasture and forage 2.5-4 ha/LU on sclerophytic evergreen bushland (partly tsetse infested), around 2 ha/LU on seasonally flooded grassland; down to about 0.5 ha/LU on art. pasture of buffel grass, feeding leaves of legumes like Mauritius or Marama beans, and planting fodder shrubs like saltbush or trees like Gao tree (Acacia albida, on good soils) CL 5 = Livestock-Millet Zone with a (weak) very short cropping season (vs/s) i followed by intermediate rains

Very small and unimportant

Good yield potential Whole year: Buffalo gourds(on light soils)8) and Marama beans8) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start around b. of April: E. mat. dwarf sorghum, e. mat. pearl/bulrush millet (bristled var. PM 1), green grams, luffa gourds Whole year: Sisal Pasture and forage Almost as CL 5 vs/s i (vs) but stocking rates about 20 % lower CL 5 = Livestock-Millet Zone with a (weak) very short to short cropping (vs/s) i season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short one + (vs) Almost as CL 5 vs/s i (vs) but good potential there is only fair here; stocking rates about 10 % lower, jatropha fair (see Diagram Ngao), ye-eb nuts 9) CL 5 = Livestock-Millet Zone with a (weak) (vs) + i very short cropping season and intermediate rains

Fair to poor yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. b. of April: V. e. mat. foxtail millet (40-50%), v. e. mat. pearl/ bulrush millet (PM 1 & PM 4); green grams Whole year: Buffalo gourds (on light soils)8), Marama beans8), ye-eb nuts9), sisal

Pasture and forage 3.5-5 ha/LU on small-leaved bushland; situation improvable by fodder plants like saltbush and Gao trees (on good soils) TANA GROUP 14

CL 6 = Coastal Lowland Ranching Zone CL 6 = Coastal Lowland Ranching Zone b r with bimodal rainfall

No rainfed crops for good or fair results except desert plants like buffalo gourds or ye-eb nuts. More than 4.5 ha/LU on short grass savanna mixed with small-leaved bushland; improvable by fodder shrubs like saltbush and on good soils by Gao trees

1) Not in waterlogged areas or during times of waterlogging, except rice and partly sorghum, sweet potatoes 2) Inter- or relay-planted in maize during June, cowpeas and chick peas also on places where the waterlogging has just gone 3) Not on heavy soils 4) Not top quality 5) In deep water floating rice varieties from Bangladesh 6) Gives reasonable yields also on poor soils 7) Very sensitive to salinity 8) Still experimental. Plants produce also tubers after some time (more than one year) 9) Cordeauxia edulis from Somalia 10) Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (Leguminosae) from India; vegetable or fodder, seeds contain gum; Nitrogen collector TANA GROUP 15 TANA GROUP 16

SOIL DISTRIBUTION, FERTILITY AND MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS

The extensive "grey-clay" plain of Garissa district merges gradually into the coastal plains of the Lamu district. Relief differences are small but important for soil water conditions. On both sides of the Tana river fertile alluvial plains occur which give way to the deltaic environment encountered west of Kipini. The main problems for land use there are water regulation and irrigation.

Along the coast dunes are found, backed by swamps or floodplains; then a belt of older and younger coastal beach ridges occupy one zone of the district in an east-west direction. The northern and northwestern part of the district group consists of sedimentary plains of upper river terraces and of large alluvial fans. Due to their plio-pleistocene bay origin they widely contain saline and/or sodic subsoils and possess a low fertility.

Marine (non-)consolidated sediments are the parent rock for most of the coastal plains (Pc). In the southern part of the district group soils of unit Pc 5 of low fertility occur. Sometimes they are also associated with less fertile soils of unit PcJ 2.

Soils of units Z 1 and Z 2 of low fertility are encountered on slightly higher topography, as they are found on former coastal beach ridges, and often orientated in a SW-NE direction. Soils of unit D 2, developed on dunes and of low fertility, are found along the coast.

Lower topographical positions on the plains are typical bottomlands (B), like soils of units B 15 of high fertility and B 16 of low to moderate fertility. Alluvials soils (A) of the Tana river floodplains are shown in map units A 8, A 12, A 15 and A 16. In general, they are of a moderate to high fertility.

LEGEND TO THE SOIL MAP OF TANA DELTA DISTRICTS

1 Explanation of the first character(physiography)

H Hills and Minor Scarps (hilly to steep; slopes predominantly over 16%; relief intensity up to 100 (Minor Scarps) to 300 m (Hills)

F Footslopes (at the foot of hills and mountains; gently undulating to rolling; slopes between 2 and 16%; various altitudes)

Pc Coastal plains

Pd Dissected erosional plains

Pf Sedimentary plains of large alluvial fans

Pn Non - dissected erosional plains (very gently undulating to undulating; slopes between 0 and 8%; various altitudes)

Ps Sedimentary plains

Pt Sedimentary plains of upper river terraces

A Floodplains and River Terraces (almost flat to gently undulating; slopes between 0 and 5%; various altitudes; seasonally flooded or ponded)

B Bottomlands (flat to gently undulating; slopes between 0 and 5%; various altitudes; seasonally ponded) TANA GROUP 17

D Dunes

Lc Coastal plateaus

T Tidal flats and Swamps

Z Lake-side Beach Ridges (very gently undulating; slopes between 2 and 5%)

2 Explanation of second character (lithology) A (alluvial) sediments from various sources E Eolian sediments (cover sands) F Gneisses rich in ferromagnesian minerals, hornblende gneisses J Lagoonal deposits K Siltstones L Limestone, calcitic mudstones O Plio - Pleistocene bay sediments S Sandstones, grits, arkoses U Undifferentiated Basement System rocks (predominantly gneisses) W Marls

3 Soil descriptions

H 22 Well drained, shallow, brown, friable, rocky and stony, sandy clay loam; on hills and plateaus remnants: eutric REGOSOLS, lithic phase

F 19 Excessively drained, very deep, reddish yellow, loose, sand to loamy sand: luvic ARENOSOLS, with ferralic and albic ARENOSOLS

Pc 3 Imperfectly drained, deep to very deep, very dark greyish brown to olive brown, mottled, firm to very firm, sandy clay to clay; moderately calcareous and moderately saline and sodic throughout or in deeper subsoils: luvo - orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase and vertic LUVISOLS, saline - sodic phase)

Pc 4 Moderately well drained, very deep, yellowish brown to greyish brown, mottled, very firm, sandy loam to sandy clay loam, with a very thick (60 - 100cm) topsoil of light brownish grey to yellow, friable loamy sand; with inclusions of many small bottomlands of unit B 16 : gleyic to albic LUVISOLS, sodic phase with ferralo - chromic LUVISOLS, dystric or solodic PLANOSOLS and cambic ARENOSOLS

Pc 5 Imperfectly drained to poorly drained, very deep, grey to brown, mottled, very firm clay; slightly calcareous and strongly saline and sodic throughout or in deeper subsoil: gelyic SOLONETZ, saline phase with gleyic or verto - luvic PHAEOZEMS, saline - sodic phase

Pc 10 Imperfectly drained, deep, greyish brown, mottled, firm, slightly calcareous, non to slightly saline, slightly sodic sandy clay loam, abruptly underlying a thick topsoil of friable loamy sand: solodic PLANOSOLS

Pd 4 Complex of: well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark red to yellowish brown, non to moderately calcareous, friable to firm, stony sandy clay loam, over petrocalcic material or quartz gravel: calcic CAMBISOLS, lithic or petrocalcic phase with chromic LUVISOLS TANA GROUP 18

Pd 6 Complex of: well drained, shallow, dark reddish brown to strong brown, non to moderately calcareous, firm, stony gravelly loam to sandy clay loam, partly over petrocalcic material: chromic CAMBISOLS to orthic LUVISOLS, lithic or paralithic phase with calcic CAMBISOLS, petrocalcic phase

Pf 1 Well drained, very deep, dark red to dark brown, firm , sandy clay loam to clay: undifferentiated LUVISOLS

Pf 2 Well drained, very deep, reddish brown, friable to firm, slightly to moderately calcareous, sandy clay to clay, with a saline and sodic deeper subsoil; basin lands: calcic XEROSOLS, saline - sodic phase

Pf 3 Complex of: well drained to imperfectly drained, very deep, reddish brown to grey, firm clay of varying calcareousness, salinity and sodicity, in many places with a strongly sealing topsoil; with inclusions of well drained, very deep, brown. loose loamy sand; levee complex: luvo - orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase with solodic PLANOSOLS, sline phase, chromic VERTISOLS, saline - sodic phase and cambic ARENOSOLS

Pf 4 Moderately well drained, very deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, firm, moderately calcareous, moderately to strongly saline, strongly sodic, sandy clay to clay; levee complex: orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase with orthic SOLONCHAKS, sodic phase

Pf 5 Imperfectly drained, very deep, dark reddish brown to dark greyish brown, firm, moderately calcareous, moderately to strongly saline, strongly sodic, cracking clay; basin lands: chromic VERTISOLS, saline - sodic phase

Pn 8 Well drained, deep to very deep, dusky red to dark red, friable sandy clay: rhodic FERRALSOLS

Ps 3 Well drained, deep to very deep, dark red to dusky red, friable, sandy loam to sandy clay loam: ferralo - chromic ACRISOLS with ferralic ARENOSOLS and ferric LUVISOLS

Ps 5 Imperfectly drained, very deep, red to reddish brown, firm, slightly calcareous, moderately saline and moderately sodic, sandy clay, abruptly underlying a topsoil of loamy sand: solodic PLANOSOLS and luvo - orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase

Ps 6 Well drained, very deep, dark brown to reddish brown, friable, sandy clay loam to sandy clay: orthic LUVISOLS

Ps 15 Imperfectly drained, moderately deep, brown, extremely firm, moderately calcareous, moderately sodic, clay loam, with a topsoil of sealing sandy loam: luvo - orthic SOLONETZ

Ps 16 Imperfectly drained to poorly drained, deep, greyish brown, extremely firm, slightly calcareous, moderately saline, moderately sodic, cracking clay, with a very thin topsoil (generally less than 5 cm) of sandy clay loam: gleyic SOLONETZ, saline phase

Ps 17 Poorly drained, deep, dark grey, firm, moderately calcareous, slightly sodic, clay, with a soft surface: calcaric GLEYSOLS, sodic phase TANA GROUP 19

Ps 19 Complex of: unit Ps 15 and unit Ps 16

Ps 20 Imperfectly drained, deep, brown, extremely firm, slightly calcareous, slightly sodic, clay loam, abruptly underlying a thick topsoil of sealing sandy loam: solodic PLANOSOLS

Ps 23 Imperfectly drained, deep, brown, very firm, moderately calcareous, moderately saline, moderately sodic, clay loam, with a thin topsoil of strongly sealing sandy clay loam: luvo - orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase

Pt 1 Well drained, deep, dark reddish brown, to reddish brown, friable, sandy clay loam to sandy clay, over pisocalcic material: calcic LUVISOLS, pisocalcic phase with chromic LUVISOLS, and pellic to chromic VERTISOLS, saline - sodic phase

Pt 4 Moderately well drained to imperfectly drained, very deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, firm, moderately calcareous, moderately saline, moderately to strongly sodic, cracking clay: orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase

A 5 Well drained to imperfectly drained, very deep, brown to dark brown, friable, micaceous, slightly calcareous, sandy loam to clay loam; in places with a saline - sodic deeper subsoil: eutric FLUVISOLS

A 8 Well drained to imperfectly drained, very deep, dark brown to yellowish brown, stratified, micaceous, strongly calcareous, predominantly loamy soils: calcaric FLUVISOLS

A 12 Imperfectly drained to poorly drained, very deep, dark reddish brown to dark greyish brown, firm to very firm, cracking clay; in many places mottled and with a calcareous, saline and sodic deeper subsoil: chromic VERTISOLS, saline - sodic phase

A 15 Poorly drained, deep, very dark grey, mottled, firm clay, with a humic topsoil and a sulfidic deeper subsoil: mollic GLEYSOLS

A 16 Very poorly drained, very deep, dark grey, soft (unripe), strongly saline, strongly sulfidic, clay: thionic FLUVISOLS, saline phase

B 15 Imperfectly drained to poorly drained, very deep, light brownish grey to brown, mottled, firm to very firm, clay; in places sodic and cracking; higher - level depressions: gleyic PHAEOZEMS with verto - luvic PHAEOZEMS and pellic VERTISOLS, sodic phase

B 16 Poorly drained, very deep, greyish brown, mottled, very firm clay, abruptly underlying a topsoil of friable, humic sandy clay loam; lower - level depressions: humic PLANOSOLS

D 2 Excessively drained, very deep, brown to pale brown, loose, sand to loamy sand: cambic ARENOSOLS TANA GROUP 20

Lc 3 Excessively drained, very deep, yellowish red to pale yellow, loose, loamy sand to sandy loam: ferralic ARENOSOLS with albic ARENOSOLS

T Very poorly drained, very deep, olive to greenish grey, soft (unripe), excessively saline, moderately to strongly sodic, loam to clay; in many places with sulfidic material: thionic FLUVISOLS, saline phase and gleyic SOLONCHAKS

Z 1 Well drained, very deep, red, very friable, sandy clay loam: rhodic FERRALSOLS

Z 2 Moderately well drained, very deep, dark brown to reddish brown, firm to very firm, often moderately sodic, sandy clay loam, underlying a thick topsoil of friable loamy sand; in places shallow over coral rock: ferralo - chromic / orthic ACRISOLS, sodic phase with solodic PLANOSOLS

Notes for definitions (of underlined words): mollic Nitisols and chromo-luvic Phaeozems: soils are equally important mollic Nitisols, with chromic-luvic Phaeozems: Nitisols are prevalent in places: in < 30% of the area in many places: in 30-50% of the area predominantly: in > 50% of the area deeper subsoil: below 80 cm

3.5.2 POPULATION AND LAND see main Volume Coast Province

3.5.3 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS see main Volume Coast Province TANA GROUP 21

3.5.4 FARM SURVEY IN TANA DELTA DISTRICT

During the 2004 Farm Survey, the best agro-ecological zone, CL 3, was selected to represent the vast Tana Delta District (Table 11). The data collected during the 2004 FS on various agricultural aspects are presented in Table 12 while the cropping pattern results are presented in Table 13. The average total land size per household was 4.60 ha, an indication that land was not yet a problem in Tana Delta District. The average land for annual and permanent crops was 1.5 ha and 1.58 ha, respectively. There was no mention of land allocated for permanent pasture and fodder, perhaps due to the absence of cattle keeping by households. Communities (tribes) in Tana Delta District are distinct by their livelihoods: pastoralism or agriculture. This usually leads to conflict arising from competition for Tana River flood plains. The flood plains are usually used by agriculturalists for farming and at the same time by pastoralists who rely on them for grazing during the dry season. It is possible that Matapani is an agricultural area hence, cattle keeping has not been embraced. Nonetheless, households keep sheep and goats, with an average of 2 per household statistically, 5 per households which have these animals really. Lack of pasture land (with committed to crop farming) makes sheep and goat keeping trickier.

There are two growing seasons in Tana Delta District, with average acreage of 1.6 ha per family for long rains and 1.1 ha for short rains (Table 13). The main crops grown in AEZ CL 3 of Tana District are maize, green grams, cassava, cowpeas and cotton. Bananas and fruits are the main perennial crops grown on 0.68 ha per farm of the sampled population (Table 13). In Table 12, however, 1.58 ha are listed for permanent crops. It could be that coconuts were forgotten to count in Table 13.

At least 62% of the respondents used improved seed cultivars, mainly of maize. However, use of fertilizer (chemical & organic) and insecticides was not reported in the farm survey area of the district.

TABLE 11: FARM SURVEY SITE Representative of the Most Important Agro-Ecological Zone, Subzone and Unit 1)

Agro-Ecological Unit District 2004 No. in Farm Survey Sites Kenya AEZone Subzone Soil Unit Kipini Division, Kipini Location, Tana River 200 CL 3 m i (vs) Pc 4 Matapani Sub-location

1) A second proposed FS Site did not collect data.

Tables 12: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS see main Volume Coast Province

Tables 13: CROPPING PATTERN see main Volume Coast Province TANA GROUP 22 TANA GROUP 23

3.5.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTUAL LAND USE SYSTEMS AND POTENTIAL INTENSIFICATION BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN DOMINATING AGRO- ECOLOGICAL SUBZONES IN TANA RIVER GROUP OF DISTRICTS

In order to realize the main task of the farm management, a question targeting specifically the inputs used by farmers and resultant increase in yields was included in the Small Farm Survey questionnaire that was conducted. In each survey area the purposively sampled 30 farmers were divided into 3 groups: one group applying low inputs, a second one medium inputs, and a third one high inputs. The difference between these groups shows the amount of yields that can be realistically achieved by the farmers practicing better farm management. The column with the yield potential finally shows figures under optimal soil conditions, water supply, crop husbandry and pest control, which is the ultimate goal of any farmer.

More detailed information can be found together with calculations of profitability in the Farm Management Guidelines of each district. The tables found there are not yet sufficiently correlated with the relevant and most suited Agro-Ecological Units, which are necessary for the calculation of expected yields and the amount of inputs. The amount of fertiliser per soil unit is described in MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual, KARI 2001. For more details, see Chapter 3.2.6.

In terms of aerial expanse, the dominant zone in which field data were collected from, in the Tana Delta District is: CL 3. An additional important reference material is “Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self- employment”. First published in 1997 by Information Research and Communication Centre (IRACC) & Marketing Support Services Ltd, Nairobi. TANA GROUP 24

Subzone CL 3 m i (vs) of the Coconut – Cassava Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Coconut-Cassava Zonewith a medium cropping season, intermediate rains and a (weak) very short cropping season as typified by Kipini Location, Matangeni Sub-location, in Kipini Division. The dominating soil is well drained, very deep, dark red to strong brown, firm, sandy clay loam to sandy clay, underlying medium sand to loamy medium sand: chromic and ferralo-orthic LUVISOLS. The average annual rainfall amount is between 1050 – 1230 mm*. The first rainy season can expect more than 400 – 800 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons and second rainy season > 50 – 130 mm*. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the 1st and 2nd seasons is 155 – 170 and 40 days, respectively.

Although this is a coconut zone, no farmer reported farming it. This is not to say that coconuts do not grow in this Subzone. Indeed several farmers have coconut trees in their homesteads. The food crops reported being grown by farmers include: maize, green grams, cassava, cowpeas (Table 13). The maize yields have remained somewhat low (Table 14) because of low input application by farmers (Table 12 & 14). The cash crop reported being grown is cotton. It must be pointed out here that cotton yields in this Subzone have been very low because of neglect by farmers when the existing ginneries broke down and the poor market incentives. Currently, this enterprise is slowly picking up with the promise by government to improve infrastructure and markets.

Livestock keeping is very important in this Subzone. The indigenous cattle of Africa are the product of generations of natural selection in the face of drought and disease. Trypanosomiasis, a haemoparasitic disease transmitted by tsetse flies, is widespread throughout much of the Subzone and has taken its toll on cattle in tsetse infested areas of the district over the centuries. Cattle breeds with varying degrees of resistance to the disease have thus evolved, and the term trypanotolerance is used to describe livestock that exhibit some degree of natural resistance to trypanosomiasis. The term is generally associated with Bos taurus cattle in West Africa: N’Dama cattle in particular exhibit a highly developed trypanotolerance which has been the subject of many research investigations. In contrast, trypanotolerance amongst East African breeds, although reported as early as 1913, has largely been ignored. Large areas of East Africa are tsetse infested, and it is only in this century that drugs or tsetse control have afforded some protection from the disease. It is not surprising then to find that natural selection for resistance to trypanosomiasis has also occurred amongst the indigenous Zebu cattle of East Africa. The Boran type cattle of the Orma people in the Tana River district of Kenya is an indigenous Bos indicus breed which is superior to other Bos indicus cattle under high tsetse challenge.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone TANA GROUP 25

TABLE 14: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 3 m i (vs), PcJ 6 Subzone: m i (vs), Soil Unit: PcJ 6 Survey Area 200 (Matangeni) Crop Yields3) AEZ: CL 3 COCONUT – CASSAVA ZONE and Inputs Sub-zone: m i (vs) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season 155-170, 2nd rainy season 40 days) Unit with predom. Soil: PcJ 6 = well drained chromic and ferralo-orthic LUVISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season >400 – 800 mm in at 2nd rainy season: >50 – 130 mm in at least 10 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local I= low II= med.4) III= high5) AEU Pot.6) I= low II= III= AEU monocropped med.4) high5) Pot.6) Yields3) kg/ha 1500 500 Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha 3 1 Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha * Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years; growing periods may be considered longer due to immediately following second rainy season by middle rains. Then the second growing period is shorter than the given figures 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient *Potential not yet determined under the agroecological unit TANA GROUP 26

3.5.6 FINAL STATEMENTS

It is not possible to make such statements in the present phase of gigantic changes in Tana Delta District. For the small farmer there will be chances in horticulture and dairy for the supply of the labourers. The Farm Survey has shown that there are still capacities to develop in AEZs 3 and 4 towards this purpose.

Here it is not the place to evaluate or criticise the projects. Regarding the coming shortage in food and energy it was clear that such large resources as they are in the delta and its vicinity must be used, although it will be a loss of nature (wildlife, natural vegetation, landscape, water).

Finally it must be stated again, that besides the possibilities of industrial agriculture the rights and living conditions of the local small farmers, fishermen and pastoralists have to be observed closely.

There is an increasing other problem caused by the growing population: The land shortage will force people to settle in the non-agricultural Ranching Zone CL 6. If they avoid overgrazing to maintain the productivity of the vegetation and improve the "chance cropping" by requesting the Kenya Met. Dept. if an ENSO- season is coming (especially for the 2nd rains),1) then they have a chance.2)3)

1) See EWS Bulletin, Sept. 2010 Taita Taveta District, p.2 & 13. 2) SHISANYA, Chris A.: Chances and Risks of Maize and Bean Growing in the Semi-Arid Areas of South-East Kenya During Expected Deficient, Normal and Above Normal Rainfall of the Short Rainy Seasons.-Mat. zur Ostafrika-Forschung, Heft 14. Geograph. Gesellschaft Univ. of Trier 1996. 3) See Annex, Chapter 1.2.3