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A Landscape Approach to the Surface Archaeology of the Bos River, Tankwa Karoo, Northern Cape

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A Landscape Approach to the Surface Archaeology of the Bos River, Tankwa Karoo, Northern Cape A Landscape Approach to the Surface Archaeology of the Bos River, Tankwa Karoo, Northern Cape Matthew Shaw October 2017 Town Cape of University This dissertation is presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town Supervisors: Prof. John Parkington & Dr. David Braun The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derivedTown from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes Capeonly. of Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University This serves as acknowledgement that I understand the meaning of plagiarism and to declare that all the work presented in this thesis is my own, unless otherwise referenced Matthew Shaw 12/10/2017 Contents Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….i List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vi Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….ix Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: The Stone Ages in South Africa 7 2.1 The Stone Ages and relevant iconic artefacts….…………………………………………………..8 2.2 The Earlier Stone Age (ESA) ………………………………………………………………………………10 2.2.1 The Oldowan………………………………………………………………………………………10 2.2.2 The Acheulean……………………………………………………………………………………11 2.2.3 The Fauresmith…………………………………………………………………………………..13 2.3 The Middle Stone Age (MSA)…………………………………………………………………………….15 2.3.1 Late ESA/early MSA…………………………………………………………………………….16 2.3.2 The Still Bay (SB) ………………………………………………………………………………..18 2.3.3 The Howiesons Poort (HP)………………………………………………………………….20 i 2.3.4 The post-Howiesons Poort………………………………………………………………….21 2.3.5 Non-lithic Material……………………………………………………………………………..24 2.4 The Later Stone Age (LSA) …………………………………………………………………………………25 2.4.1 Earlier Later Stone Age and the Robberg…………………………………………….27 2.4.2 Oakhurst or Terminal Pleistocene/early Holocene non-microlithic……..28 2.4.3 Wilton or Holocene microlithic……………………………………………………………28 2.4.4 Ceramic final LSA or Late Holocene assemblages………………………………..29 Chapter 3: A Landscape Approach to South African Archaeology 31 Chapter 4: Study Area – The Bos River, Tankwa Karoo 51 4.1 Rainfall………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....52 4.2 Vegetation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………54 4.3 Geology and raw materials.…………………………………………………………………………......56 4.3.1 Cape Supergroup………………………………………………………………………………..57 4.3.2 Karoo Supergroup………………………………………………………………………………58 Chapter 5: Methods 63 5.1 Project setup – choosing a location…………………………………………………………………..63 5.2 Fieldwork…………………………………………………………………………………………………….......66 5.2.1 Survey methods………………………………………………………………………………….66 ii 5.2.2 Recording methods – artefacts……………………………………………………………69 5.3 Post-fieldwork analysis………………………………………………………………………………………72 5.3.1 Extraction of data……………………………………………………………………………….72 5.3.2 E4 – Data entry program…………………………………………………………………….73 5.3.3. Initial analysis of the artefacts……………………………………………………………73 5.3.4 Technological organisation of artefacts………………………………………………74 5.4 Artefact categories……………………………………………………………………………………………77 5.4.1 Non-iconic artefacts……………………………………………………………….............77 5.4.2 Iconic/temporally diagnostic artefacts……………………………………………….79 5.4.3 Raw materials…………………………………………………………………………………….84 Chapter 6: Results 88 6.1 Artefact distributions………………………………………………………………………………………..88 6.1.1 ESA artefact distribution…………………………………………………………………….91 6.1.2 MSA artefact distribution……………………………………………………………………93 6.1.3 LSA artefact distribution……………………………………………………………………..95 6.2 Raw material use………………………………………………………………………………………………99 6.2.1 Raw material preferences…………………………………………………………………..99 6.2.2 Raw material cortex…………………………………………………………..……………..100 6.3 Technological classification……………………………………………………………………………..102 iii Chapter 7: Discussion 109 7.1 ESA and ESA/MSA……………………………………………………………………………………………111 7.1.1. Artefact distribution………………………………………………………………………..111 7.1.2 Water availability……………………………………………………………………………..115 7.1.3 Raw material availability…………………………………………………………………..117 7.1.4 Shelter………………………………………………………………………………………………118 7.1.5 Technological organisation……………………………………………………………….118 7.1.6 Conclusion of ESA……………………………………………………………………………..122 7.2 MSA…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………123 7.2.1. Artefact distribution………………………………………………………………………..123 7.2.2 Water availability……………………………………………………………………………..125 7.2.3 Raw material availability…………………………………………………………………..125 7.2.4 Shelter………………………………………………………………………………………………126 7.2.5 Technological organisation……………………………………………………………….128 7.2.6 Conclusion of MSA……………………………………………………………………………133 7.3 LSA………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….133 7.3.1. Artefact distribution………………………………………………………………………..133 7.3.2 Water availability……………………………………………………………………………..136 7.3.3 Raw material availability………………………………………………………………….137 iv 7.3.4 Technological organisation……………………………………………………………….141 7.3.5 Conclusion of LSA……………………………………………………………………………..146 7.4 Non-lithic Evidence……………………………………………………………………………………….…147 7.5 Episodic magnet of attraction………………………………………………………….………………151 Chapter 8: Conclusion 162 References 167 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 The Tankwa Karoo in relation to other Archaeological sites in South Africa…………………………………………………………………………………………………………2 Figure 4.1 Elevation levels of the Tankwa Karoo and areas surrounding…………………...51 Figure 4.2 Rainfall levels around the Tankwa Karoo……………………………………………………51 Figure 4.3 Vegetation biomes of the Tankwa Karoo and surroundings……………………….55 Figure 4.4 The geology of the area surrounding the Bos River……………………………………57 Figure 6.1 General artefact distribution along the Bos River………………………………………90 Figure 6.2 ESA artefact distribution……………………………………………………………………………92 Figure 6.3 MSA artefact distribution………………………………………………………………………….94 Figure 6.4 LSA artefact distribution…………………………………………………………………………95-96 Figure 6.5 Rock art examples from the Bos River on Cape geology…………………………97-98 Figure 6.6 Raw material use during the ESA, MSA, and LSA……………………………………….100 Figure 6.7 Percentage of cortex type for different raw materials during the MSA and LSA……………………………………………………………………………………………..101 Figure 6.8 Edge damage on selected artefacts……………………………………………………………104 Figure 6.9 Percentage of complete and incomplete flakes…………………………………………107 Figure 7.1 Physical setting of ESA landscape-use……………………………………………………….113 vi Figure 7.2a Examples of ESA artefacts…………………………….…………………………………………..120 Figure 7.2b Examples of ESA/MSA artefacts…………………………………………………………………121 Figure 7.3 Physical setting of MSA landscape-use………………………………………………………124 Figure 7.4a Examples of MSA blades …………………………………………………………………………..129 Figure 7.4b Examples of MSA convergent flakes………………………………………………………….130 Figure 7.5 Examples of MSA cores……………………………………………………………………………..132 Figure 7.6 Physical setting of LSA landscape-use………………………………………………………..135 Figure 7.7 Examples of LSA artefacts………………………………………………………………………….142 Figure 7.8a LSA site of DRS – 12….……………………………………………………………………………….143 Figure 7.8b Examples of LSA bladelet cores from DRS – 12………………………………………….144 Figure 7.9 Dolerite boulders along the Bos River……………..………………………………………..150 Figure 7.10 Marine Isotope Stages……………………………………………………………………………….154 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 6.1 Technological class and raw materials of the artefacts recorded during the survey period………………………………………………………………………………………103 Table 6.2 Retouch type on the artefact from the LSA……………………………………………….104 Table 6.3 Raw material of flake products during the ESA/MSA and MSA………………….105 Table 6.4 Frequency of core types analysed for the different Stone Ages…………………106 viii Acknowledgements Acknowledgement is due, first and foremost to my supervisor Professor John Parkington, for his knowledge, patience and passion for the archaeology of South Africa which encouraged many useful discussions and comments that were imperative to the coherence of this thesis. To my co-supervisor, Doctor David Braun, who offered valuable experience and advice in conducting a landscape-scale project, as well as providing the opportunity to interact with other experts carrying out landscape projects in areas outside of South Africa. This project would not have been possible without the generous funding supplied by the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences (CoE-Pal) and Palaeontological Scientific Trust (PAST). A huge thank you goes to Emily Hallinan who provided assistance during and after fieldwork, which included useful discussions around landscape archaeology and the analysis of the data, as well as the editing of chapters. A great deal of what makes these archaeological surveys that extra bit enjoyable is being given the opportunity to meet the local farmers of the area. The hospitality and kindness that was shown to us during our surveys by these farmers, particularly the Taljaard family who welcomed us into their homes and allowed us to conduct our research on their farm, cannot be underestimated. To Marie and Bill Hunt who offered their farmhouse to us as accommodation for the duration of the field seasons. ix To those that helped in the field and offered invaluable advice and comments, Jess Robinson, Madelon Tuisenuis, John Almond, Alex Sumner, Alex Mackay and everybody else who played a role in aided in the completion of this thesis. And finally, to Candice Koopowitz,
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