Of Business Management
س୯ҥύξεᏢ ҾᆅᏢ
റγፕЎ Department of Business Management
National Sun Yat-sen University
Doctorate Dissertation
- زᆵߙϿԃԛЎϯဂКၨࣴ
ஷӻᆶࢬՉॣଓࢃϐჴ Comparison Research of Taiwan Adolescent Subculture Consumer Groups: Empirical Studies of Otaku and Pop Music Fans
ғǺࠬ҉ఴزࣴ Yung-Sung Chiang
ࡰᏤ௲ǺጰᏦঞ റγ Dr. Hsien-Tang Tsai
101 1 ύ҇୯ ԃ Д January 2012
II Acknowledgement
I am heartily thankful to my advisor, Dr. Hsien-Tang Tsai (蔡憲唐博士). His profound knowledge on and commitment to the highest standard of research inspire me most. I am grateful to the assist, patience and guidance from Dr. Pao-Tiao Chuang (莊寶鵰博士), Dr. Yun-Cheng
Huang (黃允成博士), Dr. Iuan-Yuan Lu (盧淵源博士), and Dr. Tsuang Kuo (郭倉義博士), the members of the committee for the dissertation. I am thankful for all professors who ever taught me during the period of the doctoral program. I am also grateful to the assistants in the
Department of Business Management at National Sun Yat-sen University, they kindly assisted and encouraged my final efforts on dissertation despite of their enormous work loadings. Finally, this dissertation would not have been possible without my dear family’s supports.
Yung-Sung Chiang
at National Sun Yat-sen University
in January, 2012
III Abstract
High accessibility to internet technology and popularization of focus media has given rise to various emerging subcultures among the younger generation who constantly seek novelty and unique lifestyles. The Otaku subculture is one such adolescent subculture, a culture of avid ACG
(animation, comic, games) collectors, while pop music fans belong to another youth subculture deeply involved in gathering and tracking the lives and performances of pop music stars. As the adolescent is becoming the most purchasing power consumer group of fashion product, this research aims at comparing the traits of the above two adolescent subcultures and their influences on buying behavior tendencies toward subculture-specific merchandises. This research is also attempting to develop an analytical model through comparison of two studies.
The research framework is constructed based on the assumption that the traits of adolescent subcultures influence the subculture-specific consumptions and is examined on two studies of
Otaku and pop music fans subcultures respectively. The same investigation methods are applied in two studies. First, the review of prior studies and findings of focus group interview with sample of five representative adolescents were integrated into a tentative model. Then, the questionnaire was developed based on the tentative model and the focus group interview findings, and sample of survey in two studies are 105 and 101 respectively. Survey data were examined by factor analysis and structural equation modeling for the verification of the tentative model, and finally a revised model is developed based on comparison of two studies results.
Results show that the personality, values and lifestyle of subculture’s main traits dimensions IV influence their buying behavior, although the Otaku and pop music fans take part in different activities and embrace different personality traits and values. The results also verify a feasible generalized analytical model for measuring the influences of the traits of specific adolescent subcultures on their buying behavior. This research offers some implications for consumer behavior and marketing communication including (1) comprehensive customer investigation is needed to understand what adolescents think and want; (2) providing attractive content and (3) adopting modern media to attract and access adolescent subculture group; (4) marketing communication appeals should match adolescents self-images to get their identification; and (5) providing total subculture solution in integrated marketing programs.
Key Words: Adolescent Subculture, Otaku, ACG, Pop Music Fans, Star Chasing, Exploratory
Buying Behavior Intentions
V 摘要
網路科技與分眾媒體的興起，使得尋求新奇性與特殊生活型態的新世代青少年形成各
種不同的新興次文化。對 ACG(動畫、漫畫與電玩遊戲)產品具有狂熱收藏習性的「御宅族
」就是其中一類青少年次文化，而蒐集流行音樂偶像歌手各種資訊與演出動態且瘋狂參與
各種追星活動的「流行音樂追星族」，則是另一類青少年次文化。鑒於青少年逐漸成為流
行商品最具消費力的族群，本研究目的即在透過二類青少年次文化的實證研究，探討與比
較青少年次文化的族群特質與該特質對次文化特定商品消費行為傾向之影響，並嘗試由二
個研究的比較中建立可一般化的分析模式。
本研究架構建立在「青少年次文化的特徵被視為影響特定次文化商品消費的因素」之
假設基礎上，並透過御宅族與流行音樂追星族二個次文化的研究來驗證此一假設。二個研
究依循同樣的研究程序。首先，參照以往研究與五人的焦點群體訪談結果彙整建構暫時性
模式，並藉以作為設計問卷量表的基礎；然後，再對二種次文化族群分別選取 105 人與 101
人作為問卷訪談對象。問卷訪談資料再透過因素分析、結構方程模式，驗證暫時性的分析
模式，據以提出修正模式，以作為建立一般化的分析模式參考。
研究結果顯示，御宅族與流行音樂追星族各具有不同的人格特質、價值觀、參與不同
的活動，然而二類青少年次文化的實證研究皆證實：青少年次文化的人格特質、價值觀、
生活型態確為影響其特定嗜好商品消費傾向之因素。研究結果證實，本研究提出之衡量青
少年次文化特質對其狂熱的消費行為影響之分析模式具有實際可行性。本研究也提出在消
費者行為與行銷溝通方面的管理意涵，包括：(1)完整的顧客調查對於了解青少年的想法及
其慾望需求是相當必要的；(2)提供具吸引力的行銷內容與(3)採用青少年常用的現代化媒體
來吸引與接觸青少年次文化族群；(4)行銷溝通訴求應強調呼應青少年的自我形象以取得他
們的認同；(5)在整合行銷方案中提供青少年次文化的完全解決方案。
關鍵詞：青少年次文化、御宅族、動漫商品、流行音樂追星族、探索性消費行為傾向
VI Table of Contents
Acknowledgement...... III
Abstract ...... IV
摘要 ...... VI
Table of Contents ...... VII
List of Figures ...... IX
List of Tables...... X
Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 1
1.1 Research Background...... 1 1.2 Research Objectives...... 7 1.3 Research Flow...... 9
Chapter 2 Literature Review ...... 11
2.1 Adolescent Subculture ...... 11 2.2 Otaku: The Emerging Adolescent Subculture I...... 18 2.3 Pop music Fans: The Emerging Adolescent Subculture II...... 25 2.4 Exploratory Buying Behavior Tendency...... 30
Chapter 3 Research Design ...... 34
3.1 Research Framework...... 34 3.2 Research Method...... 36
Chapter 4 Empirical Study I: Otaku Subculture ...... 43
4.1 Prior Studies of Otaku...... 43 4.2 Focus Group Interview...... 44 4.3 Tentative Model for Effect of Otaku’s Traits on ACG Buying Behavior...... 47 4.4 Questionnaire Survey...... 48 4.5 Revised Model for Effect of Otaku’s Traits on ACG Buying Behavior ...... 65
Chapter 5 Empirical Study II: Pop music Fan Subculture ...... 68
VII 5.1 Prior Studies of Pop Music Fans...... 68 5.2 Focus Group Interview...... 69 5.3 Tentative Model for Effect of Pop Music Fans’ Traits on Star-chasing Consumption.....73 5.4 Questionnaire Survey...... 74 5.5 Revised Model for Effect of Pop music Fans’ Traits on Star-chasing Consumption...... 92
Chapter 6 Comparison of Results and Discussion ...... 95
6.1 Comparisons of Traits ...... 95 6.2 Comparisons of Research Process ...... 96 6.3 Comparisons of Model Verification and Implication for Consumer Behavior ...... 99 6.4 Suggested Model for Understanding Adolescent Subculture Buying Behavior...... 102
Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations...... 103
7.1 Conclusions...... 103 7.2 Managerial Implications...... 108 7.3 Future Research...... 112
References...... 114
VIII List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Research flow ...... 10
Figure 3-1 Research framework ...... 35
Figure 4-1 Tentative model for influences of adolescent Otaku’s traits on ACG purchases ...... 48
Figure 4-2 SEM path diagram for model 1 of Otaku study...... 62
Figure 4-3 SEM path diagram for model 2 of Otaku study...... 64
Figure 4-4 Revised model for influences of adolescent Otaku traits on ACG purchase ...... 66
Figure 5-1 Tentative model for influences of pop music fans’ traits ...... 74
Figure 5-2 SEM path diagram for model 1 of the pop music fan study ...... 89
Figure 5-3 SEM path diagram for model 2 of pop music fan study...... 91
Figure 5-4 Revised model for influences of pop music fans’ traits on star-chasing consumption ...... 92
Figure 6-1 Analytical model for influences of subculture traits on buying behavior...... 102
IX List of Tables
Table 4-1 Results of Otaku focus group interview ...... 46
Table 4-2 Demographics of Otaku sample ...... 49
Table 4-3 Summary of item-total statistics for Otaku study...... 51
Table 4-4 Rotated component matrix of Otaku traits ...... 54
Table 4-5 Rotated component matrix of ACG purchase...... 55
Table 4-6 Means, standard deviations (SD), and correlations for Otaku’s study ...... 55
Table 4-7 Analysis of gender differences of Otaku sample...... 57
Table 4-8 Analysis of age differences of Otaku sample ...... 58
Table 4-9 Analysis of age differences of Otaku sample ...... 59
Table 4-10 Fit indices for structural model 1 for Otaku study ...... 60
Table 4-11 Comparison of fit indices for structural models 1 & 2 of Otaku study ...... 63
Table 5-1 Results of focus group interview for pop music fans...... 73
Table 5-2 Sample profile of pop music fan study...... 76
Table 5-3 Summary of item-total statistics for pop music fan study...... 77
Table 5-4 Rotated component matrix of pop music fans’ traits...... 80
Table 5-5 Component matrix of star-chasing consumption...... 81
Table 5- 6 Means, standard deviations (SD), and correlations for pop music fan study ...... 82
Table 5-7 Analysis of gender differences of pop music fans sample...... 84
Table 5-8 Analysis of age differences of pop music fans sample...... 85
Table 5-9 Analysis of education differences of pop music fans sample...... 86
Table 5-10 Fit indices for structural model 1 of the pop music fan study ...... 87
Table 5-11 Comparison of fit indices for structural model 1 & 2 of pop music fan study ...... 90
Table 6-1 Traits comparison of adolescent Otaku and pop music fans ...... 96
Table 6-2 Research Process Comparison of Adolescent Otaku and Pop music Fan Studies...... 98
X Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Research Background
In recent decades, economic growth and socio-cultural change have given rise to the emergence of popular culture and fashion industry. Jamal (2003) argued that growth in international trade, globalization, migration and tourism has led to the creation of large ethnic subcultures in many Western countries, including strong cultural identity. This leads to the increasing emergence of ethnic-minority-owned business enterprises and contributes to economic growth.
To the extent that subculture groups exhibit different wants and buying behaviors, marketers can choose subcultures as their targets. Many subcultures make up important market segments and marketers often design products and marketing programs tailored to their needs (Kotler,
2006).
The buying behavior of adolescents has received much attention from marketing practitioners and researchers over a long period of time. The adolescent fashion product and service are important developments of fashion industry. The buying behavior of adolescents is easily influenced by fashion trends, peers and purchasing habits (McAlister, & Pessemier, 1982) and they are usually related to specific adolescent subcultures.
Havighurst (1953) stated that humans develop their cognition of society during childhood, while developing their real-world view during adolescence. The period of adolescence is the most important stage for the development of social values. Adolescents’ consumer decision making 1 may be quite influenced by family communication patterns (Kim, Lee, & Tomiuk, 2009). In addition, Isaksen and Roper (2008) found that branding and advertising do have positive effects on adolescents’ formation of self-concept and consumer behavior. Further, the web-consumption behavior of adolescents is mainly and directly influenced by innovativeness and indirectly by their personal values (Hartman, Shim, Barber, & O'Brien, 2006). In Taiwan, in addition to the influences of the traditional parent culture, the young people’s behaviors and lifestyles are greatly influenced by foreign popular culture due to the powerful marketing strategies and the communication of the internet and mass media. Therefore, various types of entertainment from the virtual world constantly attract the younger generation and the influence of foreign consumer culture has enabled virtual and visual-focused popular culture to deeply penetrate into local areas and form various adolescent subcultures. Among these subcultures, two emerging adolescent subculture phenomena in Taiwan are described below and will be the focus of this research.
(1) Image Addiction
The omnipresence of internet access has provided an optimized environment to enter the
‘visualization era’. The development of information technology has resulted in the gradual alteration of human lifestyles. The rise of the internet era has brought about the reorganization of interpersonal relationships and a re-orientation of personal values. The dynamic impact of the mass media and widespread use of computers and internet have led to the popularization of computer games, animation, and imagery. Adolescents, who were born into the electronic era, can easily acquire various types of rich fashion information using electronic devices as smoothly 2 as if the equipment was an extension of their bodies. In such an environment, this new generation finds it easy to adapt to the massive number of messages from the explosion of information on the internet and obtain great enjoyment from flat-screen images. Further, with the changes in emotional projection, human preferences for physical objects have been transferred to a wide variety of virtual figures and contexts. The evolution of the lifestyle of this new generation has diminished interpersonal physical contact and few caring for others. Furthermore, since contemporary adolescents are more interested in flat-screen images, their reading abilities have declined substantially, causing this generation to resist textbooks and lengthy articles.
The foregoing analysis may be applied to one subgroup of young people in the contemporary era. This addiction to visual images may be used to understand the main framework of one adolescent subculture, called Otaku, which originally appeared in Japan.
Through an analysis of the consumption patterns of youth in the 1980s, Japanese cultural researcher Okada formulated a theory of Otaku (オタク), whom he described as a new type of advanced life form (Okada, 1996). The most obvious behavior characteristic of adolescents categorized as ‘Otaku’ is their obsession with novelty collecting. The distinguishing feature of their purchasing behavior is generous spending, regardless of the price. Consequently, the large
Otaku market, an agglomeration of obsessive collectors of anime, pop culture toys, and books, has gradually received more attention, driving mainstream marketing. According to the Nomura
Research Institute, Otaku in Japan spent 411 billion yen in 2004 on their distinctive preferences such as anime (animation) DVDs, manga (comics), anime figures, IT gadgets, and other related 3 items. This statistic is from a report which summarizes over ten thousand interviews, industrial reports and related information via the internet (Nomura Research Institute, 2005). Business
Week Online reported the consumer characteristics of Otaku in Japan as being fanatical about their preferences, and representing a surprisingly powerful shopping subculture in Japan, even driving mainstream marketing (Bremner, & Tashiro, 2006). Japanese manga, anime, games and related consumer electronic devices which target the younger generation not only attract large numbers of young Japanese male enthusiasts (Sangani, 2008) but are also popular in overseas markets. In particular, manga, which targets younger consumers, has become the cultural export with the fastest growth in recent years (Fitzpatrick, 2005). The New York Times and the New
York Times Magazine have also reported the flourishing of Otaku culture among the younger generation. Otaku culture has not only emerged in Japanese contemporary art, cultural, and creative industries, but is also widely discussed by the community of art and mass media in New
York (Jefferson, 2005; Spindler, 2002). In sum, Otaku culture is a result of fashion culture in
Japan that has not only diffused all over the world but has made an influential contribution to
Japanese culture as globalization intensifies.
Taiwan is one of the countries most influenced by Otaku subculture. The number of adolescent Otaku in Taiwan grows each year. Due to the popularity of Otaku-related comics and animation among adolescents, Otaku has gradually become considered a huge market by merchants who import related products into Taiwan, as adolescent Otaku with an enthusiastic addiction to comic and animation are insensitive to prices. Thus, the Otaku phenomenon 4 represents one of the most influential adolescent subcultures in Taiwan, and Otaku are treated as a new group of mass consumers.
(2) Star chasing
The strong influence of context groups is also a characteristic of adolescent groups. People are influenced by groups in which they are not members but to which they would like to belong
(Kotler, 2006). The internet is the most important medium for information flow. Social networking websites have become platforms for peer interaction, and adolescents use them to connect with friends and their peer groups. For example, the most common online social networking sites, such as Facebook and Twitter, enable adolescents to stay connected and share information with friends.
Music is arguably one of the most common modes of self-expression and identity seeking among young people, and music preference is one of the most commonly shared pieces of information on social networking websites (Rentfrow, McDonald, & Oldmeadow, 2009). Even in the web 2.0 generation, websites can interact with users instead of simply allowing them to read a published page. For example, YouTube, part of web 2.0, allows users to interactive, edit, and even create their own video content. Adolescents frequently use YouTube to upload music videos to share with their peers and friends. It is no wonder that the internet has opened a universe of options to music enthusiasts with infinite capacity and far-flung communication links (Gundersen,
2005), and music fans can reach for the music stars more easily than before. Hence, the evolution of the social-cultural milieu and technological advances make it ever more convenient for fans to 5 follow their pop music idols.
Marshall (1997) argued that a star’s cultural power depends on a very close affinity with a specific and loyal audience. An active and loyal audience of fans is central to how the star culture operates (Jenkins, 2006). Pop music stars have to be virtual members of their own audiences in order to sustain their pop-culture influence and the commitment of their fans. This fan-focused branding strategy can help associate subculture membership with the star’s music (Corona, 2011).
Take an example of Lady Gaga, a sensational American pop singer-songwriter and the Forbes youngest power woman 2011, who has won five Grammy Awards to date. She communicates frequently with her world-wide network of fans and posts videos and texts on Twitter. In addition to Lady Gaga's fans following her distinct apparel, Lady Gaga's millions of fans have given her another title: ‘Queen of Twitter’ for the way she uses the technology to maintain close ties to her fans.
Fans have accepted and learned to use new digital media resources to expand their influences over popular culture (Jenkins, 2006). The entertainment and fashion industries often react to adolescent subculture trends by recognizing the diffusion of a star’s image and influence to fans, and marketing practitioners can benefit from pairing star chasing behaviors with attractive marketing plans. For example, Lady Gaga has produced more than one hundred music awards and has had strong sales of albums and peripheral products due to her loyal fans. In 2011,
Lady Gaga visited Taiwan for a concert to promote her new album. This event attracted 36,000 people, 6,000 of whom were lucky enough to get tickets to the show while another 30,000 people 6 who could not get in enjoyed the rare performance by watching two large screens put up outside the theatre. The fans at the show were excited and surprised by Lady Gaga’s performance and interaction with them. This is both a cultural phenomenon and a marketing inspiration.
Marketing practitioners always attempt to planning marketing programs and campaigns attractive to consumers. Adolescents have become an important consumer group because of their emotional reaction to marketing activities and because they are often insensitive to prices in the case of enthusiastic interests. Attracting young people’s purchases has thus become the goal of many fashion and entertainment industry marketing plans. However, subculture content that attracts adolescents is always an issue marketers are interested in. In this study the subculture phenomenon of Otaku and pop music fans described in the above paragraphs is worth further research in search of practical marketing suggestions.
1.2 Research Objectives
Today, Otaku and pop music fans represent two of the most influential adolescent subcultures in Taiwan. While previous literature has focused on the subculture nature of diverse segmented consumer groups, it fails to provide a practical framework to explain comparison and interaction among consumer groups with minor subculture differences. The literature also provides little guidance as to factors influencing consumer behaviours of adolescent subculture.
Throne and Bruner (2006) focused on examining the behaviors of consumers engaged in
7 star-chasing activity and determining whether there are attitudinal and behavioral characteristics common across the differing fan subcultures. However, the fans they investigated were not music fans but movie fans, avid fans of movies such as Godzilla and Star Wars. In addition, they used only qualitative approaches.
This study seeks to fill a gap in the literature by presenting empirical evidence on an analytical model for exploring and comparing the characteristics and consumption of adolescent subcultures. To address these research issues, this study adopts a two-factor conceptualization of exploratory consumer buying behavior, including exploratory acquisitions of product (EAP) and exploratory information seeking (EIS), proposed by Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996), as its theoretical basis for exploring factors influential in adolescent buying behaviors in Taiwan. The traits of Otaku and pop music fans are summarized from the literature review and focus group interviews. The consumer behavior of Otaku and pop music fans are studied through the survey process and the potential factors influencing Otaku and pop music fans’ traits and their buying behaviors are discussed. From a pragmatic perspective, the effective comprehension of consumer behavior in the target market will assist in the planning of effective marketing strategies. In sum, this research has four objectives:
(1) Understanding the traits of the two adolescent subculture groups.
(2) Understanding the influences of the traits of adolescent subculture groups on their
subculture-specific consumption.
8 (3) Constructs and verifies a generalized analytical model through comparative studies.
(4) Extends implications for consumer behaviours and marketing communication.
1.3 Research Flow
This study observes the distinct cultural phenomenon of adolescents in Taiwan including the fanaticism of Otaku and pop music fans and the possible influences of these subculture group’s traits on their enthusiastic involvement of collection and buying behaviours. This distinct cultural phenomenon of adolescents deserves solid academic research to provide practical marketing implication which is helpful on marketing programs. Through literature review, the differences between and deficiencies of previous related studies are examined, while a number of factors influencing adolescents’ subculture-specific buying behaviors were picked up. To explore research needs in the field of emerging adolescent subcultures, the research develops a tentative model based on the literature review and focus group interviews. The subsequent quantitative survey was conducted to examine and revise the tentative model in two empirical studies of adolescent Otaku and pop music fans. The differences in the two adolescent subculture group’s traits and their influences on subculture-specific merchandise consumptions are compared and discussed. The organization of the research flow is presented in Figure 1-1.
9 Research Background: Adolescent Subculture Phenomenon
Research Objectives:
Effect of Adolescent Subculture’s Traits on their Specific Buying Behavior
Literature Review
Empirical Study I: Otaku Empirical Study II: Pop Music Fans
Prior Studies Prior Studies
Focus Group Interview Focus Group Interview
Tentative Model Tentative Model
Survey and Model Verification Survey and Model Verification
Revised Model Revised Model
Comparison and Implication
Conclusion
Figure 1- 1 Research flow
10 Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Adolescent Subculture
2.1.1 Definition of adolescent
Adolescence is the period of youth experienced after leaving childhood and before entering adulthood. Adolescents are seen as no longer being children but not yet being completely adult.
Another term, teenager, first appeared in the 1930’s, and did not become synonymous with the word adolescent until the 1950’s (Cote, 2005). Youth thus generally refer to young people between the ages of 10 to 20. The youth group can be further refined: 13-15 year-olds who may attend junior high school are early adolescents, 16-18 year-olds who may attend senior high school are middle adolescents, while late adolescents are those beyond 18 who study at college or have entered the workforce. Different countries and international agencies define the age of youth differently based on the country’s own legal practices or classification purposes. The United
Nations defines adolescents as young people from the age of 15-24, the World Health
Organization age is 10-20, while Singapore extends the age upper range to 30 years old. The definition varies, but broadly speaking, young people aged 10 to 30 could be seen as adolescents.
It has been also said that youth is the period in the life course in which individuals are most likely to be alienated (Epstein, 1998). Contrary to adults, for most researchers, adolescents are particularly emotional and experience acute changes in appearance. Research indicates that adolescents are influenced by peers, parents and society at-large, and occupy a unique place in society as human beings transitioning between childhood and adulthood, often with more 11 self-approval insights into who they are and what their place in the world (Arnett, 1995, 1996).
However, there was a sharp distinction between childhood and adulthood. No matter how youth is defined, for youths, parental influence is gradually replaced by peer influence. As young people grow, pursuing a sense of similarity to peer and differentiation to older people leads to the gradual formation of particular beliefs, values and ways of life.
Before investigating adolescents’ thinking and doing, most researchers viewed them as a group of moody, immature individuals with little direction and in need of adult guidance and supervision. According to Erikson (1968), decision making and identity formation are important developmental tasks which first become salient during adolescence, when experiences accrue sufficiently to allow for examination of alternatives regarding major life goals such as future career choices and personal values. Via literature reviews and interviews, Cote (2005) also comes to see youth as a group of individuals who think and act the way they do by their own volition.
Adolescents sometimes seem like a completely different species from adults. Their habits, idiosyncrasies, and argot have long mystified grown-ups (Epstein, 1998). Newton (2007) stated that teenagers frequently have no respect for their parents and do not accept any advice. Parents usually have a difficulty communicating with their teenagers, for parents their teen sons and daughters seem like aliens. Danesi (2003) stated that adolescence had developed into a distinct lifestyle category characterized by its own sui generis lifestyle, like an alien.
In sum, youth is the period in which young people’s thinking modes and desired life styles gradually form. Adolescence is viewed as a unique life stage and forms the unique behavior of 12 desperately pursuing and proposing something new and different. Thus appears the special social and cultural phenomenon often referred to as youth culture.
2.1.2 Definition of subculture
Culture is usually defined as the distinct patterns of life developed by social groups, the way in which these groups give expressive form to their social and material life experiences (Baron,
1989). Culture is the most fundamental determinants of wants and behavior of a person belonging to a nation or society as a whole. A person acquires a set of values, perceptions, preferences, and forms of conduct through his affiliated group or institution. Culture studies are hence usually focused on practices, institutions and systems of classification through there are particular values, beliefs, routines of life course and behavior conduct (Bennett, 1998). People living in a society hold many core beliefs and values with high persistence. Each society contains several subcultures which emerge from special life experiences or circumstances of various groups with shared values.
A subculture will engage in core cultural elements in order to establish a unique identity and to set the subculture apart from the parent culture (Epstein, 1998). Subcultures are cultures formed by a social minority group that does not belong to the mainstream (Ha, & Park, 2011) and are cultural phenomena distinct from the parent culture. Studies showed that participants in leisure activities, such as sports touring, make their choices to create situations that affirm their desired identity of a specific community (Shamir, 1992; Green, & Chalip, 1998). 13 Just as culture is constantly in a process of becoming and emerging out of the dynamism of popular culture and everyday life (Edensor, 2002), so is subculture strongly influenced by specific group members’ routine life interactions.
2.1.3 Meaning of adolescent subculture
Adolescent subcultures are subcultures specifically of youths and represent collections of young people with some kind of homogeneity. Members in a youth subcultural group share common beliefs, preferences, and behaviors (Kotler, 2006). Frith (1985) defined youth subculture as the particular pattern of beliefs, values symbols and activities that a group of young people seen to share.
The concept of subculture has long been of significant importance in research on youth.
Erikson (1968) argued that adolescents are in the period of beginning to make major choices in the life course, their attempts while to belonging to specific subculture groups is simply a mechanism of identity protection. In reference to youth subcultures, homologies are used to describe the symbolic links between a subculture’s values and its lifestyle (Epstein, 1998). Ha and
Park (2011) also state that youth subcultures have distinct styles that differentiate them from popular culture and through which they express their values and individuality.
Marxist researcher Brake (1985) proposed that youth subcultures are the negotiation and redefinition process as they engage in a struggle over cultural space. Structural behavior norms are built in the overall societal circumstances while belief contradictions may take place in 14 adolescents with newly developed values and rebellion. For example, punk subculture is a typical youth subculture in which punk music and related music patterns were developed to express punk dissatisfaction with society.
To sum up, homologies (similarities) enable acquisition of identity but individuality
(resistance against the oppressive social atmosphere) sets youth cultures apart from the mainstream culture. However, an adolescent does not necessarily belong to one subculture but may belong to many subcultures (Ha and Park, 2011). An adolescent of course may belong to no subculture but simply join mainstream social culture, which in Taiwan means studying hard to enter a good university and not engaging in other activities.
2.1.4 Analytical concepts of adolescent subculture
The study of adolescent subcultures has a rich history in the USA and UK and time has shown a number of concepts to be core components of youth subculture studies. Epstein (1998) analyzed youth subculture from the following perspectives: cliques and peer groups, independence, language, clothing, and labels.
(1) Cliques and peer groups
Membership in a peer group is a social structure for adolescents to gain shelter from the ravaging effects of the coming-of-age stage. Additionally, members of a particular “clique” are usually connected by similar tastes in music, style of dress, activities, or language (Danesi, 2003).
(2) Independence 15 Adolescent social groups not only help adolescents establish an identity but also serve to separate youth from their parents, or at least create a sense of independence in their minds.
(3) Language
Adults consider much of youth’s language to be non-standard or slang. In fact, adolescent speech is not slang, but a type of social dialect. The special language of youth enables them to better understand their world and describe it in a way they see fit, independent of adult influences.
(4) Clothing
The ultimate goal of adolescents’ dress is to look cool. They hope to express their lifestyles and values through their distinctive dress or by copying the style of a star they idolize.
(5) Label
Labeling and categorizing youth is something both adults and teens do. It is important to note that not all the students belong to one of these groups, some belong to several, and others have no desire to participate in any clique.
Danesi (2003) studied Toronto high school students and distinguished them into twelve distinct subculture groups: gangstas, Goths, grunophiles, hip-hoppers, industrialists, metalheads, punks, ravers, skaters, skinheads, snowboarders and surfers. Most of the twelve distinct groups are formed by subculture members with the same interests in music, sports, or lifestyles.
Similarly, Ha and Park (2011) examined five Korean youth subculture styles including hip hoppers, skateboarders, clubbers, nightclubbers, and riders; these subculture groups are also 16 related to sports or lifestyles.
Williams (2007) conceived of some significant analytic concepts including subculture style, resistance, subculture space and media, societal reaction, identity and authenticity. Williams also conducted empirically discuss on youth subcultures including punk goth, straightedge, riot grrrl, rave and club cultures.
Ha and Park (2011) examined Korean youth subculture styles and analyzed the characteristics of Korean youth subculture styles, with the following findings.
(1) Sense of identity
Korean youth subcultures have strong identities and reflect them in a symbolic way. For example, Korean youths choose clothing styles for their subcultures to not only feel a sense of affiliation but also to express their unique selves.
(2) Resistance
Korean youths resist their conservative social culture. They seek fun and youthfulness and aim to escape from daily life through nightlife or to rebel and feel different through unique sports.
They may even spend most of their time with the same subculture members.
(3) Sexual identity
Youth subculture styles in Korea have clearly divided sexual identity rather than strong masculine tendencies as is traditional (Baron, 1989; Leblanc, 2002). For example, adolescent boys show off their wealth and status while girls show off their beauty in nightclub.
(4) Influences of popular culture 17 Many subcultures are created based on popular music or rock music for youth. Korean youth subcultures are also affected by other elements of pop culture including sports, games, and nightlife.
Lacourse, Claes and Villeneuve (2001) employed a subculture framework in light of recent studies concerning socialization, identity formation, alienation, and suicidal behaviors in adolescents to probe the differentiating characteristics of youth who prefer heavy metal music, worship music or use music for vicarious release. The study found that adolescents who prefer listening to heavy metal music may also exhibit other subculture behaviors related to risk factors and behaviors such as drug abuse, alienation, anomie, and quality of family relationships.
Adolescents’ musical preferences, attitudes, and behaviors toward heavy metal music may also relate to suicidal risk.
In sum, factors influencing adolescent subcultures may be categorized into three constructs including personality traits (such as independence, openness to novelty), lifestyles (such as peer influence, self-labeling, clothing, and language), and values (such as resist against the conservative culture, seeking affiliation and validation). These three constructs form the main analytical concepts of adolescent subculture in this study.
2.2 Otaku: The Emerging Adolescent Subculture I
2.2.1 Definition of Otaku
The term ‘Otaku’ was first introduced in Japan during the early 1980s and came into popular
18 usage by 1989. Okada (1996) asserted that Otaku not only represents a new type of media-savvy human endowed with superior sensory faculties, but Otaku fans are also the true inheritors of traditional Japanese culture. The Otaku subculture has emerged as a consequence of technological advancement and the booming Japanese comic and anime market. Otaku has come to be recognized as a veritable subculture hero unique to Japan over the past few years (Steinberg,
2004).
Otaku research received attention in the 1980s, and Otaku fans became a target population for various studies. For example, a series of articles called “An Investigation of Otaku”, written by Akio Nakamori and published in a comic magazine in 1983, revealed that the Otaku, a unique subculture , presented unusual and obsessive interest in a specific range of subjects, while lacking general knowledge. They enjoy staying indoors to play games and read comics alone, but are not concerned about daily living requirements. In the field in which they are interested, they are capable of finding out new information and products very quickly. They are maniacal collectors of comics and Japanese anime goods, and call each other ‘Otaku’ instead of ‘you’. Generally speaking, they are called Otaku. The word ‘Otaku’ is a pronoun that means you, while the nuance of ‘Otaku’ includes the meaning of ‘you isolated in your house’, which implies that people called
Otaku are those who tend to be isolated from their friends and family (Washida, 2005).
Nomura Research Institute (2005) indicated that among manga fans, the term ‘Otaku’ is used when addressing one another. Furthermore, the term is adopted to show respect for other manga fans when they are dealing for information and resources. Currently, Otaku is defined as a 19 group of people who are obsessed with the visualized virtual world and the images supplied by the modern media (including television, magazines, comic books, computer or video games)
(Baral, 1999). Otaku are also known as geeks or nerds, individuals considered by others to be overly obsessed with intellectual pursuits, technology, electronics, gaming, and even new media
(Steinberg, 2004; Washida, 2005; Bremner, & Tashiro, 2006). With an eccentric character and an obsessive interest in computer technology, Otaku are socially inept although they enjoy socializing with others via the internet.
The meaning of Otaku has gradually expanded to refer to any group of people who show intensive interest in a specific preference, and who form a particular ‘Otaku culture’ (Kinsella,
1998; McNicol, 2007). Okada (1996) indicated Otaku were a new cultural species from the viewpoint of sociology and that they are often pioneers of cultural development due to their advanced capabilities in information search and analysis, and their fanatical devotion to their preferences. Otaku are now regarded as the advocates of Japanese public culture who created the
Otaku economic body (McNicol, 2007).
It has been well accepted in recent years that Otaku culture is propagated by three types of media: (1) visual media, which includes science fantasy (SF) movies, animation, special effect video clips and other image media; (2) print media, such as manga and science fiction novels; and
(3) digital media, which include PC games, television and the internet. These three types of media are known as animation, comics and games (ACG). Hence, Otaku is a subculture group with ample interest in and purchasing patterns for ACG (Okada, 2006). Further, because of the 20 personality traits of Otaku (socially inept but enjoying communicating with their compeers),
ACG has become the communication medium for this group (Niu, Chiang, & Tsai, 2011).
Moreover, Okada’s (2006) definition of Otaku provided the public with a new impression of this group of special anime fans. Okada also differentiated Otaku into “fans” and “maniacs” based on their concentration on and involvement with ACG. From the viewpoint of the ‘ultimate evolution of cultured people’, Okada defined a “fan” as someone with a fondness for a subject and who would develop their interest through appreciation, while a “maniac” was an admirer who was actively involved (by sacrificing energy, material and time) in gathering related products and resources. However, Otaku enjoy collecting related information and products to enhance their deep understanding of a specific field and to establish their own opinions on their obsession.
Therefore, Otaku evolved out of fans and maniac. Thus, Otaku is a result of the evolution of obsession (Okada, 2006). The internal response to obsession can be explored through the overt behavior of Otaku obsessions, and this exploration will evoke the deeper exterior features of the purchasing behavior of adolescents.
2.2.2 Profiles of the ACG
The development of ACG initiated with the advancement of information technology and the evolution of media. In addition, comic publishing evolved into animation due to the maturation of display technology. Animation games became available once computers were introduced to the market. 21 (1)Animation
Most adolescents in Japan consider animation (or anime) to be similar to Western cartoons, while they perceive manga and graphic novels as another form of art or entertainment. However, both anime and manga provide understanding of the thoughts of contemporary adolescents
(Cuchinotta, 2005). The evolution and cultural development of anime and manga have gradually become more integrated. Therefore, anime and manga are known as animation in general.
In 1963, Mushi Production of Japan released the first best-selling manga, “Tetsuwan
Atomu”. The release of this manga changed the development of integration of anime and manga, and elicited the in-depth conjunction of camera movement and comic drawings. In 1974,
Matsumoto Reiji directed the well-known anime “Space Battleship Yamato” which was the first animation depicting the unbreakable will of humans fighting for survival. Later, with the appearance of “Mobile Suit Gundam” in 1979, anime not only constructed characters more similar to the real world, but also encompassed sophisticated thinking which promoted the anime production to a new stage of development. Thereafter, the animation industry in Japan began to prosper.
Takashi Murakami, a famous contemporary Japanese artist, founded the “Superflat” movement which is deeply influenced by Otaku culture as demonstrated by the Japanese fashion and subculture contents through manga, anime, manga characters’ figures, illustrations, graphics design and photography. Not only are the flattened images in the drawings of anime and manga presented in Superflat art, but the shallow emptiness of Japanese pop culture is insinuated as well. 22 Further, superflat art also manifests the virtual world of youngsters influenced by this subculture.
During its 2001 art exhibition tour of the US, Superflat art received a great deal of attention from the art and media community (Darling, 2001).
(2) Comics
Contemporary comics originated from the recurring comic strips (or comics) published in
American newspapers. These comic strips employed a drawing style with simple strokes, rigid formats and limited shots. Subsequently, contemporary comic strips spread to Japan. With the influence of movies, comics in Japan were presented in an exquisite way, accompanied with descriptive shots. Hence, comics in Japan are generally known as manga (まんガ) which means recurring drawings. From 1988, the amateur manga movement expanded so rapidly that by 1992 amateur manga conventions in Tokyo were being attended by over a quarter of a million young people. Through the mass media, amateur manga artists, referred to as manga Otaku, were rapidly made into symbols of Japanese youth in general (Kinsella, 1998). Most Otaku culture and products stemmed from classic Japanese manga, such as “Tetsuwan Atomu” of the 1990s, widely considered a classic manga in Japan. However, there were differences between manga and
American graphic novels (Cuchinotta, 2005). Currently, manga is considered to be not only the most important contemporary art for the x-generation but also an essential cultural industry in
Japan. Moreover, this subculture has been exported to, and is widely accepted in, other countries
(Fitzpatrick, 2005).
23 As the Japanese manga evolved, manga fans gradually appeared. In the late 1960s, a group of Japanese initiated the activity now called cosplay (imitation of manga characters with customized costumes). The targets of imitation are characters in animation, computer games, and fantasy movies. With the activity of cosplay, characters in the virtual world will come alive in the real world. These manga freaks display exceptional devotion by imagining themselves in the animation world.
Manga artists keep in touch via “Doujinshi” (self-published manga works initiated by a group of people who share the same interest) and form artistic communities. Many manga artists enjoy redrawing other creator’s works, and publishing their works in the Doujinshi. Moreover, there are manga artists who adapt their own stories in the Doujinshi. Some of the works published in this media may even be printed as comic books.
(3) Games
Games can be classified into the following five categories based on their different game platforms: computer games, video games, mobile games, arcade games and online games. Game players can enjoy personal gaming or multiplayer gaming (with community interaction available among gamers) through various media (eg. computer, television, PDA, server, internet). There are also different genres of games including action games, puzzle games, sports games, RPG
(role playing games), or racing games. The gaming industry has blossomed due to the active invention of game consoles by Sony, Nintendo and Microsoft. Moreover, online gaming is the most popular form of entertainment for US internet users. With casual games gradually becoming 24 popular, the online games market in Taiwan alone was worthy of $9.59 billion Taiwan dollars in
2007 and make online games one of the most commonly used internet entertainment services.
Furthermore, the prosperous development of video games (such as Nintendo Wii and Microsoft
Xbox) and online games (including Lineage and World of Warcraft) have formed a community of game Otaku whose fans collect related products and compete with each other in their respective games.
As a result of globalization, the flourishing of the ACG industry has not only influenced
Japan but also many other areas of the world. The American artist Gwen Stefani frequently employs inspiring cartoon characters from Tokyo in her performance. The Japanese anime,
“Spirited Away”, directed by Miyazaki Hayao, even received the Best Animated Feature in the
75th Oscar Academy Awards in 2003. In 2005, Nintendo (which marketed Super Mario and Pets) achieved sales of 350 billion yen (equivalent to 3.1 billion US dollar) in the US and Europe. The latest Louis Vuitton (LV) advertisement in 2008 was designed by Takashi Murakami, who presented the products using animation in order to attract the new generation of adolescents.
Animation is a magical term which signifies any acceptable and accessible content. Animation has assisted Japan in expanding its culture and commercial influence overseas to adolescents around the world.
2.3 Pop music Fans: The Emerging Adolescent Subculture II
25 2.3.1 Fans as enthusiasts
(1) Fans worship stars
For adolescents, teen ages are in their important socialization phase in their life course. The result of the rise of the media and the decline of the family as socialization agents is an increase in the independence of youth in their socialization processes (Arnett, 1995). Adolescents, trapped in their life style, prefer receiving messages from the media and peers rather than from family or school. An adolescent girl may learn from the media and peers to dress and behave like a pop music star. An adolescent boy may come to believe through media that, in addition to enthusiastically attending many rock concerts, it would be a great thing to devote hours each day to playing electric guitar so that he might live like a rock star or even become a rock star one day.
(2) Fans in many fields
Fans are found in many fields. For best selling books like ‘Harry Porter’, fans are often seen as ‘rogue readers’ because they are the active audience who are very nervous about what would happen in next part (Jenkins, 2006: 1). Sport fans are sports spectators who exhibit hero worship toward sports stars (Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001). In many situations, the pop music fan is seen as the stereotypical fan. Railton (2001) observed that a constant image of fans of music, especially of pop music, is that of a girl or young woman, screaming, out of control, totally absorbed in the bodily experience. The image that is produced time and again is not usually of one girl but of a heaving, screaming ‘mass’ of femininity.
(3) Definition: From groupie to fans 26 Over the last three or four decades, fans have faced difficulties earning respect and credibility, especially female fans (Weinstein, 2010). Some sociologists have called fans
‘groupies’ since the 1960s. Rhodes (2005) stated that women who were groupies between 1965 and 1975 had two things in common: the double standard and a love of music. They, solely because of their sex, faced obstacles that men in the same endeavors did not, yet they were still influential participants in the music scene during that era. Warwick (2007) saw the word
"groupie" as a derisive term used to describe a particular kind of female fan assumed to be more interested in sex with rock stars than in their music. Owens (2007) examines the groupie subculture in the rock music industry and examines social identity construction within the rock music culture. What these studies call groupies will be referred to in this study as fans.
Today, according to Thorne and Bruner‘s (2006) definition, a fan is a person with a overwhelming liking or interest in a particular person, group, trend, artwork or idea. A fan’s behavior is typically viewed by others as unusual or unconventional but does not violate social norms. In this view, a fan is merely someone with deeper level of devotion to some subject or object, with the more negative meanings included in words like ‘groupie’. With technological advances, fans have learned to use the new digital media resources to increase their visibility and expand their influences over popular culture (Jenkins, 2006).
(4) Fans are avid collectors and Otaku as well
Okada (2006) stated that investigation of Otaku values and consumer behavior in Japan, a
‘fan’ could be perceived as someone with a fondness for a subject who would develop their 27 interest through appreciation, whereas a ‘maniac’ was a fan who was actively involved (by sacrificing energy, material and time) in gathering related products and resources. People whose opinions and attitudes toward computer games are expressed in criticism, comments, underlining, and rejection of certain aspects of the texts can be called a fan of computer games (Wirman,
2007). ‘Otaku’ are thus individuals who enjoy collecting information and products to enhance their understanding of a specific field and to establish their own opinions about their obsession.
However, in this study, fans are referred as those who enthusiastically prefer a subject or an idol and are actively involved in collecting related products and information to enhance their understanding of preferred subjects or idols. Hence, both fans and Otaku are avid collectors of items related to their obsession and are deep information searchers. The differences between these two subculture groups lie in their different areas of interest.
2.3.2 Pop music fans
According to Thorne and Bruner (2006), a music fan is a person having an overwhelming liking of or interest in a music artist, especially a pop music singer. Pop music fans are enthusiastic admirers of pop music singers and are very interested in following singers. The phenomenon of following pop stars has become a kind of subculture.
Lacourse et al. (2001) investigated subcultural behaviors relating to adolescents who prefer heavy metal (HM) music and reported that adolescent girls who prefer HM music reported more feelings of alienation and anomie, and presented a higher suicide risk than their same sex peers.
28 On the other hand, the adolescent boys surveyed were not significantly different from their same sex peers. Gender has been considered a moderator within the relationship between HM music preference and behaviors such as anomie or suicidal behavior in the HM music subculture group
(Martin, Clarke, & Pearce, 1993).
Music is more than merely pretty sounds. An entire subculture can spring up around a musical form, with its own distinctive style. Elements of the music subculture include not only the music but a certain style of dress, a certain set of gestures, a knowledge of certain rituals, and a distinct way of looking at the world. For example, according to Davies (2001), a young teenage girl who keeps up with the latest fashions, trends, and popular music is called a teenybopper. The term teenybopper was invented by marketing professionals and psychologists in the 1950s, later becoming a subculture of its own. A teenybopper refers to female adolescents who are music fans and have the common characteristic of dressing in the style of their fashion or music icon. The famous pop music singer Lady Gaga consistently addresses her loyal fans as ‘my little monsters’ because of the influence of her albums Fame Monster and her 2009-2010 tour “ the monster ball”, a term that evokes the “monster’s ball” tradition of English jailers in which they would celebrate on the night before a prisoner’s execution (Corona, 2011). The term ‘monster’ has become a metaphor for fads and aesthetics of hypermodern life and Lady Gaga’s fans even imitate her distinct but strange fashion style. By contrast, fans become part of the subculture of heavy metal music only to the extent that their high sensation seeking is combined with alienation (Arnett,
1993). Heavy metal music fans are usually seen as in a social rebellion, much like punk music 29 fans.
In sum, star-chasing music fans are a new generation emerging from social-culture environment change. From the literature review, music fans with new values and new life styles are associated with mass media popularization and even technological innovation. This study adopts the exploratory consumer buying behavior as a theory construct to explore the meaning of music fans’ information seeking and consumer behavior.
2.4 Exploratory Buying Behavior Tendency
2.4.1 Exploratory buying behavior
The concept of exploratory buying behavior was developed in the early 1980s. Berlyne
(1976) stated that humans actively seek excitement to fulfill their sensory needs in addition to fulfilling their physical needs. These behaviors are commonly stimulating and arousing.
‘Exploratory behavior’ is the emotional state which includes the disposition to explore new experiences and novel environments. People who engage in exploratory behaviors have dynamic desires and strong curiosity.
McAlister and Pessemier (1982) and Raju (1980) initially applied the concept of exploratory buying behavior in the research of consumer behavior. The concept of exploratory buying behavior comprises the risk taking and innovativeness of purchases made by consumers, while exploratory buying behavior includes variety seeking, purchases due to curiosity, brand switching, information seeking, and communication with experienced buyers.
30 Hirschman (1980) intensified the concept of exploratory buying behavior from the innovative perspective, and argued that consumers have the behavioral tendency to adopt novelty products (which include ideas, products or services). Additionally, the concepts of consumer innovativeness and technological innovation were also discussed in his study. Consumer innovativeness has been seen as an expression of novelty seeking that leads to consumer innovative buying behavior (Roehrich, 2004).
Commonly, symbolic innovation represents the propagation of new social values (in buying behavior and products) through innovative social effects. For instance, the social value of fashion products or pop cultural outcomes related to young people is often a new lifestyle value.
Furthermore, some technological innovations are physical innovations which do not appear in product genres and purchasing habits. As internet technology advances, an example of this type of invisible technological innovation is the ability of consumers to make purchases in a virtual store.
2.4.2 Conceptualization of exploratory buying behavior
Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) made revisions and amendments to the concept of
‘exploratory consumer buying behavior’ based on the exploratory buying behavior concept of
Raju (1980). The psychological factors related to exploratory buying behavior proposed by
MacAlister and Pressemier (1982) and Raju (1980) were transformed into a discussion related to behavioral outcome. Additionally, revisions were made to the previous measurement scales since 31 there were overlapping concepts in the seven factors presented by Raju (1980). Furthermore, the exploratory buying behavior tendency and relationship between different aspects could not be predicted in an accurate manner. The main issue for McAlister and Pessemier’s (1982) study was the difficulty in differentiating risk taking and variety seeking. Therefore, Baumgartner and
Steenkamp (1996) integrated conceptual frameworks from the above researchers into two factors and developed the ‘Exploratory Buying Behavior Tendency’ (EBBT) of consumers. EBBT, used to measure the disposition of exploratory buying behavior, has a two factor conceptualization as follows:
(1) Exploratory Acquisition of Products (EAP)
EAP is behavior during purchases which include risk taking, innovation, brand switching, and behavioral tendencies for variety purchasing. Consumers with high EAP are willing to take risks in purchasing unfamiliar and innovative products. This group of people enjoys collecting a variety of products, emphasizes peculiar purchase experience, and is easily attracted by innovation or novelty products. They often enjoy changing their purchase behavior in an effort to attain stimulating consumption experiences.
(2) Exploratory Information Seeking (EIS)
EIS is the behavior initiated by curiosity which includes information seeking, intelligence inquiring and behaviors related to interpersonal communication. These behaviors mainly occur during the acquisition of product information and intelligence. In addition, consumers with high
EIS possess ample curiosity about product information. This group of consumers enjoys 32 aimlessly browsing display shelves, reading advertisement brochures of related products, collecting intelligence, and sharing their buying behavior among themselves.
2.4.3 Concept of exploratory buying behavior tendency adopted in this research
The two-dimension conceptualization of exploratory buying behavior tendency of consumer, namely EBBT, proposed by Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) distinguishes exploratory acquisition of products from exploratory information seeking. Consumer tendencies for exploratory buying behavior could lead to product information seeking or even to novel purchase experiences.
The EBBT is the main measurement of exploratory consumer buying behavior adopted in this research for both theoretical base and items design of interview and questionnaire.
Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) developed the EBBT as a measure of a consumer's tendency to engage in exploratory buying behavior. It captures only the notion of a general disposition to act in a consistent way across different situations (Steenkamp, 1997). However, group traits and subculture-specific consumptions of adolescent subculture groups explored in this research are not completely identical. Hence, the EBBT scale does not adequately represent specific subculture phenomenon. This research will develop a measurement based on qualitative investigations.
33 Chapter 3 Research Design
3.1 Research Framework
From the part of literature review, this study posits that the factors influencing adolescent subculture may be categorized to three components including personality traits, values and lifestyle. The concept of lifestyle is frequently adopted to study the consumer behavior of adolescents (Moschis, & Moore, 1979; Arnett, 2002; Belk, 2003; Kamaruddin, & Mokhlis, 2003;
Beaudoinand, & Lachance, 2006) and lifestyle scales (such as VALS and LOV) are employed as instruments for comprehensively measuring the adolescent lifestyle and making classifications.
For example, adolescents are seen as adventurers with various attributes such as being young, devoted, showing appreciation for adventure, change, and excitement. However, detailed attributes of buying behavior such as purchasing channels or information sources cannot be investigated by these instruments, especially for the buying behavior of distinct adolescent subcultures. In this study, AIO (Activity, interest and opinion) are adopted as dimensions of lifestyle (Kotler, 2006).
Further, Otaku and pop music fans are proposed as distinct adolescent subcultures in Taiwan in the research background of this study. To further understand the disposition and buying behavior of the adolescent Otaku and pop music fan subcultures in Taiwan, this study adopts a two-factor conceptualization of the exploratory buying behavior tendency (EBBT) of consumers, including exploratory acquisitions of product (EAP) and exploratory information seeking (EIS), 34 proposed by Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) as the theoretical base to direct the focus group interview structure and design of survey questionnaire. Thus, this study can explore the specific traits of the adolescent segment and its purchasing behavior patterns in Taiwan.
This study attempts to adopt both analytical concepts of adolescent subculture and theoretical concepts of exploratory consumer buying behavior to explore the adolescent Otaku and pop music fans’ personality traits and consumer behaviors and the differences in the characteristics of these adolescent subcultures. Modeling and verification procedure is adopted to obtain evidence for the features comparison of the two adolescent subcultures. Comparison of two studies is used to construct a generalized analytical model. The research framework of this study is presented in Figure 3-1.
Theoretical Base Traits of adolescent Adolescent Subculture
z Adolescent subculture subculture groups and z Otaku
z Exploratory buying their influences on (ACG enthusiast)
behavior tendency consumption tendencies z Pop music Fans (EBBT) (Mad star-chaser)
1. Comparison of Otaku and pop music fans
z Traits
z Buying behaviors
z Influences of traits on buying behavior 2. Generalized subculture analytical model
Figure 3- 1 Research framework
35 3.2 Research Method
3.2.1 Investigation procedure
The subculture traits of the Otaku and pop music fans are summarized from the literature review, focus group interviews findings and questionnaire surveys data analyses. The consumer behaviors of Otaku and pop music fans are studied from their perceptions of consumption for subculture-specific products, and the potential influences of subculture-specific traits on their buying behaviors are discussed. From a pragmatic perspective, the effective comprehension of consumer behavior in the target market will assist in the planning of marketing strategies.
This research aims to explore and compare two specific adolescent segment’s traits and purchasing behavior patterns, hence the same investigation methods are applied in the two empirical studies. First, two focus group interviews were conducted separately with adolescent
Otaku in study I and music fans in study II to allow them to express their opinions and to describe their purchasing behaviors. Then, a questionnaire was developed based on the interview’s findings, and data from the survey were collected. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was applied to extract the subcultures’ trait-factors, while structural equation modeling (SEM) was used for verifying the structural model of constructing relationship between the subcultures’ traits and their subculture-related buying behaviors.
3.2.2 Data collection and analysis procedure
In terms of research procedure, both qualitative and quantitative research methods were 36 adopted to closely inquire into the target subculture group. Firstly the target group was gathered from investigators’ surroundings through close observation, and then a semi-structured focus group interview was conducted with them. From the perspective of the interviewees, the essential values and buying behavior of the target group was thus summarized. In order to extract the dimensionality of the subculture group behavior models, a structured questionnaire was developed from the focus group interviews from which the analyzed quantitative data were collected. Finally, the relationship among different variables was verified using structural equation modeling. By identifying the relationships which affect the buying behavior of the target adolescents, a quantitative conclusion can be obtained.
3.2.3 Target respondents
This research defined Otaku as ‘someone with fanatical obsession for their chosen field of interest, and who is socially inept but who enjoys communicating with their compeers’. Pop music fans are defined as ‘someone with an overwhelming liking or interest in a pop music artist, and who actively attends star-chasing activities’. The definition was employed as the principle for the sampling, and the interviewees of two studies were targeted as ACG fanatics and star-chasing enthusiasts, respectively. In addition, based on the United Nations (UN) definition, the term
“adolescents” refers to the population between the ages of 15 and 24. Member States of the
European Union (EU) define “adolescents” as the population between the ages of 15 and 25.
This study adopted the broader policy and categorized those between the ages of 15 and 25 37 as adolescents to broaden the sampling frame. Based on the definition above and the characteristics of the adolescent Otaku (socially inept but enjoying collecting ACG and communicating with their compeers), focus group interviews of heavy ACG users and snowball sampling were employed to access avid consumers of ACG. While young pop music fans have are fond of idol chasing activities, focus group interviews of star chasers and convenience sampling of suveys in some idol star performance activities was employed to access young pop music fans with star-chasing lifestyles.
3.2.4 Focus group interview
The focus group interview was pioneered in the late 1930’s by social scientists who had doubts about the accuracy of traditional information gathering methods. It enables producers, manufacturers, and sellers to understanding the thinking of consumers (Kreuger, 1988). Smith
(1954) emphasized that in group interviews the group is defined by the importance of the information, and the group interview is limited to those groups small enough to discuss the situation among all members. The focus group interview is essentially a qualitative data gathering technique that finds the interviewer/moderator directing the interaction and inquiry, while the selection of participants depends on the objective of the study (Lewis, 2000). Stewart and
Shamdasani (1990) suggested that convenience sampling can be employed and assure the group consists of representative members of the larger population. Based on this guidance, this research adopts the focus group interview as its qualitative investigation method to improve the accuracy 38 of information gathering.
Because of the uniqueness of the Otaku and pop music fans subcultural groups, focus group interviews were conducted in this study to ensure the comprehensiveness of the subsequent survey questionnaire design. Not only are the lifestyles of these distinct adolescent subcultures were considered, but the EAP and EIS, the main dimensions of exploratory buying behavior tendencies inventory proposed by Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996), were also considered in the design of the interview questions. Consumers with relevant experience, most of whom were students, were gathered to form the focus groups. By directing an open-ended discussion, the attitudes affecting their lifestyles and consumer behavior could be comprehended (Calder, 1977;
Flanagan, 1954). There were several open-ended questions in the focus group interviews, which ranged from 30 minutes to 2 hours in duration. The content of the discussion was recorded and then used to analyze the feedback to the questions. To inspect the content validity of the questions, revision of items was made by comparing the analyzed combination of questions with the previous questions.
3.2.5 Questionnaire interview
Questionnaire interviews concerning Otaku and music fans in Taiwan were conducted twice.
To obtain participants for the study, for Otaku groups, consumers in ACG stores were approached while internet searches were taken to find music fans. The individuals were then invited to participate in the questionnaire interviews. Participants were asked to fill out a series of 39 self-report questionnaires. The EAP and EIS, the main dimensions of exploratory buying behavior tendencies inventory proposed by Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996), were also considered in the design of the questionnaire items. Then the data collected from the questionnaire interview were encoded as a quantitative data for statistical analysis.
3.2.6 Quantitative data analysis
The procedure for statistical analysis of questionnaire data includes following steps. That the two empirical investigations adopt the same procedures is helpful for comparison of the findings.
(1) Item purification
Some of the measurement items may not be relevant to the scale, hence a purification process is needed to identify the effective items by eliminating the relationship between the individual item and the entire scale. Cronbach’s α and the item-to-total correlation for each item were computed, then the items whose item-to-total correlations were low and whose removal increased the coefficient alpha were deleted. In addition, squared multiple correlation for each item, the multiple R2 from the regression analysis with the given item as the dependent variable and all other items as independent variables, was also computed to determine if the item should be deleted due to its low value. Thus the internal consistency of the set of items was examined.
(2) Exploratory factor analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. In order 40 to examine the common factors of the measurement scale, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted on the original items with varimax rotation to analyze the unidimensionality and validity (Nunnally, 1978). The results for varimax-rotated component matrix were used to judge the item elimination. Items with a factor loading smaller than 0.5 (it means that items are not well explained by the factor) or which loaded on more than one factor (it means that items cross loaded on more than one factor and are cross explained by more than one factor) were dropped
(Hair et al., 2006). Items remaining after the elimination process were used to determine the factor components of the measurement scale.
(3) Reliability and validity
Reliability is evaluated by examining the Cronbach’s α of the instrument dimensions.
Normally an instrument exhibits high reliability if its alpha coefficient exceeds 0.7 and it shows that the instrument deserves to do further analysis. Construct validity is adopted in this research for validity evaluation because the instrument is developed in this research. Construct validity is evaluated by testing whether measurements of a construct are consistent with a researcher's understanding of the nature of that construct (or factor). In this research, construct validity and the items eliminated based on the factor loadings from EFA were examined.
(4) Model fit test
This part is a test to extract dimensions for model fit. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was adopted for the verification of model fit. Two models were developed to test the model fit:
Model 1 was the direct relationship between the antecedent factors and the single consequent 41 variable, while model 2 added the potential intermediary effect into the relationship between the antecedent factors and the single consequent variable.
42 Chapter 4 Empirical Study I: Otaku Subculture
In this study, prior studies of Otaku are first reviewed and the findings then combined with the subsequent focus group interview findings to construct a tentative model. Survey questionnaire items are developed based on the literature and focus group interview findings. The tentative model is revised using exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modeling with survey data to extract principal components structure and form a measurement model. The measurement scale is then examined for its validity and reliability. Finally, a revised model is developed and insights for marketers are presented.
4.1 Prior Studies of Otaku
In the 1980s, a series of articles called “An investigation of Otaku”, written by Japanese scholar Akio Nakamori and published in a comic magazine in 1983, revealed that the Otaku, a unique subculture, consisted of individuals with unusual and obsessive interests in a specific range of subjects. Currently, Otaku is defined as a group of people who are obsessed with the visualized virtual world and the images supplied by the modern media (including television, magazines, comic books, computer or video games) (Baral, 1999). Otaku are also known as geeks or nerds, individuals who are overly obsessed with intellectual pursuits, technology, electronics, gaming, and even new media (Steinberg, 2004; Washida, 2005; Bremner, & Tashiro, 2006). They enjoy staying indoors to play games and read comics alone, but are not concerned about daily living requirements. In the field in which they are interested, they are capable of rapidly 43 discovering new information and products. They are maniacal collectors of comics and Japanese anime goods,
Otaku is the new generation of this era of technological progress. Otaku is a subculture group with ample interest in and robust purchasing patterns for animation, comics and games
(ACG) (Okada, 2006). Nomura Research Institute (2005) in Japan indicated that manga
(animation) fans address each other with the term ‘Otaku’. As a result of globalization, the growth of the ACG industry has not only influenced Japan but many other areas of the world as well. Animation has assisted Japan in expanding its culture and commercial influence overseas to adolescents around the world.
As the literature review shows, Otaku embrace new values and new lifestyles associated with ACG addiction and technological innovation, and these traits influence their ACG buying behaviors (Niu et al., 2011). Due to the preferences of Otaku for novelty consumption, this study adopts the concept of exploratory buying behavior as a theory construct to explore how the traits of adolescent Otaku affect their consumption of ACG products.
4.2 Focus Group Interview
4.2.1 Selection of interviewees
This study selected interviewees by observing and approaching customers of a specialty store of games and ACG figures. The observation sessions were conducted in the evening, the time when most Otaku appear at the stores. The interviewees were selected based on the time 44 they spent making their purchases, and the conversations they participated in while in the store.
The customers who spent more time shopping and who were more frequent buyers were chosen as the candidates. Eventually, five customers were invited to be interviewed, including 3 males
(aged 20, 20 and 18) and 2 females (aged 19 and 17). A non-structured questionnaire was developed based on the features of the subculture and the exploratory buying behavior model taken from the literature. The interview procedure and findings were originally presented in the researcher’s prior research about Otaku (Niu, Chiang, & Tsai, 2011).
4.2.2 Procedure and Findings of the Interview
The interview was held in the ACG figures store so that the interviewees would feel comfortable. Further, the interview was led by a moderator who attempted to understand the thoughts of the interviewees based on the discussion outlined from the literature. The discussion was carried out conversationally to assist in understanding the respondents’ opinions and buying behavior. During the session, three rules were obeyed by the moderator: not to express personal opinions, not to make any value judgments, and not to criticize the respondents. The duty of the moderator was to create a comfortable context for the free flow of opinions. Moreover, the moderator would manage the session to prevent the discussion from deviating from the topic. The moderator would bring up critical questions when appropriate during the process.
Since the Otaku group was, by definition, socially inept, the moderator took a longer period of time to fit into the interviewees’ way of thinking during the session. Further, the interviewees 45 were eager to express opinions about the topics related to their own interests, but were not concerned about others’ comments. The session thus lasted 3.5 hours. The information from the interview was organized and categorized into four sections, as shown in Table 4-1.
Table 4-1 Results of Otaku focus group interview Lifestyle Buying Behavior
Personality Traits Values Activities and Opinions about on ACG Interests Otaku Subculture Merchandise z Incapable of z Consider the z Enjoy indoor z Strong antipathy z Favor products dressing up Otaku as a unique activities for fictitious from Japan z Dislike staying in trait and a kind of z Good knowledge reports published z Devoted to the crowd, most of superior of ACG related in the media collecting the time enjoy z Neglect of others’ products from z Offended by z Concerned about shopping alone recognition while Japan and the US society’s the products’ z May imagine the disliking others’ z Appreciate misunderstanding related comic character as judgments of Japanese ACG of ACG culture information a love partner but Otaku-ism products z Large proportion z Collect and do not expect this z Strong enthusiasm z Repeatedly read of expenditure is compare product to happen in real for and ability in comics of interest used for anime information life subjects of interest z May self-imagine related products z Eager to express z To be an ACG as the comics’ z Creativity and opinions about the expert characters and quality topics of own z All needs can be imitate moves, z ACG market is a interest but not fulfilled by habits and styles niche market concerned about computer without of the characters z ACG creates a others’ comments going out z Participate in the designated autograph sessions community and of various anime shopping area exhibitions z Experienced in information searching
46 Table 4-1 shows that the personality traits of Otaku include disliking social activities and going out, and consider the internet the major tool to fulfill their life and entertainment needs.
Otaku have strong self-esteem, and possess an extraordinary level of enthusiasm and professionalism for their subject of interest. Further, Otaku also display conspicuous recognition of and are defensive of their group culture. The purchasing behavior of Otaku adolescents demonstrates distinctive differentiation from regular consumers due to their high involvement in post-purchase behavior. Hence, the behavior traits of the Otaku summarized from the literature review were verified. Furthermore, the Otaku exhibit high EAP and EIS purchasing patterns under the concept of exploratory buying behavior.
4.3 Tentative Model for Effect of Otaku’s Traits on ACG Buying Behavior
Based on the review of the literature and focus group interviews, this study proposes a tentative model for depicting the influences of adolescent Otaku’s personality traits on their ACG buying behavior. The Otaku subculture group has specific personality traits, values and lifestyles.
Adolescent Otaku tend to stay indoors and are less open to non-ACG activities or general affairs.
They expend much effort in becoming an ACG expert and then express a kind of self-superiority.
They are fond of ACG and indoor activities, and hence they tend to buy more ACG merchandise to watch, to play with, and to collect. These specific traits are posited to have some degree of influence on their ACG purchases. The tentative model is shown in Figure 4-1. This model will be verified in the latter part of this study. 47 Adolescent Otaku’ traits Personality z Stay indoors z Less openness
Values ACG purchase z Be an expert z Otaku superior
Lifestyle z Indoor activity z ACG addiction
Figure 4- 1 Tentative model for influences of adolescent Otaku’s traits on ACG purchases
4.4 Questionnaire Survey
This study designed the close-ended questionnaire items based on the focus group interviews in order to acquire evidence for evaluation of the model. The possible relationship between the characteristics and purchasing patterns of Otaku may then be verified. The initial questionnaire items included characteristics such as lifestyle activities, hobbies, values, personality traits and perspectives on ACG, totaling 32 questions. In addition, there were 8 questions on the outcome variables of the Otaku’s ACG purchasing patterns. The questionnaire was inspected and revised by the five interviewees and two marketing practitioners. After eliminating five items, 27 items remained including 22 questions on the characteristics of Otaku and 5 questions on ACG purchasing patterns.
4.4.1 Profile of Respondents
The questionnaire respondents were invited and introduced by the Otaku interviewees who
48 participated in the focus group interview. Basically, the age of the respondents must be between
15 and 25. Additionally, the interviewees’ compeers who comformed to the characteristics of
Otaku were invited to participate in the questionnaire investigation. 148 questionnaires were delivered in Taiwan (Kaoshiung city) and 105 valid questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 71%. The respondents were mostly male (73.3%), and between the ages of 21 and 25
(63.8%). Furthermore, most of the respondents had an education at the college or university level and a monthly expenditure of between US$101 and $200. Further, 44.8% of respondents spent 2 to 4 hours on the internet every day (Table 4-2).
Table 4-2 Demographics of Otaku sample
Variable Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender Male 77 73.3 Female 28 26.7 Age 15-20 38 36.2 21-25 67 63.8 Education High school 13 12.4 College or university 92 87.6 Monthly pocket money Under $100 26 24.8 $101~200 30 28.6 $201~300 27 25.7 $301~400 10 9.5 Over $400 12 11.4 Daily PC-use Under 2 hrs 6 5.7 2~4 hrs 47 44.8 4~8 37 35.2 Over 8 hrs 15 14.3
49 4.4.2 Item purification
Cronbach’s α and the item-to-total correlation for each item were computed. Items whose item-to-total correlations were low and whose removal increased Cronbach’s α were deleted. In addition, squared multiple correlation for each item, the multiple R2 from the regression analysis with the given item as the dependent variable and all other items as independent variables, was also computed to determine if the item should be deleted due to its low value. Thus the internal consistency of the set of items was examined. Table 4-3 indicates that not only is the scale quite reliable but that no items should be deleted.
50 Table 4-3 Summary of item-total statistics for Otaku study
Corrected item- Items Squared multiple correlation Cronbach’s α if item deleted total correlation
22 items for measuring Otaku traits (Cronbach’s α is 0.886) Q 1 .309 .371 .885
Q 2 .380 .469 .884
Q 3 .316 .293 .883
Q 4 .364 .522 .883
Q 5 .310 .408 .886
Q 6 .468 .643 .879
Q 7 .551 .550 .876
Q 8 .577 .581 .875
Q 9 .709 .628 .872
Q 10 .618 .512 .874
Q 11 .614 .674 .874
Q 12 .649 .700 .873
Q 13 .588 .560 .875
Q 14 .323 .310 .882
Q 15 .308 .301 .886
Q 16 .321 .376 .883
Q 17 .601 .575 .875
Q 18 .782 .754 .869
Q 19 .705 .692 .871
Q 20 .659 .767 .872
Q 21 .535 .655 .877
Q 22 .760 .767 .869
Five items for measuring Otaku ACG buying behavior (Cronbach’s α is 0.949) Q 23 .893 .805 .932
Q 24 .902 .822 .930
Q 25 .854 .777 .938
Q 26 .837 .727 .941
Q 27 .824 .684 .944
Note: Reliability Cronbach’s α= 0.929.
4.4.3 Exploratory factor analysis
51 In order to examine the common factors of the measurement, exploratory factor analysis
(EFA) was conducted on the original 22 items for the Otaku traits, and five items for their ACG buying behavior. This study employed the EFA to analyze the unidimensionality and validity
(Nunnally, 1978).
This research submitted the 22 Otaku trait items to EFA and used varimax rotation to explore the underlying dimensions of the construct. The results are summarized in Table 5. The items were extracted based on the criteria (Hair et al., 2006): (1) cut-off points of 0.5 for an item’s factor loading which indicates strong loadings on particular subsets of items; (2) cut-off points of 1.0 for eigenvalue: the strength of these subsets is usually represented in eigenvalues indicating which factors, or subsets of items, account for the strongest part of the total scale variance. All items’ communality exceeds 0.3 (a variable’s communality is the estimate of its common variance among the variables as represented by the derived factors and the communality increases as a variable is highly correlated with other variables) and all items exceed the 0.5 factor loadings threshold, except for item 3. This indicates that convergent validity and unidimensionality exist. In addition, no item had a high cross-loading, which supports the discriminant validity. The KMO value is 0.842 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (p < 0.001) showing that the data was suitable for implementation of factor analysis.
Five factors were extracted from this exploratory factor analysis and the cumulative variance explained was 68.76%.
The results for varimax-rotated component matrix were used to judge item elimination. Item 52 16 with a factor loading smaller than 0.5 and item 3 with a single-item loaded on one factor were dropped. Twenty items remained after the elimination process (Table 4-4). This procedure ensured convergent validity for the factor components. Afterwards, the characteristics of the relevant items were employed to name the dimensions: “deep ACG research”, “animation obsession”, “indoor activity preference”, “self-superiority” and “accentuation of interests”, which represented the profound understanding of ACG by Otaku, obsession with anime products, preference for indoor activities, high recognition of self-value, and avid participation in subjects of their own interest, respectively. The five factors identified in Table 4 can be described as follows:
Factor 1: Deep ACG research. This involves items related to represent Otaku interest in,
and knowledge and appreciation of, ACG.
Factor 2: Animation obsession. The items that describe this factor represent Otaku
addiction to virtual anime and manga surroundings.
Factor 3: Indoor activity preference. This factor presents Otaku preference for indoor
activities.
Factor 4: Self-superiority. This involves items related to such issues as self-recognition and
feelings of superiority.
Factor 5: Accentuation of interests. This factor emphasizes the deeper, enthusiastic and
digitized research of the Otaku into subjects of interest.
53 Table 4-4 Rotated component matrix of Otaku traits
Original Items Factor loading Communality Dimension dimension
L 20. Profound interest in animation 0.894 0.836 Deep ACG L 21. Profound interest in games 0.781 0.685 research L 22. Highly praise ACG products 0.767 0.796 (Disp_1) L 9. Exceptional knowledge of animation/games stores 0.743 0.693 L 18. Great understanding of ACG 0.712 0.749 L 19. A deep interest in “Doujinshi” 0.667 0.655 L 12. Imitate animation characters frequently 0.840 0.821 Animation L 11. Imagine myself as animation characters 0.772 0.752 obsession L 13. Attend animation autograph sessions frequently 0.736 0.668 (Disp_2) L 10. Comics of interest deserves reading repeatedly 0.536 0.549 P 6. Perceive outdoor activity as very boring 0.879 0.825 Indoor activity P 7. Perceive computer can fulfill every need 0.759 0.695 preference P 8. Like to carry out activity of interest indoors 0.705 0.640 (Disp_3) P 17. Don’t want to shop in crowded places 0.611 0.606 V 1. Believe I am superior to others 0.721 0.595 Self- V 2. Believe I possess characteristics others do not superiority 0.766 0.717 have (Disp_4) V 15. I am not good at dressing up 0.579 0.597 P 5. Deeper research into subjects of interest than Accentuation 0.806 0.685 others of interests P 4. Strong enthusiasm for subjects of interest 0.804 0.762 (Disp_5) P 14. Generally seek information via the internet 0.586 0.601 Note: In the column of original dimension, L refers to ‘lifestyle’, V refers to ‘values’, and P refers to ‘personality’.
Another five items loaded on the purchase behavior of ACG. The KMO value was 0.893 and
Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant level (p < 0.001). The subsequent EFA result displayed a single factor which complied with the original concept of unidimensionality. Moreover, the factor explained the variance of 83.43% (eigenvalue of 4.172). Thus, the factor structure demonstrated convergent validity, and the dimension of “ACG purchase” was named based on 54 the relative items all relating to ACG merchandise consumptions (Table 4-5).
Table 4-5 Rotated component matrix of ACG purchase
Factor Communality Description of joint factors for related questions Dimension loading 24. Will purchase Japan’s ACG related products 0.940 0.872 ACG 23. Strong ability in collecting ACG information 0.934 0.884 purchase 25. Will compare different types of ACG products 0.910 0.828 26. Usually spend the most on ACG 0.896 0.803 27. Collect ACG products with lasting value 0.886 0.785
4.4.4 Reliability and validity
Mean and standard deviations of each Otaku exploring buying behavior concept score are given in Table 4-6. The concept ‘Accentuation of interests’ reached the highest mean score
(M=4.19, SD=0.60), while the concept with the lowest score is ‘ACG purchase’ (M=2.54,
SD=1.14). According to Churchill (1979), average correlation is all that is needed to estimate the reliability of the sample, and all the sources of error occurring within a measurement tend to lower the average correlation among the items in the test.
Table 4-6 Means, standard deviations (SD), and correlations for Otaku’s study
Cronbach’s Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 alpha 1. Deep ACG research 2.98 0.97 0.912 1
2. Animation obsession 2.63 0.92 0.840 0.64* 1
3. Indoor activitypreference 2.80 0.85 0.821 0.54* 0.53* 1
4. Self-superiority 3.33 0.70 0.500 0.02 0.01 0.03 1
5. Accentuation of interests 4.19 0.60 0.606 0.27* 0.19 0.15 0.12 1
6. ACG purchase 2.54 1.140.949 0.87* 0.62* 0.57* 0.02 0.22* 1
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
55 The subsequent calculation of the Cronbach’s α for each dimension is used to determine the reliability of a measure based on its internal consistency. When 0.35 < α < 0.70, reliability is acceptable; when α > 0.70, reliability is good (Guilford, 1954). Six of the components listed in
Table 6 showed acceptable reliability: deep ACG research (0.912), animation obsession (0.840), indoor activities (0.821), self-superiority (0.500), accentuation of interest (0.606) and ACG purchase (0.949). In sum, these support the convergent validity and reliability of the instrument.
Construct validity is used to test whether measures of a construct are consistent with a researcher's understanding of the nature of that construct (or factor) (Campbell, & Fiske, 1959).
In this research, construct validity is examined by the test of model fit for extracted five-factors traits model and AMOS software is adopted for the analysis. Typical model fit indicators are used to examine whether the measurement model has a good fit, including Chi-square=1.583,
AGFI=0.756, RMSEA=0.075, IFI=0.908, and CFI=0.905 for the five factor traits model. The results show that the good measurement model fit presents a high validity.
4.4.5 Test of demographics differences
Otaku does not mean male or female although its correlation with gender is high (Washida,
2005). In Japan, generally speaking, many young male maniacal collectors of animation and comics are called Otaku. In this study, the respondents of the survey were mostly male (73.3%) coincide with Washida’s (2005) observation of Otaku’s gender distribution. We need to further test if there exist gender differences in factor analysis results of this survey sample in order to 56 support the generalizability of the tentative model proposed in this study. A t-test was carried out to compare values between the male and female group and determine statistical significance (P <
0.05) of gender differences in the above six factors. The results are shown as Table 4-7.
Table 4-7 Analysis of gender differences of Otaku sample
Factor Male Female Levene's Test for Equality of Variances Equality of Means means means F-value P-value Equal variances t-value p-value Deep ACG research 3.03 2.85 3.981 0.049 Not assumed 0.744 0.461 Animation 2.63 2.63 1.001 0.319 Not assumed 0.022 0.983 obsession Indoor activity 2.83 2.74 0.199 0.656 Not assumed 0.433 0.667 preference Self-superiority 3.29 3.45 0.205 0.652 Not assumed -1.043 0.302 Accentuation of 4.17 4.24 1.399 0.240 Not assumed -0.495 0.623 interests ACG purchase 2.56 2.48 0.575 0.450 Not assumed 0.304 0.762
Note: Gender differences are analyzed by comparison of male to female.
In terms of gender comparison on six factors, Levene's Test is utilized for examining equality of variances at first. We examined if the results were significant, or if the equal variance could be assumed, and then to test equality of means by different t test. By examining the results, all factors population could not be assumed equal variances. Then from the test of equality of means, it shows that there is no significant gender difference.
Following the above analytical procedure, the age differences were examined also. Age of the sample is categorized as two groups of 15~20 and 21~25. Hence, a t-test was carried out to compare values between two aging groups and determine statistical significance (P < 0.05) of
57 gender differences in the above six factors. The results are shown as Table 4-8 and it shows that there is only one significant age difference on factor ‘Self-superiority’ (Disp_4). It implies adolescent Otaku with age of 15~20 has less level of self-superiority than those with age of
21~25 (t= -2.182, p=0.033), however this difference is not very strong significant tendency.
Table 4-8 Analysis of age differences of Otaku sample
Factor Age 15~20 Age 21~25 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances Equality of Means means means F-value P-value Equal variances t-value p-value Deep ACG research 2.7851 3.0920 0.385 0.536 Not assumed -1.592 0.115 Animation 2.6184 2.6343 0.002 0.964 Not assumed -0.083 0.934 obsession Indoor activity 2.6579 2.8881 0.267 0.607 Not assumed -1.365 0.176 preference Self-superiority 3.1316 3.4478 0.276 0.600 Not assumed -2.182 0.033 Accentuation of 4.2456 4.1542 0.187 0.667 Not assumed 0.744 0.459 interests ACG purchase 2.4053 2.6149 0.096 0.757 Not assumed -0.906 0.368
Note: Age differences are analyzed by comparison of ‘15~20’ to ‘21~25’.
The education differences were also examined by following the above analytical procedure.
Education level of the sample is categorized as two groups of ‘high school’ and ‘college or university’. Hence, a t-test was carried out to compare values between these two groups and determine statistical significance (P < 0.05) of education differences in the above six factors. The results are shown as Table 4-9 and it shows that there is no significant education difference.
58 Table 4-9 Analysis of age differences of Otaku sample
Factor High College or Levene's Test for Equality of Variances Equality of Means school university means means F-value P-value Equal variances t-value p-value Deep ACG research 2.8974 2.9928 0.291 0.591 Not assumed -0.339 0.739 Animation 2.6731 2.6223 0.652 0.421 Not assumed 0.154 0.880 obsession Indoor activity 2.6731 2.8234 0.320 0.573 Not assumed -0.624 0.541 preference Self-superiority 3.4872 3.3116 1.087 0.300 Not assumed 0.753 0.464 Accentuation of 4.2564 4.1775 1.268 0.263 Not assumed 0.371 0.716 interests ACG purchase 2.6308 2.5261 0.104 0.747 Not assumed 0.284 0.780
Note: Education differences are analyzed by comparison of ‘high school’ to ‘college or university’.
4.4.6 Validation of the structure model
The variable influences of the five-factor Otaku traits on ACG purchase form the structural model of this study. Before the verification of the structural model, the variance inflation factor
(VIF) computed from regression analysis was employed for the collinearity diagnostic to assure more rigorous model validation. In this model, all the VIF values were between 1.41 and 4.20 and there were only three items, namely items 18, 20 and 22, which had a VIF value larger than 4.
These items loaded on the same common factor and did not have a substantial influence on the original factor structure. Hence, collinearity does not appear to threaten the model verification
(Neter, Wasserman, & Kutner, 1985).
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was subsequently adopted for the verification procedures. Two models were developed to investigate the model fit of the five-factor Otaku
59 traits related to the ACG purchase factor: Model 1 was the direct relationship between the five antecedence factors and the single consequence variable, while Model 2 added the potential intermediary effect into the relationship between the five antecedence factors and the single consequence variable. The model fit results for Model 1 are shown in Table 4-10.
Table 4-10 Fit indices for structural model 1 for Otaku study
Fit indices Suggested value (Hair et al., 2006) Model 1 Absolute fit measures χ2 / d.f. ≤ 5.00 (Segar & Grover, 1993) 1.854 AGFI ≥ 0.80 0.672 RMSEA ≤ 0.10 0.091 Incremental fit indices CFI ≥ 0.90 0.865 TLI ≥ 0.90 0.850 IFI ≥ 0.90 0.868 Parsimony fit indices PNFI ≥ 0.50 0.676 PGFI ≥ 0.50 0.604
The results for Model 1 showed that χ2 / d.f. =1.854 and the P value was 0.000. On the basis of these results, a significant good overall fit of structure model. According to Hair et al. (2006), the measure of goodness of fit is divided into absolute fit measures, incremental fit indices and parsimony fit indices. Due to the limited sample size, the AGFI was poor (0.672) under the absolute fit measures (except for the RMSEA at 0.091, which signified a good fit). The incremental fit indices (NFI, CFI and TLI) fall outside the suggested value, but are close to the suggested value, which can be considered as an adequate fit. Overall, there was a considerable level of model fit between the suggested model and the actual investigated information. However,
60 from the relationship among the factors, only “ACG research” displayed a significant influence on ‘ACG purchase’ (standardized path coefficient = 0.96). The path diagram is illustrated in
Figure 4-2.
61 .45 r4 e17 q17 .72 .67 e6 q6 .85 .55 .74 Disp_3 e7 q7 .68 .46 e8 q8 .07 r5 .65 e1 q1 .80 .28 .53 e2 q2 .29 Disp_4 .08 e15 q15 .02 .87 .88 r6 r1 .93 q23 e23 e4 q4 .91 .82 .29 .94 q24 e24 .54 e5 q5 -.03 .89 .79 .13 .36 Disp_5 ACG q25 e25 e14 q14 purchase .72 .85 q26 e26 .02 .70 .84 .35 r3 q27 e27 e10 q10 .68 .59 e11 q11 .83 .82 .91 Disp_2 e12 q12 .50 .70 e13 q13 .96**
.62 e9 q9 r2 .76 e18 q18 .87.79 .77 .60 Disp_1 e19 q19 .77 .59 e20 q20 .36 .60 e21 q21 .85 .92 e22 q22
Figure 4-2 SEM path diagram for model 1 of Otaku study Note: Values on the path are standardized coefficients. ** Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
To further understand the intermediary effect among the variables, analysis of Model 2 was
62 conducted. The results for the model fit are shown in Table 4-11, combined with the results for model 1. All fit values of Model 2 are better than Model 1 and attain a good fit level, except for
AGFI.
Table 4- 11 Comparison of fit indices for structural models 1 & 2 of Otaku study
Fit indices Suggested value (Hair et al., 2006) Model 1 Model 2 Absolute fit measures χ2 / d.f. ≤ 5.00 (Segar & Grover, 1993) 1.854 1.529 AGFI ≥ 0.80 0.672 0.729 RMSEA ≤ 0.10 0.091 0.071 Incremental fit indices CFI ≥ 0.90 0.865 0.918 TLI ≥ 0.90 0.850 0.907 IFI ≥ 0.90 0.868 0.920 Parsimony fit indices PNFI ≥ 0.50 0.676 0.703 PGFI ≥ 0.50 0.604 0.634
The resulting path diagram for Model 2 is illustrated in Figure 4-3. Although there are two negative path coefficients between ‘Animation obsession’ (Disp_2) and ‘ACG purchase’ factor
(-0.05) as well as between ‘Accentuation of interests’ (Disp_5) and ‘ACG purchase’ factor
(-0.04), it is not further discussed because of no significance (p>0.05).
63 q15 q2 q1 q14 q5 q4
.23 .42 1.01 .32 .50 1.03
Disp_5 Disp_4 q22 q21 q20 q19 q18 q9
.92 .59 .76 .79 .17 .78 .88 .17
-.04 .01
.40 q10 .04 .05 q8 .51 .63 .48** Disp_1 .34** .71 .69 .83 q11 .73 q7 .53 .58** .87 Disp_2 Disp_3 .78 .76 q12 q6 .61 .99** .71 .72 -.05 .03 .51 q13 q17 .53
ACG purchase
.85 .86 .90 .91 .94
q27 q26 q25 q24 q23
Figure 4-3 SEM path diagram for model 2 of Otaku study Note: Values on the path are standardized coefficients. ** Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Figure 4-3 reveals that the most important factor of Otaku traits influencing their ACG buying behavior is ‘deep ACG research’ (Disp_1) since Otaku are commonly interested in ACG products. ‘Animation obsession’ (Disp_2) and ‘Indoor activity preference’ (Disp_3) do not directly influence their ACG buying behavior, but indirectly influence it through the ‘deep ACG research’ factor (Disp_1). In addition, ACG buying behavior is also affected by the ‘Indoor 64 activity preference’ factor (Disp_3) through the influence of ‘Animation obsession’ (Disp_2).
Other factors have no significant direct or indirect effects on ACG buying behavior. In summary, from the perspective of exploratory buying behavior, ‘deep ACG research’ (Disp_1) expresses the subculture of adolescents with high exploratory product acquisition and information seeking for such products, and ‘Animation obsession’ (Disp_2) follows.
4.5 Revised Model for Effect of Otaku’s Traits on ACG Buying Behavior
This study proposed a tentative model in the first section through review of literature and focus group interviews to analyze the effects of the traits of adolescent Otaku on their ACG buying behavior. By empirical examination of the measurement model and structure model, a revised model is developed in Figure 4-4. The original dimensions (personality, values, and lifestyle) of the tentative model relating to the three significant influential factors are also presented in Figure 4-4. We can find that the influence of Otaku’s values on their ACG consumption is not significant.
Further, from the perspective of consumer behavior, Figure 4-4 also reveals that the adolescent Otaku ACG buying behaviors are influenced by three traits. The influence relationships are summarized below.
(1) Animation obsession inspires deep ACG research. Because the adolescent Otaku have strong interests and are addicted to animation, they tend to be involved in deep research about
ACG related information. 65 (2) Indoor activity preference directly and indirectly via animation obsession leads to deep
ACG research. Because adolescent Otaku prefer indoor activities, they prefer watching animation and further studying it indoors.
(3) Deep ACG research stimulates ACG purchases. Adolescent Otaku want to know more about ACG and share with like-minded individuals. They tend to buy more ACG related merchandise to enrich their knowledge and expand their collections.
Adolescent Otaku characteristics
Indoor activity preference (Personality) 0.34**
Deep ACG research 0.99** ACG purchase 0.58** (Lifestyle)
0.48**
Animation obsession (Lifestyle)
Figure 4-4 Revised model for influences of adolescent Otaku traits on ACG purchase
Through these psychological processes and behavior feedbacks, we can find that adolescent
Otaku enjoy ACG buying behavior with great enthusiasm. This finding is consistent with
Hirschman’s (1980) argument that consumers have the behavioral tendency to adopt novelty products. Adolescent Otaku, have strong ACG buying and collecting behavior tendencies with ample pre-purchase information search and widespread acquisition of ACG merchandise to
66 enrich their collection. This is consistent with the two dimensions (EIS and EAP) of exploratory buying behavior tendency proposed by Baumgartner and Steenkampy (1996).
67 Chapter 5 Empirical Study II: Pop music Fan Subculture
This study follows the same structure of the former empirical study of ACG Otaku. Prior studies of pop music fans are first summarized and then combined with the subsequent focus group interview findings to construct a tentative model. Survey questionnaire items are developed based on the literature and focus group interview findings. The tentative model is revised by exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modeling with survey data to extract principal components structure and form a measurement model. The measurement scale is examined for it validity and reliability. Finally, a revised model is formed and insights are presented.
5.1 Prior Studies of Pop Music Fans
A pop music fan is a person with an overwhelming liking or interest in a pop music artist
(Thorne and Bruner, 2006). They are enthusiastic admirers of pop music singers and are very interested in star chasing. Thus, the phenomenon of star chasing is a kind of subculture and has become a lifestyle for many young people. Previous studies have focused on the relationship between pop music preference and special behaviors such as some anomie or suicide (Martin et al., 1993). However, a subculture will grow up with its own distinctive style. A certain style of dress, a certain set of gestures, a knowledge of certain rituals, and a distinct way of looking at the world are all likely to be growing elements of the pop music subculture (Corona, 2011; Davies,
2001). Pop music fans also often seek novelty and sensation through star-chasing activities and exhibit some degree of alienation because of their enthusiastic star-chasing behaviors and 68 consumption (Arnett, 1993).
The review of the literature shows that pop music fans with specific personality traits, values and lifestyles are likely to exhibit enthusiastic star-chasing buying behavior, especially for the adolescent group. In order to explore the factors that affect young pop music fans’ enthusiastic star-chasing buying behavior, this study adopts the concept of exploratory buying behavior as a theoretical background to explore the theoretical implications of young pop music fans’ information seeking and buying behavior on their star-chasing buying behaviors.
5.2 Focus Group Interview
5.2.1 Selection of interviewees
A great concern for this study was how to locate and interview adolescent pop music fans.
Due to its frequent use by the younger generation, the internet was chosen as a good way to access adolescents, using social networking websites.
In this research, the interviewees were recruited by intermediates on the Internet who posted the interview advertisement on BBS, Facebook and blogs. People who were willing to participate and fit the criteria listed below had to explain their backgrounds and their favorite singers. After the intermediates recommended the candidates, the researcher selected the interviewees who frequently interacted with their idols or who were the heavy users, spending time and money on searching and buying products associated with their pop music icon. Based on the literature and the internet articles, the interviewee criteria of this research are: 69 1. Researching updated information about their idols on the Internet almost every day.
2. Regularly following idols to shows every week or tracking their events. When foreign singing idols come to Taiwan, these fans will greet them at the airport, see them off, wait for them outside the hotel, or even know their private schedules through connections.
3. Buying almost every CD, DVD and publication of the favorite singers. Spending on products associated with their idols constitutes the majority of their daily entertainment expenses.
4. Usually exchanging information with aficionados on the Internet, or posting articles on
BBS or Internet forums.
5. Age ranging from 15-25.
People who meet the criteria above were selected as candidates for the focus group interview.
Eventually, five candidates were invited to be interviewed, including 2 males (aged 17 and 21) and 3 females (aged 18, 20 and 21). The artists they track include world famous pop music stars, such as Lady Gaga (USA), the Maroon 5 (USA), AKB48 (Japan), Shinee (South Korea), Jay
Chou (Taiwan), and the May Day Band (Taiwan). One of interviewees is a senior high school student while the others are undergraduate students. All are students. A non-structured questionnaire was developed based on the features of the subculture and the exploratory buying behavior model reviewed from the literature.
5.2.2 Procedure and findings of the interview
Before the interview, the researcher contacted the interviewees on the phone for details. 70 Further, in order to improve discussion and inspire brainstorming, the interviewees participating in the focus group interview had to bring albums and peripheral products of their favorite singers to demonstrate to the others. There were also introductions of the artists from Wikipedia for references.
The interview was held in a quiet and comfortable cafe. In the beginning, the researcher, who hosted the focus group interview, talked with the interviewees about the characteristics of their favorite singers, and the interviewees could freely express their opinions. After the warm up, the researcher interviewed them based on the outline. During the interview, the researcher asked questions and also encouraged the interviewees to ask each other related questions so as to understand issues that concern music fans. The interview was conducted in four phases: (1) self-definition; (2) life style; (3) consumption pattern; and (4) characteristics. The 2-hour interview was recorded, and after the interview, the interviewees obtained travel allowances.
During the interview, the researcher found that in order to get close to their favorite singers, such fans obtain the their schedules through connections, line up overnight for tickets, even charter flights to watch the shows of their favorite singers abroad. Most of the interviewees emphasized that their families take positive attitudes towards their star following and that such attitudes enable them to continue. Some of their parents would take them to the airport to greet their idols. These fans do not track stars in compensation for poor family relations. Instead, they pay much attention to the relationships within their families. Moreover, these fans know that “the truth is imperfect”so that they can forgive the defects of their favorite singers. However, if their 71 idols put efforts into resolving personal problems, they become the best models for the fans to learn from. It seems that tracking favorite singers a projection of teenage dreams. These fans learn about attitudes towards love, studies, friends and family as they follow their favorite, with whom they also find identification and affiliation. They think that individuals who bravely pursue favorite singers will have greater power to carry out their dreams. “Through knowing my idols, I can find the wonderful things in my life, and they support me to go on,” said one of the interviewees. The teenagers worry about the future. Therefore, following singers is also a way to release stress.
The information extracted from the two-hour interview was organized and summarized in five sections (Table 5-1). These five sections include personality traits, values, activities and interests, opinions, and buying behavior. In the marketing field, a combination of activities, interests and opinions are generally called a lifestyle. These three components are known as the
AIO dimensions of lifestyle.
Table 5-1 shows that the personality traits of young pop music fans include seeking identity and happiness, relieving pressures in life and uncertainty about the future, idols will make me happy, and finding power and goals in life via the process of following stars. The purchasing behavior of young pop music fans demonstrates distinctive differentiation from regular consumers due to their high involvement in deep information search and desire to know all about their favorite singers. Hence, the behavior traits of the young pop music fans summarized from the literature review were verified. Furthermore, these young pop music fans exhibit high EAP 72 and EIS purchasing patterns using the concept of exploratory buying behavior.
Table 5-1 Results of focus group interview for pop music fans
Lifestyle Personality Buying Behavior Values Traits Activities and Opinions about on star-chasing Interests Star-chasing Fans z Passion z Don’t care about z Star-chasing z There are always z Attempt to crazily z Hospitality others, just be z Join the campus pressures in life, buying expensive z Mobility (can honest to myself activities such as love, peripheral products line up overnight z Never give up. z General teenager’s studies and in order to know all or go abroad for Hard work brings activities, such as uncertainty about facets of idols stars) results. dancing and the future. Idols z The spending of the z Planning ability z Put efforts on the practicing magic will make me albums, shows z Organizing pursuit of dreams. tricks happy (concerts) and ability There is no easy z Go shopping, go z Can find the peripheral products z Emotional way to success. online shopping or wonderful things of idols are in the z Seek to get z Appreciate surfing on social in life as well as majority of daily identity and originality networks validation expenses respect z Can forgive the z Sing in karaoke z Find power and z Take part-time job z Positive, and imperfect of idols rooms goals in life via and save money in believe z Look after all z Go to a bar and star chasing order to purchase everything has a sides of life (such hang out with process the albums of idols bright side as families v.s. friends on the z It is a spur to go that I must buy idols, tracking weekend on z Buy the functional stars v.s. z Watch a movie z Want to get the peripheral products preparing for the z Go to the pop information more z I like, so I have. future) music concert about their Once I own, I want favorite idols. to own all
5.3 Tentative Model for Effect of Pop Music Fans’ Traits on Star-chasing Consumption
Due to the review of literature and focus group interviews, this study proposes a tentative model for depicting the influences of young pop music fans’ traits on their buying behavior.
73 Young pop music fans are passionate about what they like to do seek the identities of both peers and other people. They value pursuing dreams and personal growth, and they like to take part in campus activities with peers and in star-chasing activities with the like-minded. These specific traits are assumed to have some degree of influence on their star-chasing buying behavior, such as buying albums, music DVD, concert tickets and associated merchandise. The tentative model is shown in Figure 5-1. This model will be verified in the latter part of this study.
Young pop music fans’ traits Personality z Passion z Seek identity
Values Star-chasing Buying z Pursue dream Behavior z Growth
Lifestyle z Peer activity z Star-chasing
Figure 5-1 Tentative model for influences of pop music fans’ traits
on their Star Chasing Buying Behavior
5.4 Questionnaire Survey
This study designed a close-ended questionnaire items based on the focus group interviews to evaluate the model. The possible relationships between the characteristics of fans and their purchasing patterns may then be verified. The initial questionnaire items included characteristics such as lifestyle activities, interests, values, personality traits and opinions about pop singer fan
74 subculture, which totaled 46 questions. In addition, there were 8 questions on the outcome variables of the pop music fans’ star-chasing buying behaviors. The questionnaire was inspected and revised by the five interviewees and two marketing practitioners. Fifteen items were eliminated. The 39 remaining items included 33 questions on the characteristics of pop music fans and 6 questions about their star-chasing buying behaviors.
5.4.1 Profile of respondents
The questionnaire respondents were found on social networking websites and at pop music star performancs. The age of the respondents was between 15 and 25. Additionally, interviewee peers who met the criteria for the study were invited to participate in the questionnaire investigation. 152 questionnaires were delivered in Taiwan (Taipei and Kaoshiung city) with 101 valid questionnaires returned, giving a valid response rate of 71%. The respondents were mostly female (82.2%), and between the ages of 21 and 25 (55.4%). Most of the respondents were students (64.4%) and had an education at the college or university level (73.3%). Further, 43.6% of respondents spent 2 to 4 hours seeking information on their favorite stars on the internet every day (Table 5-2).
75 Table 5-2 Sample profile of pop music fan study
Variable Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 18 17.8
Female 83 82.2
Age
15-20 45 44.6
21-25 56 55.4
Education
High school 20 19.8
College or university 74 73.3
Graduate school 7 6.9
Monthly consumption on star-chasing
Under 10% of consumption expenditure 43 42.6
10%~30% of consumption expenditure 32 31.7
30%~50% of consumption expenditure 19 18.8
50%~80% of consumption expenditure 5 5.0
Over 80% of consumption expenditure 2 2.0
Daily internet use in searching for information about their favorite star
Under 2 hrs 33 32.7
2~4 hrs 44 43.6
4~8 hrs 17 16.8
Over 8 hrs 7 6.9
5.4.2 Item purification
Cronbach’s α and the item-to-total correlation for each item were computed, and items whose item-to-total correlations were lower than 0.3 and whose removal increased Cronbach’s α were deleted. In addition, the squared multiple correlation for each item, the multiple R2 from the regression analysis with the given item as the dependent variable, and all other items as independent variables, was also computed to determine if the item should be deleted due to its low value. Seven items, shown in Table 5-3, were deleted, leaving 26. These examine the internal
76 consistency of the questionnaire items.
Table 5-3 Summary of item-total statistics for pop music fan study
Items Corrected item-total correlation Squared multiple correlation Cronbach’s α if item deleted 33 items for measuring traits of pop music fans (Cronbach's α is 0.920)
Q2 0.501 0.494 0.918 Q3 0.543 0.531 0.918 Q4 0.441 0.664 0.918 Q5 0.529 0.653 0.917 Q6 0.663 0.677 0.915 Q7 0.787 0.827 0.914 Q8 0.465 0.584 0.918 Q9 0.533 0.589 0.917 Q10 0.302 0.396 0.921 Q11 0.663 0.699 0.916 Q12 0.612 0.716 0.916 Q13 0.647 0.714 0.916 Q14 0.683 0.649 0.915 Q15 0.636 0.575 0.916 Q16 0.647 0.617 0.916 Q17 0.604 0.634 0.917 Q18 0.708 0.737 0.915 Q19 0.634 0.588 0.916 Q20 0.553 0.579 0.917 Q21 0.460 0.444 0.918 Q22 0.278 0.468 0.920 Q23 0.512 0.661 0.918 Q24 0.647 0.666 0.916 Q25 0.211 0.285 0.922 Q26 0.133 0.338 0.923 Q27 0.598 0.636 0.916 Q28 0.125 0.375 0.923 Q29 0.443 0.505 0.919 Q30 0.123 0.421 0.921 Q31 0.653 0.632 0.915 Q32 0.220 0.471 0.923 Q33 0.395 0.610 0.919 Q34 0.392 0.634 0.919 6 items for measuring pop music fan star-chasing buying behavior (Cronbach's α is 0.855)
Q 35 0.550 0.338 0.847 Q 36 0.655 0.453 0.829 Q 37 0.666 0.469 0.826 Q 38 0.743 0.562 0.810 Q 40 0.566 0.340 0.847 Q 41 0.701 0.501 0.819 Note: Reliability coefficient alpha = 0.933.
77 5.4.3 Exploratory factor analysis
In order to examine the common factors of the measurement, exploratory factor analysis was conducted on the 26 items for traits of the young pop music fans, and 6 items for their buying behavior.
(1) Item elimination
This research next submitted the 26 trait items to EFA with varimax rotation to explore the underlying dimensions of the construct. The results are summarized in Table 5-4. The items were extracted based on the criteria (Hair et al., 2006): (1) cut-off points of 0.5 for an item’s factor loading which indicates the extracted factors have strong loadings on particular subsets of items; (2) cut-off points of 1.0 for eigenvalue: the strength of these subsets is usually represented in eigenvalues indicating which factors, or subsets of items, account for the strongest part of the total scale variance. All items’ communality exceeds 0.3 (a variable’s communality is the estimate of its common variance among the variables as represented by the derived factors and the communality increases as a variable is highly correlated with other variables) and almost all items exceed the 0.5 factor loading threshold except for items 1, 2, 23, and 26. This indicates that convergent validity and unidimensionality exist. In addition, no high cross-loading was found for any item, which supports discriminant validity. Item 20, in which a single item loaded onto one factor, was dropped. Twenty-one valid questions remained after the elimination process (Table 5-4). The results for varimax-rotated component matrix were used to judge item elimination. This procedure ensured convergent validity in the factor components. 78 (2) Factor naming
The KMO value is 0.892 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (p < 0.001), showing that the data was suitable for implementation of factor analysis. Five factors were extracted from this exploratory factor analysis and the cumulative variance explained was
66.17%. The characteristics of the relative items were employed for the naming of dimensions including five characteristics: “Pressure relief and growth”, “Contact, understanding and validation”, “View sharing and Affiliation”, “Attending idol’s performance activities” and
“Enthusiastic deepening of interests”, which represented pop music fans’ profound understanding of idols’ music, performance and lifestyle, and it represents a kind of affiliation, pressure relief and dream-chasing that young pop music fans enthusiastically pursue. The five factors identified in Table 5-4 can be described as follows:
Factor 1: Pressure relief and growth. This involves items related to relieving the pressure
of daily-life and future uncertainty, and inspiring fans’ motivations to pursue their
dreams and goals through following their favorite stars.
Factor 2: Contact, understanding and validation. The items that describe young pop
music fans’ striving for close contact, deep understanding and the recognition of
their idols.
Factor 3: View sharing and Affiliation. This factor is loaded with the items related to pop
music fan’s desire to share music views and participating in star chasing activities
with like-minded individuals. 79 Factor 4: Attending idol’s performance activities. This involves items related to the young
pop music fans’ enthusiasm for attending artists’ performance activities and
seeking related information.
Factor 5: Enthusiastic deepening of interests. This factor emphasizes the young pop music
fans’ deeper, enthusiastic study into subjects of interest.
Table 5-4 Rotated component matrix of pop music fans’ traits
Original Factor Items Communality Dimension dimensions loading 20. Inspiration of star-chasing help to obtain spiritual V 0.759 0.668 liberation from the hardship of life. V 19. Idolizing is a belief, star-chasing is source of happiness. 0.747 0.670 18. Study idols’ efforts and changing inspire to achieve the V 0.658 0.732 goal diligently. Pressure relief 15. Star-chasing helps to relieve the pressure of future and growth V 0.651 0.603 uncertainty. (Disp_1) 14. Close contact with idols helps to relieve daily-life V 0.573 0.625 pressure. 17. Study idols’ efforts and changes inspires fans’ personal V 0.561 0.594 growth. L 12. Hopefully get acquaintance and recognition from idols. 0.814 0.762 9. Strive for close contact, taking pictures and sending gifts L 0.751 0.680 to idols. Contact, L 11. Deep understand of the background of idols. 0.602 0.683 understanding L 7. Do their best to understand the lifestyle of idols. 0.582 0.756 and validation L 8. Imitate the lifestyle and dress styles of idols. 0.524 0.684 (Disp_2) L 31. Study idols’ life, efforts and performances, displaying a kind of dream-chasing. 0.502 0.570 L 23. Share music views of idol with friends on e-forums. 0.841 0.750 P 29. Become a good friend of like-minded fans. 0.730 0.583 View sharing 13. Star-chasing with like-minded fans is a kind of and P 0.680 0.711 belonging. Affiliation 16. Study all album songs of favorite singers in order to (Disp_3) P 0.582 0.612 analyze their personality, growth and changes. 4. Attend every album launching activity, autograph L 0.846 0.772 session and concert of favorite artists. Attending idol’s 5. Enthusiastic about idols’ performance activities such as L 0.787 0.750 performance concerts and autograph sessions. activities 6. Spend more time on chasing, seeking idol information L 0.543 0.641 (Disp_4) than other leisure activities. 34. Deeper research into subjects of interest than others. P 0.870 0.815 Enthusiastic deepening of P 33. Strong enthusiasm for subjects of interest. 0.846 0.786 interests
80 There were five items loaded on the buying behavior of pop music fans on star-chasing. The
KMO value was 0.859 and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (p < 0.001). Later, the
EFA result displayed a single factor which complied with the original concept of unidimensionality. Moreover, the factor could explain the variance of 57.88% (eigenvalue of
3.473). Thus, the factor structure demonstrated convergent validity, and the factor of
“Star-chasing consumption” was named based on the related items (Table 5-5).
Table 5-5 Component matrix of star-chasing consumption
Factor Description of joint factors for related questions Communality Dimension loading 35. Even if I spend lots of time, money and effort, I feel it is all Star-chasing 0.644 0.415 worthwhile when watching my favorite stars show up. consumption 36. Collect all albums or merchandise of my idol 0.780 0.608 37. Buy a variety of my idol’s products just to know the different 0.785 0.616 sides of them. 38. Spent most on my idol’s merchandise 0.842 0.709 40. Work part-time to buy idol’s merchandise 0.678 0.460 41. Live frugally to buy idol’s merchandise. 0.816 0.666
5.4.4 Reliability and validity
The mean and standard deviations of each young pop music fan’s exploring buying behavior concept score are given in Table 5-6. The concept ‘Enthusiastic deepening of interests’ has the highest mean score (M=4.30, SD=0.66), while the concept with the lowest score is
‘Star-chasing consumption’ (M=2.54, SD=1.14). Further, according to Churchill (1979), average correlation is all that is needed to estimate the reliability of the sample, and all the sources of error occurring within a measurement tend to lower the average correlation among the items in
81 the test. Table 5-6 shows that almost all Pearson correlations among all factors are significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). This shows the high reliability of the sample.
Table 5- 6 Means, standard deviations (SD), and correlations for pop music fan study
Cronbach’s Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 alpha 1. Pressure relief and growth 3.92 0.77 0.866 1 Contact, understanding and 2. 3.55 0.84 0.847 0.70** 1 validation View sharing and 0.803 3. 4.02 0.77 0.57** 0.54** 1 Affiliation Attending idol’s 4. 3.65 0.87 0.780 0.55** 0.58** 0.49** 1 performance activities Enthusiastic deepening of 5. 4.30 0.66 0.809 0.39** 0.31** 0.29** 0.23* 1 interests 6. Star-chasing consumption 3.40 0.90 0.852 0.66** 0.69** 0.44** 0.56** 0.29** 1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The subsequent calculation of Cronbach’s α for each dimension is used to determine the reliability of a measure based on its internal consistency. Reliability is good when α > 0.70
(Guilford, 1954). Six of the components listed in Table 5-6 showed high reliability: ‘Pressure relief and growth’ (0.866), ‘Contact, understanding and validation’ (0.847), ‘View sharing and
Affiliation’ (0.803), ‘Attending idol’s performance activities’ (0.780), ‘Enthusiastic deepening of interests’ (0.809), and ‘Star-chasing consumption’ (0.852). All reliability coefficients exceed 0.70.
In sum, these support the convergent validity and reliability of the instrument.
Construct validity is used to test whether measures of a construct are consistent with a researcher's understanding of the nature of that construct (or factor) (Campbell, & Fiske, 1959).
In this research, construct validity is examined by the test of model fit for extracted five-factors 82 traits model and AMOS software is adopted in the analysis. Typical model fit indicators are used to examine whether is the measurement model a good fit, including Chi-square=1.577,
AGFI=0.747, RMSEA=0.076, IFI=0.901, and CFI=0.898 for five factor traits model. The results show good measurement model fit, exhibiting high validity.
5.4.5 Test of demographics differences
Gender has been considered a moderator within the relationship between an adolescent’s music preference and behaviors (Martin, Clarke, & Pearce, 1993). For examples in prior studies, adolescent girls learn from the media to dress like their favorite stars (Arnett, 1995; Davies,
2001); female adolescent pop-music fans usually scream louder than male fans (Railton, 2001);
Even some female fans may be more interested in sex with rock stars than in their music
(Warwick, 2007). Additionally, generally speaking, girls occupy most of adolescent pop music fans form observation of the researcher. In this study, the respondents of the survey were mostly female (82.2%) coincide with practical observation of pop-music fans’ gender distribution. We need to further test if there exist gender differences in factor analysis results of this survey sample in order to support the generalizability of the tentative model proposed in this study. A t-test was carried out to compare values between the male and female group and determine statistical significance (P < 0.05) of gender differences in the above six factors. The results are shown as
Table 5-7.
83 Table 5-7 Analysis of gender differences of pop music fans sample
Factor Male Female Levene's Test for Equality of Variances Equality of Means means means F-value P-value Equal variances t-value p-value Pressure relief and 3.62 3.99 2.727 0.102 Not assumed -2.231 0.033 growth Contact, understanding 3.47 3.56 0.066 0.798 Not assumed -0.439 0.664 and validation View sharing and 3.74 4.09 0.805 0.372 Not assumed -1.884 0.070 Affiliation Attending idol’s 3.17 3.75 0.000 0.983 Not assumed -2.539 0.018 performance activities Enthusiastic deepening 4.00 4.36 1.535 0.218 Not assumed -2.224 0.035 of interests Star-chasing 3.17 3.45 1.736 0.191 Not assumed -1.397 0.173 consumption
Note: Gender differences are analyzed by comparison of male to female.
In terms of gender comparison on six factors, Levene's Test is utilized for examining equality of variances at first. We examined if the results were significant, or if the equal variance could be assumed, and then to test equality of means by different t test. By examining the results, all factors population could not be assumed equal variances. Then from the test of equality of means, it shows that there are significant gender differences in three of six factors, including pressure relief and growth, attending idol’s performance activities, and enthusiastic deepening of interests. Female adolescent pop music fans have more strong tendencies in these three factors than male fans.
Following the above analytical procedure, the age differences were examined also. Age of the sample is categorized as two groups of 15~20 and 21~25. Hence, a t-test was carried out to compare values between two aging groups and determine statistical significance (P < 0.05) of gender differences in the above six factors.The results are shown as Table 5-8 and it shows that
84 there is no significant age difference on these factors.
Table 5-8 Analysis of age differences of pop music fans sample
Factor Age 15~20 Age 21~25 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances Equality of Means means means F-value P-value Equal variances t-value p-value Pressure relief and 4.0074 3.8542 Not assumed 0.795 0.375 0.983 0.328 growth Contact, understanding 3.5667 3.5327 0.001 0.971 Not assumed 0.201 0.841 and validation View sharing and 4.1556 3.9196 0.533 0.467 Not assumed 1.526 0.130 Affiliation Attending idol’s 3.5333 3.7381 11.019 0.001 Assumed -1.172 0.244 performance activities Enthusiastic deepening of 4.3889 4.2232 2.218 0.140 Not assumed 1.233 0.221 interests Star-chasing 3.4074 3.3958 0.549 0.461 Not assumed 0.063 0.950 consumption
Note: Age differences are analyzed by comparison of ‘15~20’ to ‘21~25’.
The education differences were also examined by following the above analytical procedure.
Education level of the sample is categorized as three groups. Hence, an ANOVA test was carried out to compare values among three education levels groups and determine statistical significance
(P < 0.05) in the above six factors.The results are shown as Table 5-9 and it shows that only one significant difference between ‘college or university’ and ‘graduate school’ (maens difference
=0.66; p=0.01) on ‘Enthusiastic deepening of interests’ (Disp_5). It implies pop music fans with
‘college or university’ education level involve in deepening of interests more than those with
‘graduate school’ education. It may because pop music fans with ‘graduate school’ education involve in research job more than star-chasing activities and information gathering.
85 Table 5-9 Analysis of education differences of pop music fans sample
ANOVA test of education levels Factor F-value P-value Multiple Comparison Test Pressure relief and growth 1.081 0.343 No significant differences Contact, understanding and 0.644 0.527 No significant differences validation View sharing and Affiliation 0.943 0.393 No significant differences Attending idol’s performance 0.207 0.813 No significant differences activities Enthusiastic deepening of Only significant between ‘college or university’ 3.693 0.028 interests and ‘graduate school’ (p=0.01) Star-chasing consumption 0.225 0.799 No significant differences
To sumup, considering influences of demographics differences of pop music fans on their traits, there are significant differences, with the exception of gender difference. This study then further validate if there exist differences of structure model between male and female adolescent pop music fans groups.
5.4.6 Validation of the structure model
The variable influences of the five-factor young pop music fans’ disposition on their star-chasing consumption behavior forms the structural model of this study. Before the verification of the structure model, the variance inflation factor (VIF) computed from regression analysis was employed for the collinearity diagnostic to assure more rigorous model validation.
In this model, all the VIF values were between 1.75 and 3.97 and there were no item’s VIF value larger than 4. Hence, collinearity would not threaten the model verification (Neter et al., 1985).
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was subsequently adopted for the verification procedures. Two structural models were developed to investigate the model fit of the five-factor 86 young pop music fans’ traits related to their star-chasing consumption factor: Model 1 was the direct relationship between the five antecedent factors and the single consequent variable, while model 2 added the potential intermediary effect into the relationship between the five antecedent factors and the single consequent variable. The model fit results for structural model 1 are shown in Table 5-10.
Table 5-10 Fit indices for structural model 1 of the pop music fan study
Fit indices Suggested value (Hair et al., 2006) Model 1 Absolute fit measures χ2 / d.f. ≤ 5.00 (Segar & Grover, 1993) 2.138 AGFI ≥ 0.80 0.609 RMSEA ≤ 0.10 0.101 Incremental fit indices CFI ≥ 0.90 0.739 TLI ≥ 0.90 0.713 IFI ≥ 0.90 0.745 Parsimony fit indices PNFI ≥ 0.50 0.553 PGFI ≥ 0.50 0.565
The results for model 1 show that χ2 / d.f. =2.138 (lower than threshold value 5.0) and the P value is 0.000. On the basis of these results, overall structure model fit is significant good.
According to Hair et al (2006), the measure of goodness of fit is divided into absolute fit measures, incremental fit indices and parsimony fit indices. Due to the limited sample size, the
AGFI is poor (0.609) and the RMSEA is just at threshold value 0.101. The incremental fit indices
(NFI, CFI and TLI) fall outside the suggested values, but approximate to the suggested value, thus howing adequate fit. Finally, all parsimony fit indices have good fit. Overall, there is a considerable level of model fit between the suggested model and the actual investigated 87 information. Further, from the relationship among the six factors, the factor ‘Contact, understanding and validation’ (Disp_2) displays a significant influence on ‘Star-chasing consumption’ (standardized path coefficient = 0.56, p value=0.000), as does the factor ‘Pressure relief and growth’ (Disp_1) (standardized path coefficient = 0.43, p value=0.000). The factor
‘Attending idol’s performance activities’ (Disp_4) also significantly influences ‘Star-chasing consumption’ at p=0.05 (standardized path coefficient =0.25). The path diagram is illustrated in
Figure 5-2.
88
.54 r5 e4 q4 .74 .70 .83 e5 q5 .64 Disp_4 .42 e6 q6 .25* .64 e7 q7 .28 r3 e8 q8 .80 .52 e9 q9 .72.53 .45 .67 e11 q11 Disp_2 .77 .26 .60 .69 e12 q12 q35 e35 ** .51 .47 .56 r1 e31 q31 .62 .38 q36 e36 .65 .42 .58 StarChas q37 e37 _buying e14 q14 .62 .48 r2 .79 q38 e38 e15 q15 .43** .70 .76 .27 .69 .52 q40 e40 .41 .64 e17 q17 .49 .67 .82 Disp_1 q41 e41 e18 q18 .56 .75 e19 q19 .46 .68 -.07 e20 q20
.66 r4 e13 q13 .81 .43 .66 e16 q16 .05 .57 .76 Disp_3 e23 q23 .65 .42 e29 q29 r6
.67 e33 q33 .82 Disp_5 .69 .83 e34 q34
Figure 5- 2 SEM path diagram for model 1 of the pop music fan study Note: Values on the path are standardized coefficients. ‘StarChas_buying’ is the abbreviation of the factor ‘Star-chasing consumption’. ** Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Extending the results shown in Figure 5-2, this study explored the possibility of mediating
89 effects. Through many trial analyses, an adequate Model 2 was developed. The results for the model fit are shown in Table 5-11, along with the results for Model 1. Referring to fit indices, all fit values of Model 2 are better than Model 1 and attain good fit levels in both Absolute fit measures and Parsimony fit indices and adequate fit level in Incremental fit indices, except for
AGFI at a little poor fit.
Table 5-11 Comparison of fit indices for structural model 1 & 2 of pop music fan study
Suggested value (Hair et al., Fit indices Model 1 Model 2 2006) Absolute fit measures χ2 / d.f. ≤ 5.00 (Segar & Grover, 1993) 2.138 1.634 AGFI ≥ 0.80 0.609 0.688 RMSEA ≤ 0.10 0.101 0.080 Incremental fit indices CFI ≥ 0.90 0.739 0.856 TLI ≥ 0.90 0.713 0.840 IFI ≥ 0.90 0.745 0.860 Parsimony fit indices PNFI ≥ 0.50 0.553 0.632 PGFI ≥ 0.50 0.565 0.617
The resulting path diagram is illustrated as Figure 5-3. Although there is a negative path coefficients (-0.79) between ‘View sharing and Affiliation’ (Disp_3) and ‘Star-chasing consumption’ factor, it is not further discussed because of no significance (p>0.05).
From Figure 5-3, it reveals that:
(1) Three traits of young pop music fans significantly affect star-chasing consumption: three factors display significant influences on ‘Star-chasing consumption’: ‘Pressure relief and growth’ (Disp_1, standardized path coefficient=0.54, p value=0.020), ‘Contact, understanding
90 and validation’ (Disp_2, standardized path coefficient=0.80, p value=0.016), and ‘Attending idol’s performance activities’ (Disp_4, standardized path coefficient=0.36, p value=0.056).
These standardized coefficients are higher than those of structural model 1.
.45 e4 q4
.56 e5 q5 .60 e6 q6 .75 .77 .67 .73 r5 e7 q7 .26 e8 q8 .51 Disp_4 .44 e9 q9 .67 .85 .50 r3 e11 q11 .71 .36 .33 .53 .73 .80** e12 q12 q35 e35 Disp_2 r1 .58 .45 e31 q31 .68 .47 .67 .80* q36 e36 ** .71 .51 .61 .88 StarChas q37 e37 _buying e14 q14 .71 .48 .78 .54* r2 .84 q38 e38 e15 q15 .76 .35 .69 .59 q40 e40 .43 .66 e17 q17 .57 .83 Disp_1 9 .68 .7 q41 e41 - e18 q18 .72 6 0 .52 . e19 q19 .85** .42 .65 e20 q20 .74 Disp_3 ** .55 .44 .72 e13 q13 r4 Disp_5 .52 e16 q16 .60 .36 .49 r6 e23 q23 .82 .24 e29 q29 .83 .67 e33 q33 .69 e34 q34
Figure 5- 3 SEM path diagram for model 2 of pop music fan study Note: Values on the path are standardized coefficients. ‘StarChas_buying’ is the abbreviation of the factor ‘Star-chasing consumption’. ** Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
91 (2)Mediating effects exist: The factor ‘View sharing and Affiliation’ (Disp_3) does not directly influence ‘Star-chasing consumption’ but significantly and indirectly affects
‘Star-chasing consumption’ via the above three factors. The three standardized path coefficients are 0.85 (Disp_3→Disp_1), 0.88 (Disp_3→Disp_2), and 0.80 (Disp_3→Disp_4), respectively, and all p values are lower than 0.01. Further, ‘View sharing and Affiliation’ (Disp_3) is also significantly influenced by ‘Enthusiastic deepening of interests’ (Disp_5, standardized path coefficient=0.44, p value=0.069). Mediating effects appear to exist in structural model 2.
5.5 Revised Model for Effect of Pop music Fans’ Traits on Star-chasing Consumption
This study proposed a tentative model in the preceding section based on a review of the literature and focus group interviews that depicts the effects of pop music fans’ traits on their star-chasing consumption. By empirical examination of the measurement model and structure model, a revised model is developed, shown in Figure 5-4.
Young Pop music Fans’ Traits Attending idol’s performance
activities 0.36* 0.80** (Lifestyle)
Enthusiastic View sharing Contact, 0.44** 0.88** 0.80** Star-chasing deepening0.58** of and Affiliation understanding interests and identification consumption (Personality) (Personality) (Lifestyle)
0.85** 0.54** Pressure relief
and growth (Values)
Figure 5-4 Revised model for influences of pop music fans’ traits on star-chasing consumption 92
The original dimensions (personality, values, and lifestyle) of the tentative model relating to the three significant influential factors are also presented in Figure 5-4. It shows that the young pop music fans’ personality, lifestyle and values traits have significant mediating effects on their star-chasing consumptions.
Further, from the perspective of consumer behavior, Figure 5-4 also reveals that the young pop music fans’ star-chasing buying behaviors are influenced by the five trait factors. The influence relationships are summarized as follows:
(1) Interest inspires information search and sharing. First, because young pop music fans have the trait of ‘enthusiastic deepening of interests’, they tend to enthusiastically search for more detailed information about their favorite pop music and artists. They then like to share what they have learned and seeking affiliation with like-minded individuals.
(2) Affiliation encourages participation, growth and seeking validation. Young pop music fans begin to ‘attend idol’s performance activities’ with like-minded individuals and ‘contact, understanding idol and seeking validation from the idol’, finding that they receive ‘pressure relief and growth’ through understanding their favorite singer’s progress and growth.
(3) Participation, growth and identification stimulate star-chasing consumption. Young pop music fans want to know more about their idol’s music work, performance, and other associated merchandise. They tend to buy more idol related merchandise during their star-chasing process to enhance their loyalty to their idols. 93 Using these psychological processes and behavior feedbacks, we can find that the young pop music fans enjoy star-chasing buying behavior with great enthusiasm. This finding is consistent with Hirschman’s (1980) statement that consumers have the behavioral tendency to adopt novelty products. Young pop music fans especially have strong star-chasing buying behavior tendencies marked by ample pre-purchase information search and widespread acquisition of their idol’s merchandise. This meets the two dimensions (EIS and EAP) of exploratory buying behavior tendency proposed by Baumgartner and Steenkampy (1996).
94 Chapter 6 Comparison of Results and Discussion
In this section, two adolescent subculture consumer group’s general traits, this study’s research process, and data analysis results are compared. Implications for marketers are also discussed.
6.1 Comparisons of Traits
Otaku and pop music fans are the two adolescent subculture groups investigated in this study, each representing certain adolescent characteristics. A trait comparison of adolescent Otaku and pop music fans based on the review of literature and focus group interviews is shown in Table
6-1.
One of the more interesting findings of this study is gender differences. Most Otaku are male and are often referred to as ‘dwelling males’ in Taiwan. Otaku are easily interested in many ACG products that appeal to their masculinity. However, most pop music fans are young girls.
Further, adolescent Otaku and pop music fans have similar characteristics. In the field in which they are especially interested, most are capable of finding new information and buying products quickly and enthusiastically. For example, Washida (2005) stated that Otaku are usually impulse buyers of electronic devices in the early phases of new product development. Similarly, pop music fans frequently attempt to acquire all their pop music idol’s albums and associated products because they like the idol and they want to own everything about idol.
However, some differences also exist. Otaku like to stay indoors alone while pop music fans 95 enjoy star chasing their star with like-minded individuals. Otaku are not concerned about other people’s comments while pop music fans seek validation from their idols and others.
Table 6-1 Traits comparison of adolescent Otaku and pop music fans
Otaku Pop music fans Similarities: 1. Adolescents occupy most of the subculture group members. 2. Both are deeply involved in their favorite interest. 3. Both enjoy gathering related information and merchandises to enhance their deep understanding of a specific field. 4. Both are obsessed with their favorite idols and tend to buy any merchandise about idols. Differences: Gender Most male Most female Personality traits 1. Socially inept. 1. Most enjoy star chasing with 2. Enjoy staying indoors. like-minded. 2. Enjoy star-chasing activities. Lifestyle 3. Enjoy staying indoors to play 3. Enjoy following the idols to games and read comics alone. shows or tracking every 4. Capable of finding new idol-related event. information and products fast. 4. Researching the updates from the idols on the Internet every day. Values 5. Eager to express opinions about 5. Share information with like- their own interests. minded on the Internet. 6. No concern about other people’s 6. Seek idol’s and other people’s comments. validation. Subculture-specific 7. Ample interest in and purchase of 7. Buy all their idol’s albums and consumption ACG. associated products. 8. Maniacal collectors of comics 8. Star-chasing spending is the and Japanese anime goods. majority of daily consumption.
6.2 Comparisons of Research Process
The research process starts from the review of prior studies and the focus group interview, and then the tentative model is developed based on the two above parts. The survey questionnaire
96 is designed based on the tentative model and survey data examination provides the verification of the tentative model. A comparison of research process for the two adolescent subculture studies is shown in Table 6-2.
First, in the prior study column, definitions of Otaku and pop music fans, and the foci of previous research are summarized. In the limited literature about Otaku, previous studies focused on the interesting dynamics of consumer behavior. In the literature on pop music fans, cultural perspectives are emphasized, while consumer behavior has been less discussed.
For the focus group interviews 5-6 interviewees were invited. The interviews with the Otaku lasted 3.5 hours because they are socially inept and time was needed to inspire them to talk. By contrast, pop music fan interviews lasted only 2.5 hours because they are active expressers.
In the tentative model, both main structures have three major traits: personality, values, and lifestyle, while the detailed items are different.
Finally in the survey, the questionnaire items are developed from the structure of the tentative model and the findings of the focus group interviews. The surveys use in the two studies had thirty to forty items, meaning respondents found them easy to answer. The two valid sample sizes are 105 and 101 because respondents from these two specific subculture groups were somewhat difficult to locate. Both studies’ respondents are aged from 15-25.
97 Table 6-2 Research process comparison of adolescent Otaku and pop music fan studies
Otaku Pop music fans Prior studies An Otaku is: A pop music fan is: 1. A Group of people obsessed with 1. A person with an overwhelming the virtual images supplied by the liking or interest in pop music modern media (Baral, 1999) artist (Thorne and Bruner, 2006). 2. An unique subculture presenting 2. An unique subculture seeking unusual and obsessive interest in novelty and sensation through ACG (Nakamori, 1983; Okada, star-chasing activities and exhibit 2006; Washida, 2005). alienation (Arnett, 1993).
Prior studies foci: Prior studies foci: 1. Flourishing of the ACG expands 1. The relationship between pop its cultural and commercial effects music preference and some in overseas market (Nomura special behaviors such as anomy Research Institute, 2005). (Martin, Clarke, & Pearce, 1993). 2. As a consumer group, Otaku 2. Pop music subculture: A certain plays an important role in giving style of dress, a certain set of feedback to the manufacturers, gestures, a knowledge of certain especially for high-tech firms, to rituals, and a distinct way of improve their products efficiently looking at the world (Corona, (Washida, 2005). 2011; Davies, 2001).
The focus group Once, 5 interviewees Once, 6 interviewees interview 3.5 hours 2.5 hours Socially inept Actively participating Tentative model Otaku’s traits Pop music fans’ traits
Personality Personality z Less openness z Seek identity zStay indoors zPassion
ACG Star-chasing Values Values Buying Purchase zPursue dream zOtaku superior Behavior zGrowth z Be anexpert
Lifestyle Lifestyle zIndoor activity z Peer activity zACG addicted zStar-chasing
Survey Questionnaire items: Questionnaire items:
98 Initial:27 (Traits)+ 5 (ACG purchase) Initial:34 (Traits)+ 7 (ACG purchase) Final: 20 (Traits)+ 5 (ACG purchase) Final: 21 (Traits)+ 6 (ACG purchase) Sample: 105 valid Sample: 101 valid Age:15-25 Age: 15-25
6.3 Comparisons of Model Verification and Implication for Consumer Behavior
Survey data for the two studies are analyzed through procedures of EFA, reliability and validity test, and SEM to examine model verification. By EFA procedure, these two data are used to construct the factor structure, and the reliability and validity tests demonstrate good validity and reliability for the two measurement scales. Using SEM, the path relationships between the factors in the two studies were elucidated. The comparisons of the two studies’ model verification and their implications for consumer behavior are shown in Table 6-3.
In both the Otaku and pop music fan study, six-factor structures, five trait factors (predicting variables) and one buying behavior factor (predicted variable) are developed by EFA. Through
SEM analysis, three of the five factors of the Otaku’s traits significantly directly and indirectly influence their ACG purchase intentions. However, all five factors of the young pop music fans’ traits significantly directly and indirectly influence their star-chasing buying intentions. The revised models of the former tentative models are presented and their implications for consumer behavior are described below.
99 Table 6-3 Comparison of the two studies’ model verification and implications
Otaku Pop music fans Data 1.EFA: (Factor naming) 1.EFA: (Factor naming) analysis (1)Five Factors of Traits (1)Five Factors of Traits Factor 1: Deep ACG research Factor 1: Pressure relief and growth Factor 2: Animation obsession Factor 2: Contact, understanding and identity Factor 3: Indoor activity preference Factor 3: View sharing and Affiliation Factor 4: Self-superiority Factor 4: Attend idol’s performance activities Factor 5: Accentuation of interests Factor 5: Enthusiastic deepening of Cumulative variance explained: interests 68.76%. Cumulative variance explained: 66.17%. (2)One Factor of Buying Behavior (2)One Factor of Buying Behavior Factor: ACG purchase Factor: Star-chasing consumption Single factor’s variance explained Single factor’s variance explained is is 83.43%. 57.88%. 2.Validity: Good fit with measurement 2.Validity: Good fit with measurement model model 3.Reliability alpha: 0.929 3.Reliability alpha: 0.933 4.Differences of demographics on traits: 4.Differences of demographics on traits: (1)Gender: No significant difference. (1)Gender: There are three factors show (2)Age: Only in ‘Self-superiority’ factor, significant differences and female fans Otaku of 21~25 years old score higher score higher than male fans. than those of 15~20. (2)Age: No significant difference. (3)Education level: No significant (3)Education level: Only in ‘Enthusiastic difference. deepening of interests” factor, college fans score higher than graduate students. Revised Through SEM path analysis: Through SEM path analysis: Model Three factors of adolescent Otaku’s Five factors of young pop music fans’ traits significantly directly and traits significantly directly and indirectly indirectly influence their ACG influence their star-chasing buying purchase intentions. intentions.
100
Adolescent Otaku’s traits Young pop music fans’ traits
Indoor Enthusiastic activity deepening of 0.34* interests Attending * 0.99** idol’s Deep ACG ACG 0.44** performance research purchase 0.36* 0.58* 0.80** activities * 0.48** View 0.88** Contact, 0.80** Star-chasing Animation sharing and understanding consumption obsession Affiliation and identify- cation
0.85** 0.54** Model fit examination: good in most Pressure relief and indicators. growth
Model fit examination: good in most indicators. Implications The influence dynamics of Otaku’s The influence dynamics of pop music for consumer traits on their ACG purchase: fans’ traits on star-chasing consumption: behavior 1. Animation obsession inspires deep 1. Interest inspires information searching ACG research among Otaku. and share with peer to be affiliated. (EIS) (EIS) 2. Otaku’s preference for indoor 2. Feeling affiliation encourages more activities directly and indirectly participation, pursuing growth and via animation obsession leads to seeking validation. (EIS) their deep ACG research. (EIS) 3. Participation, growth and identification 3. Deep ACG research stimulates stimulate much more star-chasing ACG purchase. (EISÆEAP) consumption. (EISÆEAP)
Considering for implications for consumer behavior, the influence dynamics of Otaku’s and pop music fans’ traits on their specific buying behavior is consistent with Baumgartner and
Steenkampy’s (1996) exploratory buying behavior tendency (EBBT): (1) Exploratory acquisition of products (EAP) and (2) Exploratory information seeking (EIS). The deep research of adolescent Otaku enhance their ACG purchase, demonstrating that the EIS tendency of
Baumgartner and Steenkampy’s (1996) EBBT occurs before of EAP intentions. Similarly, young 101 pop music fans’ enthusiastic engagement in star-chasing consumption is mainly influenced by their contact with the idol, understanding the idol’s information and seeking validation from the idol and others. This also demonstrates that the EIS tendency of Baumgartner and Steenkampy’s
(1996) EBBT is ahead of the EAP intentions.
6.4 Suggested Model for Understanding Adolescent Subculture Buying Behavior
This research verifies an analytical model for understanding the consumption behaviors of specific adolescent subcultures through a robust research process and two empirical studies. The model is general and may be used in any study that would involve exploring a specific adolescent subculture’s subculture-specific merchandise buying behavior. It’s main analytical structure is depicted in Figure 6-1. Through this study, the personality, values and lifestyle of subculture’s main traits are the antecedent factors of influencing adolescent subculture’s buying behavior.
Subculture’s traits Personality z Behavior response under stimulus
Values Subculture-specific z merchandise Real world views z Value judgment consumption
Lifestyle z Activity & interest z Opinion
Figure 6-1 Analytical model for influences of subculture traits on buying behavior
102 Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1 Conclusions
The Otaku are a unique subculture group which has emerged with the advancement of modern media and information technology. They are obsessively interested in the animation, comics and games generated in the digital visualization era. Similarly, the rise of communications media has also driven adolescent preferences for receiving messages from the media and from peers via modern media. Some adolescents enthusiastically track pop music star performance activities from the media and attempt to copy the pop music idol in their daily lives. These two types of adolescent subculture phenomenon are stemmed from the combination of social-cultural change and technology advancement. The evolution of new technology, coupled with economic growth in Taiwan, has given adolescents tremendous subculture power and purchasing power toward the objects of their interest. This research thus explores the behavior of both adolescent
Otaku and young pop music fans in Taiwan and the possible influences of these two subculture group’s traits on their enthusiasm for collecting and consumption.
Addressing the purpose of this research, the research findings are summarized using the four aspects below:
(1) Exploring specific traits of adolescent subculture groups
Through the review of literature, factors influencing adolescent subculture were categorized into three components, including personality traits (such as independence, openness to novelty), 103 lifestyle (such as peer influence, self-labeling, clothing, and language), and values (such as resistance against the conservative parent culture, seeking affiliation and identification). These three components form the three-dimensional analytical model of adolescent subculture consumer groups proposed in this study.
Two empirical studies of Otaku and pop music fans were conducted to compare the trait differences of these two adolescent subcultures. Both Otaku and pop music fans have several of the same traits including:
z Both are avid collectors.
z Both are interest enthusiasts.
z Both are capable of finding information related to their objects of interest.
z Basically, both are groups of fans.
That both the Otaku and pop music fans have the same values leads to their forming a unique adolescent subculture group. Major differences between these groups include:
z Personality traits: Otaku are socially inept but enjoy communicating with their compeers,
while pop music fans are more social and enjoy star chasing with like-minded.
z Lifestyle: Otaku often stay indoors alone in ACG world, while pop music fans usually
track every one of their idols’ events and take part in star chasing activities.
z Values: Otaku are less concerned about validation from others, while pop music fans seek
validation from their idols and others.
z Subculture-specific Consumption: Otaku are ACG enthusiasts and collectors, while pop 104 music fans are star-chasers and idol merchandise consumers.
(2) Traits of adolescent subculture groups influence subculture-specific consumption
Analysis results indicate that the two adolescent subculture groups have the same trait-consumption relationships. Three of the five traits of adolescent Otaku proposed as factors affecting consumption in the first study have significant influences on subculture-specific consumption at the significance level of 0.05, while all five factors of young pop music fans proposed in the second study have significant influences on subculture-specific consumption.
The results of the adolescent Otaku study indicate that the factors significantly affecting the
ACG consumptions include:
z Indoor activity preference (Personality trait)
z Animation obsession (Lifestyle trait)
z Deep ACG research (Lifestyle trait)
The above results show that adolescent Otaku prefer indoor activities and are addicted to animation related merchandise. They tend to undertake deep research into ACG merchandise, leading to their enthusiastic consumption of ACG merchandise.
The results of the young pop music fan study indicate that the factors significantly affecting their star-chasing and related merchandise consumption include:
z Enthusiastic deepening of interests (Personality trait)
z View sharing and Affiliation (Personality trait )
z Attending idol’s performance activities (Lifestyle trait) 105 z Contact, understanding and validation (Lifestyle trait)
z Pressure relief and growth (Values trait)
The above results show that young pop music fans enthusiastically search and frequently share idol artist’s information with like-minded peers, and then actively take part in idol’s performance activities, even seeking close contact with idols. From the psychological perspective, young pop music fans relieve their daily-life pressure and attain some degree of affiliation, validation, and even growth through their star-chasing activities. These traits appear to drive young pop music fans’ star-related consumption in order to more deeply understand and own things related to their idols.
(3) Developing a generalized analytical model
This comparative research develops a generalized analytical model on the factors affecting the buying behaviours in adolescent subcultures.
The tentative model proposed in this research was developed from qualitative investigation using focus group interviews in two empirical studies. The traits of the two adolescent subcultures included in the tentative model are summarized into three dimensions consisting of personality, lifestyle, and values. Although the three traits in two studies are the same, the detailed descriptions of the traits are different in order to meet subculture-specific characteristics.
In addition, the tentative model shows that the traits of adolescent subculture groups influence subculture-specific consumption. The tentative model was applied to survey data in two studies and was verified using EFA and SEM. By EFA, data from the two samples are used to construct 106 the factor structure of the two studies, and tests of reliability and validity demonstrate good validity and reliability of two measurement scales. Using SEM, the path relationships of the factors in the two studies are recognized and the revised model was developed.
The revised model shows that personality, values and lifestyle of subculture’s main traits are the antecedent factors affecting the buying behaviors of adolescent subcultures, though Otaku and pop music fans take part in different activities and exhibit different personality traits and values.
Further, the three traits proposed in the study of adolescent Otaku became two traits in the revised model while all five traits of the young pop music fans were retained in the revised model.
Verification of the three-dimensional analytical model appears to be sufficient for its use in the study of other adolescent subcultures.
(4) Implications for consumer behavior and marketing communication are provided
The results of the analysis from the two studies show that the traits of adolescent subculture groups influence subculture-specific consumption and that both adolescent Otaku and young pop music fans tend to gather more deep and detailed information before making their subculture-specific purchases. The dynamics of adolescent-subculture specific consumption are also shown to be consistent with Baumgartner and Steenkampy’s (1996) exploratory buying behavior tendency (EBBT) in which consumers engage in exploratory information seeking ahead of exploratory acquisition of products, and demonstrates that the EIS tendency of Baumgartner and Steenkampy’s (1996) EBBT occurs before the EAP intentions. This implies that rich pre-purchase information provision is important, meaning that marketers should offer an overall 107 product solution for adolescents’ novelty-seeking needs.
7.2 Managerial Implications
This research process not only adopts both qualitative and quantitative investigation but constructs a tentative model and then carries out model verification. The results verify a generalized analytical model for measuring the influences of specific adolescent subcultural traits on their buying behavior. This research proposes suggestions for the marketing managers.
(1) Comprehensive customer investigation
In recent years, adolescents have become the main consumer groups in markets of novel consumer products or fashion products. This trend provides good entrepreneurial opportunities for the firms which offer products tailored to the needs of fashion-oriented youth consumers.
Young consumers, a group usually actively seeking novel and specific consumption to meet their affiliation needs, are thus likely to use the consumption process as material for constructing and maintaining peer community identities. If marketers attempt to understand the development of adolescent consumer products, they have to recognize what adolescents think and like. Hence, deep customer interview information and detailed customer databases from questionnaire surveys can help marketers to better understand their target customers’ needs and offer product solutions.
(2) Attractive content provision
The marketing tactics employed for these adolescents should include recognition, friendliness, and story backgrounds presented in animation, comics and games (for Otaku) or in 108 website information and marketing (for pop music fans). Contemporary adolescents show a strong interest in flat-screen images, hence the optimal selection for marketing media and symbols is propagation through the image pattern. Emphasis on marketing-information visualization and application to this adolescent group are recommended to entice buying behaviors. This emphasis could include techniques such as online flash advertising, story-telling using appealing pictures, and even customized interactive sales-promotion games on the internet.
Marketers should place great emphasis on researching and developing novel and innovative content for adolescent consumers to attract adolescent customers with strong purchasing power.
(3) Modern media adoption
Today, adolescents are a group highly skilled in electronic devices and website communication. The adolescent subculture consumer groups studied in this research typically engage in deep and rich gathering of information before their purchases of entertainment products via modern media. Hence, marketers should provide copious amounts of information to target adolescent consumers using the internet and mobile communication channels.
(4) Marketing communication appeals should match consumer self-images
Consumers identify and express self-image using specific merchandise and brand. This phenomenon is obvious in adolescent consumer groups. Adolescents prefer to dress in specific styles of clothing, speak specific languages, and use novel or innovative products to express their search for affiliation. In designing marketing communication content, marketers should emphasize personality traits and values ahead of lifestyle, as findings of the two empirical 109 studies’ revised model structures in this research make clear.
(5) Total subculture solution provision
Marketers should offer total solutions for meeting adolescent subculture-specific needs. For example, ‘maid restaurant’ are starting to appear in Taiwan for the proliferation of Otaku subculture group. In this kind of restaurant, consumers receive service from waitresses wearing maid outfits, are offered comic products and theme music from animation, and immerse themselves in various facets of ACG. Considering the pop music fans, marketers not only arrange idols’ performance activities but can link up with various service firms in integrated star-chasing programs. For example, taxi drivers can help to take fans on star-chasing trips and toy firms may design various merchandise related to the idol’s music albums. These campaigns can be applied in every adolescent consumer group to enhance target customers’ loyalty. This benefit to marketing and selling deserves greater effort from marketers’. Hence, in order to provide total adolescent subculture solution, the 4P marketing strategies are recommended:
z Product strategy: Developing various peripheral products derived from core products.
In addition to the core product of subculture, take the example as ACG in Otaku and idol’s album in pop music fans, any other potential peripheral merchandise and accessory derived from the core product have to be developed through observation of adolescent activities and comprehensive customer investigations. For example, adolescent Otaku would like to purchase and collect animation figure on account of animation obsession. Hence, developing the various classical or cute figures worthy of collection deserve marketers and designers’ efforts. 110 z Price strategy: Higher differential pricing is recommended.
Many of the adolescents belonging to specific subculture would madly buy subculture-specific merchandise but be careless of the price. For example, a small but delicate animation figure may cost thousands of dollars (NT$) but an adolescent Otaku would pay it just because they want to own it to meet his deep collection interest. A pop music fan has the similar situation. Hence, higher differential pricing in adolescent subculture merchandise is needed. It means that a basic style product is priced at lower level for introductory consumers but a luxury or finest product can be priced at high level for deep enthusiasts.
z Place strategy: Assess adolescent subculture group at the place where they gather most often.
Marketers need to find out the place gathering most young consumers of specific adolescent subculture. Take Otaku as example, ACG store is one of the places gathering Otaku adolescents.
For pop music fans, they are frequently seen in pop music concert or autograph session.
Marketers can offer these star-chasing fans with various merchandise or accessories necessary for star-chasing activities and it is very easy to inspire impulse purchase. In addition, specialty store establishment is another place strategy and this can actively gather these adolescents.
z Promotion strategy: Emphasis of both information content and .
Comprehensive customer investigation assists in understanding what the adolescents need.
The adolescent Otaku and pop music fans have a similar feature of deep information gathering which is caused from deep interest and this feature deeply influence their buying behavior. Hence, marketers have to offer rich information contents on modern communication media (internet or 111 mobile communication devices) or in the promotion campaigns to meet these adolescents’ desires for gathering subculture-specific knowledge. In addition, marketers can use adequate live atmosphere to inspire impulse purchase.
7.3 Future Research
This research has several limitations that need to be considered and improved for future research.
First, it needs to explore other in-depth factors which lead to the special traits of adolescent subculture group. For example, growth process, personality development and family members may be the relevant factors. In the future research, other or more broaden influence facets are potential to be the topic.
Further, although the goodness-of-fit indices suggest a good fit of the model to the two data sets, future research is encouraged to test the instrument across different settings. To do so, researchers should increase the sample size and add new items to the scale or delete existing ones.
SEM provides comparable information about model fit especially when sample size is reasonably large, it usually means the sample size that over 200 (Fan, Thompson, & Wang, 1999). New items added should be developed through additional deep interviews hence more than one focus group interview is suggested in the future research.
Besides, based on the results of analyzing demographics differences in two studies, there are some significant gender differences in traits factors of two subculture group. In the future 112 research, the study should conduct further validation of the structure model by differentiating gender to compare if there exist differences between male and female adolescent pop music fans groups. To do so, it is also needed to enlarge sample size to have adequate data by gender in further analysis.
Finally, in order to enhance the generalizability of the analytical model proposed in this research for measuring influences of adolescent subculture’s traits on their specific merchandise’s consumption, this analytical model should be used with other adolescent subcultures such as clubbers, hair styling, or young people who love masstige (mass combined prestige as affordable luxury and spend most of their limited income in shopping for high-quality general-price luxury products). This is expected to improve the feasibility of the analytical model for analyzing various adolescent subcultures.
113 References
Arnett, J. J. 1993. Three profiles of heavy metal fans: a taste for sensation and a subculture of
alienation. Qualitative Sociology, 16(4): 423-443.
Arnett, J. J. 1995. Adolescents’ uses of media for self-socialization. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 24(5): 519-533.
Arnett, J. J. 1996. From the Mouths of the Metalheads: Heavy Metal Music and Adolescent
Alienation. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Arnett, J. J. 2002. The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10): 774-783.
Baral, E. 1999. Otaku: Las enfants du virtuel. Paris: Editions Denoel.
Baron, S. W. 1989. The Canadian West Coast punk subculture: a field study. The Canadian
Journal of Sociology, 14(3): 289-316.
Baumgartner, H., & Steenkamp, J. M. 1996. Exploratory consumer buying behavior:
Conceptualization and measurement. International Journal of Research in Marketing,
13(2): 121-137.
Beaudoin, P., & Lachance, M. J. 2006. Determinants of adolescents’ brand sensitivity to clothing.
Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 34(4): 312-331.
Belk, R. W. 2003. Shoes and Self. Advance Consumer Research, 30(1): 27-33.
Bennett, T. 1998. Culture: A Reformer’s Science. London: Sage.
Berlyne, D. E. 1976. Effects of novelty and oddity on visual selective attention. British Journal
of Psychology, 67(2): 175-180.
114 Brake, M. 1985. Comparative Youth Culture. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Bremner, B., & Tashiro, H. 2006. Otaku: Japan’s consumer fanatics. Business Week Online,
August: 15-15.
Calder, B. J. 1977. Focus groups and the nature of qualitative marketing research. Journal of
Marketing Research, 14(3): 353-364.
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. 1959. Convergent and discriminant validation by
multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2): 81-105.
Churchill, G. A. 1979. A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs.
Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1): 64-73.
Corona, V. P. 2011. Memory, monster, and Lady Gaga. The Journal of Popular Culture, Early
view, Wiley Publication (First published online March 2011).
Cote, R. A. 2005. An Examination of Youth in America, working paper.
Cuchinotta, C. 2005. The Otaku’s view on manga. Young Adult Library Services, 3(4): 17-17.
Danesi, M. 2003. My Son is an Alien: A Cultural Portrait of Today’s Youth. Lanham, Maryland:
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Darling, M. 2001. Plumbing the depths of superflatness. Art Journal, 60(3): 76-89.
Davies, H. 2001. All rock-and-roll is homosocial: the representation of women in the British rock
music press. Popular Music, 20(3): 301-319.
Edensor, T. 2002. National Identity, Popular Culture and Everyday Life. Oxford: Berg.
Epstein, J. 1998. Youth Cultures: Identity in a Postmodern World. Oxford and Massachusetts: 115 Blackwell.
Erikson, E. 1968. Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Fan, X., Thompson, B., & Wang, L. 1999. Effects of sample size, estimation methods, and model
specification on structural equation modeling fit indexes. Structural Equation Modeling: A
Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1): 56-83.
Fitzpatrick, M. 2005. The Otaku design generation. Communication Arts, 47(5): 76- 85.
Flanagan, J. 1954. The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4): 327-358.
Frith, S. 1985. The sociology of youth. In M. Haralabos (Eds.), Sociology: New Directions:
301-368. Ormskirk: Causeway Press.
Green, B. C., & Chalip, L. 1998. Sport tourism as the celebration of subculture. Annals of
Tourism Research, 25(2): 275-291.
Guilford, J. P. 1954. Psychometric Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gundersen, E. 2005. Music fans reach for the stars. USA Today, posted 3/9/2005, downloaded
from
Ha, J. S., & Park, J. 2011. Significance of changing Korean youth subculture styles. Asian
Culture and History, 3(1): 23-30.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. 2006. Multivariate Data
Analysis (6th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson.
Hartman, J. B., Shim, S., Barber, B., & O'Brien, M. 2006. Adolescents' utilitarian and hedonic
Web consumption behavior: Hierarchical influence of personal values and innovativeness. 116 Psychology & Marketing, 23(10): 813-839.
Havighurst, R. J. 1953. Human Development and Education. New York: David McKay.
Hirschman, E. C. 1980. Innovativeness, novelty seeking, and consumer creativity. Journal of
Consumer Research, 7(2): 283-295.
Isaksen, K. J., & Roper, S. 2008. The impact of branding on low-income adolescents: A vicious
cycle? Psychology & Marketing, 25(11): 1063-1087.
Jamal, A. 2003. Retailing in a multiculture world: the interplay of retailing, ethnic identity and
consumption. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 10(1): 1-11.
Jefferson, M. 2005. Theater: cool Japan: Otaku strikes! New York Times, 154: E25-E25.
Jenkins, H. 2006. Fans, Bloggers, Gamers: Exploring Participatory Culture. New York: New
York University Press.
Kamaruddin, A. R., & Mokhlis, S. K. 2003. Consumer socialization, social structural factors and
decision-making styles: a case study of adolescents in Malaysia. International Journal of
Consumer Studies, 27(2): 145-156.
Kreuger, R. A. 1988. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. London: Sage.
Kim, C., Lee, H., & Tomiuk, M. A. 2009. Adolescents' perceptions of family communication
patterns and some aspects of their consumer socialization. Psychology & Marketing, 26(10):
888-907.
Kinsella, S. 1998. Japanese subculture in the 1990s: Otaku and the amateur manga movement.
Journal of Japanese Studies, 24(2): 289-316. 117 Kotler, P. 2006. Marketing Management. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Lacourse, E., Claes, M., & Villeneuve, M. 2001. Heavy metal music and adolescent suicidal risk.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(3): 321-332.
Leblanc, L. 2002. Pretty in Punk- Girls’ Gender Resistance in a Boys’ Subculture. New Jersey:
Rutgers University Press.
Lewis, M. 2000. Focus Group Interviews in Qualitative Research: A Review of the Literature.
Action Research Electronic Reports. Available online at:
http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arr/arow/rlewis.html. (accessed 10/5/2011)
Marshall, P. D. 1997. Celebrity and Power: Fame in Contemporary Culture. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
Martin, G., Clarke, M., & Pearce, C. 1993. Adolescent Suicide: Music Preference as an indicator
of vulnerability. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,
32(3): 530-535.
McAlister, L., & Pessemier, E. 1982. Variety seeking behavior: an interdisciplinary review.
Journal of Consumer Research, 9(3): 311-322.
McNicol, T. 2007. Who are you calling "Otaku"? Economy, Culture & History Japan Spotlight,
26(5): 36-37.
Moschis, G. P., & Moore, R. L. 1979. Decision making among the young: a socialization
perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 6(2): 101-112.
Neter, J., Wasserman, W., & Kutner, M. H. 1985. Applied Linear Statistical Models: Regression 118 Analysis of Variance, and Experimental Design (2nd ed.). Homewood, IL: Richard D.
Irwin Inc.
Newton, S. 2007. Help! My Teenager is an Alien, England: Penguin group.
Niu, H. J., Chiang, Y. S., & Tsai, H. T. 2011. An exploratory study of the Otaku adolescent
consumer. Psychology & Marketing, Forthcoming.
Nomura Research Institute. 2005. Marketing Research of Otaku. Tokyo: Toyo Keizai, Inc. (In
Japanese)
Nunnally, J. C. 1978. Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Okada, T. 1996. Introduction to Otaku. Tokyo: Ohta Publishing. (In Japanese)
Okada, T. 2006. The lecture in Tokyo University. Tokyo: Kodansha Ltd. (In Japanese)
Owens, C. B. 2007. Fame, fans and fascination: Groupies! Vixens or villains in the rockmusic
industry? The thesis for University of South Alabama.
Railton, D. 2001. The gendered carnival of pop. Popular Music, 20(3): 323-327.
Raju, P. S. 1980. Optimum stimulation level: its relationship to personality, demographics, and
exploratory behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 7(3): 272-282.
Rentfrow, P. J., McDonald, J. A., & Oldmeadow, J. A. 2009. You are what you listen to: young
people's stereotypes about music fans. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12(3):
329-344.
Rhodes, L. L. 2005. Electric Ladyland: Women and Rock Culture. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press. 119 Roehrich, G. 2004. Consumer innovativeness: concepts and measurements. Journal of Business
Research, 57(6): 671- 677.
Sangani, K. 2008. Otaku world. Engineering & Technology, 3(19): 94-95.
Segar A., & Grover, V. 1993. Re-examining perceived ease of use and usefulness: a confirmatory
factor analysis. MIS Quarterly, 17(4): 517- 527.
Shamir, B. 1992. Some correlates of leisure identity salience: three exploratory studies. Journal
of Leisure Research, 24(4): 301-323.
Smith, G. H. 1954. Motivation Research in Advertising and Marketing. New Youk:
McGraw-Hill and the Advertising Research Foundation.
Spindler, A. M. 2002. Do you Otaku? New York Times Magazine, 151: 134.
Steenkamp, J. M. 1997. Dynamics in consumer behavior with respect to agricultural and food
products. In B. Wierenga, A. van Tilburg, A. Steenkamp, K. Steenkamp, & J.-B. M. Wedel
(Eds.), Agricultural Marketing and Consumer Behavior in a Changing World: 144-188.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Steinberg, M. 2004. Otaku consumption, superflat art and the return to Edo. Japan Forum, 16(3):
449-471.
Stewart, D. W., & Shamdasani, P. N. 1990. Focus Groups: Theory and Practice. London: Sage.
Thorne, S., & Bruner, G. 2006. An Exploratory investigation of the characteristics of consumer
fanaticism. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 9(1): 51-72.
Wann, D. L., Melnick, M. J., Russell, G. W., & Pease, D. G. 2001. Sport Fans: The Psychology 120 and Social Impact of Spectators. New York: Routledge Press.
Warwick, J. 2007. Electric ladyland: women and rock culture (Review). American Studies, 48(1):
170-171.
Washida, Y. 2005. Collaborative structure between Japanese high-tech manufacturers and
consumers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 22(1): 25-34.
Weinstein, E. M. 2010. Out of the Shadows: Breaking the Gender Barrier in Rock Journalism,
from the 1950s to 2010. The thesis for the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio
University.
Williams, J. P. 2007. Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts.
Sociology Compass, 1(2): 572-593.
Wirman, H. 2007. “I am not a fan, I just play a lot”- If power gamers aren’t fans, who are? In A.
Baba (Eds.), Situated Play: Proceedings of the Third International Conference of DiGRA:
377-385. Tokuo, Japan: University of Tokyo.
121