RESOURCE MATERIAL on ORIENTATION PROGRAMME Volume

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UUNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION AACADEMIC SSTAFF CCOLLEGE

RESOURCE MATERIAL ON ORIENTATION PROGRAMME Volume – III

Dr. A. Singaravel Editor

BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY KHAJAMALAI CAMPUS TIRUCHIRAPPALLI-620 023 1

Editor : Dr. A. Singaravel, Director, in charge UGC Academic Staff College, Bharathidasan University, Trichy - 23.

Copy right : Bharathidasan University, Trichy - 23.

First Edition : 2011

Paper used : 80 GSM TNPL

Size : 1 X 8 Demmy Font Size : 12 Points Times New Roman` No. of Pages : No. of Copies : 100 ISBN No. : 978 – 81 – 922810 – 4 - 9 Printed at : Sree Venkateshwara Power Printers, Trichy - 10. Cover page design & Page Making : Ms. R. Sangeetha Computer Assistant, UGC-ASC

MESSAGE

When I asked Dr.Singaravel, the Director i/c of the Academic Staff College to compile the learning materials used by Resource Persons, he readily agreed to do it. The result is the book you hold in your hands.

I am happy to record that the Director has brought these volumes which could be used by participants of Orientation Programmes as Resource Materials.

I take this opportunity to congratulate the Director for his proactive initiatives and carry out the vision of Bharathidasan University to be innovative.

I thank the University Grants Commission for its fullest support for the progress of the

Academic Staff College of Bharathidasan University. I also congratulate Dr.A.Singaravel,

Director In-charge of the Academic Staff College and his team for this innovative practice of converting the lecture notes and selected seminar papers of participants, into Resource Materials.

I wish the Academic Staff College all success in its endeavors.

(Dr.(Mrs.)K.MEENA)

From the Director’s Desk

The UGC Academic Staff College (ASC), Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, has been conducting three types of specially designed training programmes like Orientation Programmes (OP), Refresher Courses (RC) and Short-Term Courses (ST) for the benefit of the College and University Teachers across the country to empower and enhance their academic excellence consistently so as to impart updated subject knowledge to the students of Higher Education for the past quarter century. The ASC also organised Short Term Workshop even for the benefit of the Ph.D Scholars and Administrative Staff to empower and enhance the academic and administrative skill respectively.

In addition to this, the ASC has been publishing Resource Materials on various disciplines for the benefit of the stakeholders who attend these programmes. The ASC publishes this "Orientation Course Resource Material Volume-III", to benefit the Teacher Participants, with ISBN facility. This book was compiled from the lectures delivered by the resource persons as well as the seminar papers presented by the participants for the Programmes.

In this endeavour, I sincerely thank the UGC for its continued support and co-operation. I thank the most respected Vice-Chancellor and the Management of Bharathidasan University for their academic and administrative support and encouragement to run the courses and bring out the resource material without hassle. I thank all the Resource Persons, who have contributed and extended their fullest support and encouragement towards this endeavor.

The Resource Persons/Teacher Participants are totally responsible for their articles and lecture notes presented in this volume and the UGC- ASC can not be held responsible for any criticism or comments from the readers.

Finally, I thank Sree Venkateshwara Off Set Printers, Ariyamangalam, Tiruchirappalli, for bringing out this book neatly, within a short span of time.

With regards,

Director.

CONTENTS

S.No Particulars Page.No 1. Learning Communication Through Activities 2. Counselling: An Enabling Process 3. Mental Health: Attitudes and Values 4. Music Therapy 5. Impact of Globalization on Indian Higher Education 6. Urbanisation And Modernisation Depressed Class People Enrolment Scenario in Higher 7. Education: An Overview

8. New Modes of Information Storage and Retrieval

9. University Industry Collaboration: Need for Global Improvement 10. Team Building for Effective Impact 11. Environment And Human Rights 12. Parameters of Women Empowerment - An Insight

13. Formation of Early Political Associations in Madras Presidency 14. Disaster Vulnerability on Specific Group – A Study 15. Education for Employment or Empowerment? 16. Evolution of Voting Right in Colonial Tamil Nadu

LEARNING COMMUNICATION THROUGH ACTIVITIES C. Preetha

Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts" (Chaney, 1998, p. 13). Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. Despite its importance, for many years, Teaching Speaking English has been undervalued and English Language Teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues. However, today‘s world requires that the goal of Teaching Speaking English, should improve students‘ communicative skills because only in that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstance. In order to teach second language learners how to speak in the best way possible, some Speaking Activities are provided below, that can be applied to ESL and EFL Classroom Settings, together with suggestions for teachers who teach oral language. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction, as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language.

―Teaching Speaking‖ is to teach English as Second Language (ESL) Learners to:  Produce the English Speech Sounds and Sound Patterns  Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language.  Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience, situation and subject matter.  Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence.  Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments.  Use the language quickly and confidently, with few unnatural pauses, which is called Fluency. (Nunan, 2003).

 Assistant Professor, Department of English, Sri Sarada College for Women (Autonomous), Salem. 6

The purpose of this paper is threefold: to discuss reasons for using games in language, to give suggestions on when and how to use games, and to explain categories for classifying games. Games have long been advocated for assisting language learning.

When and How to Use Games Games can play a range of roles in the language curriculum. Traditionally, games have been used in the language class as warm-ups at the beginning of class, fill-ins when there is extra time near the end of class or as an occasional bit of spice stirred into the curriculum to add variety. All these are fine but games can also constitute a more substantial part of language courses (Lee, 1979; Rixon, 1981, Uberman, 1998). In the Presentation-Practice-Production Framework (Mauer, 1997), (in which language items are first presented for students to listen to and/or read, then practised in a manner in which the language used is controlled, e.g., students read out a dialogue from the textbook in which the two characters compare study habits and then produced by students in a less controlled manner, e.g., two students discuss their own study habits), the games can be either for practising specific language items or skills or for more communicative language production. Similarly, games can also be used as a way to revise and recycle previously taught language (Uberman, 1998).

Children often are very enthusiastic about games, but precisely for that reason, some older students may worry that games are too childish for them. Teachers need to explain the purpose of the game in order to reassure such students that there is such a phenomenon as ―serious fun.‖ Also, older students can be involved in modifying and even creating games. Furthermore, adults have long participated in games on radio and television, not to mention the fact that popular board games, such as Monopoly, are played by adults.

As with other learning activities, teachers need to pay careful attention to the difficulty level of games. Part of the appeal of games lies in the challenge, but if the challenge is too great, some students may become discouraged. The challenge can be of two kinds: understanding how to play the game and understanding the language content. Some suggestions for promoting both types of understanding are:

a. Demonstrations of how the game is played. The teacher can demonstrate with a group of students or a group can demonstrate for the class. b. A kind of script of what people said as they played or a list of useful phrases. Similarly, key vocabulary and concepts may be explained. c. Clear directions. Demonstrations can accompany directions and directions can be given when needed, rather than explaining all the steps and rules in one go. Also, some student-initiated modifications can be accepted. d. Games already known to students. e. Games used to revise and recycle previously studied content, rather than involving new content. f. Groups are heterogeneous in terms of current language proficiency, so that the more proficient members can help others. g. Resources, online or print, such as dictionaries and textbooks.

Types of Language Games Role Play One way of getting students to speak is Role Playing. Students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social roles. In Role Play Activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and…" (Harmer, 1984)

Simulations Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations different from role plays is that they are more elaborate. In simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role Plays and Simulations have many advantages. First, since they are entertaining, they motivate the students. Second, as Harmer (1984) suggests, they increase the self-confidence of hesitant students because in Role Play and Simulation Activities, they will have a different role and do not have to speak for themselves, which means they do not have to take the same responsibility.

Information Gap Under the Information Gap Activities, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the information that the other partner does not have and the partners will share their information. Information Gap Activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem or collecting information. Also, each partner plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the information the others need. These activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity to TALK extensively in the Target Language.

Brainstorming On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context, either individual or group prainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas quickly and freely. The good characteristics of prainstorming are that the students are not criticized for their ideas and any idea is as good as any other idea. Story Telling Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story Telling fosters creative thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including the characters and setting a story has to have. Students also can tell Riddles or Jokes. For instance, at the very beginning of each class session, the teacher may call a few students to tell short Riddles or Jokes as an opening. In this way, not only will the teacher address students‘ speaking ability but also get the attention of the class. Interviews Students can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a good idea that the teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type of questions they can ask or what path to follow, but students should prepare their own interview questions. Conducting interviews with people, gives students a chance to practise their speaking ability not only in class but also outside and helps them becoming socialized. After interviews, each student can present his or her study to the class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her partner to the class.

Story Completion This is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which students sits in a circle. For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story but after a few sentences, he or she stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the point where the previous one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten sentences. Students can add new characters, events, descriptions and so on. Reporting Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and in the class, they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling their friends in their daily lives before class.

Picture Narrating This activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell the story taking place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or structures they need to use while narrating. Picture Describing Another way to make use of pictures in a Speaking Activity is to give students just one picture and having them to describe the picture. For this activity, students can form groups and each group is given a different picture. Students discuss the picture with their groups and then a spokesperson for each group, describes the picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking skills. Find the Difference For this activity, students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different pictures. For example, picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the pictures. Guessing Games This is a variation of Information Gap Games. One of the best known examples of a Guessing Game in which one person thinks of a famous person, place, or thing. The other

participants can ask 20 Yes/No questions to find clues in order to guess who or what the person is thinking of. Search Games Search Games are yet another variant on Two-Way Information Gap Games, with everyone giving and seeking information. ‗Find Someone Who‘ is a well known example. Students are given a grid. The task is to fill in all the cells in the grid, with the name of a classmate who fits that cell, e.g., someone who is a vegetarian. Students circulate, asking and answering questions to complete their own grid and help classmates complete theirs. Matching Games As the name implies, participants need to find a match for a word, picture, or card. For example, students place 30 word cards, composed of 15 pairs, face down in random order. Each person turns over two cards at a time, with the goal of turning over a matching pair, by using their memory. This is also known as the Pelmanism Principle, after Christopher Louis Pelman, a British Psychologist of the first half of the 20th Century. Discussion After a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions in their discussion groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way, the discussion points are relevant to this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting with each other about irrelevant things. For example, students can become involved in agree/disagree discussions. In this type of discussions, the teacher can form groups of students, preferably 4 or 5 in each group, and provide controversial sentences like ―people learn best when they read vs. people learn best when they travel‖. Then each group works on their topic for a given time period and presents their opinions to the class. It is essential that the speaking should be equally divided among group members. At the end, the class decides on the winning group who defended the idea in the best way. This activity fosters critical thinking and quick decision making, and students learn how to express and justify themselves in polite ways while disagreeing with the others. For efficient group discussions, it is always better not to form large groups because quiet students may avoid contributing in large groups. The group members can be either assigned by the teacher or the students may determine it by

themselves, but groups should be rearranged in every discussion activity so that students can work with various people and learn to be open to different ideas. Lastly, in class or group discussions, whatever the aim is, the students should always be encouraged to ask questions, paraphrase ideas, express support, check for clarification, and so on.

Suggestions for Teachers in Teaching Speaking  Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak the Target Language by providing a rich environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks and shared knowledge.  Try to involve each student in every speaking activity and thus practise different ways of student participation.  Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step back and observe students.  Indicate positive signs while commenting on a student's response.  Ask eliciting questions such as "What do you mean?, How did you reach that conclusion?" in order to prompt students to speak more.  Provide written feedback like, "Your presentation was really great. It was a good job. I really appreciated your efforts in preparing the materials and efficient use of your voice…"  Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking. Correction should not distract student from his or her speech.  Involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of class and contact parents and other people who can help.  Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see whether they need your help while they work in groups or pairs.  Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities.  Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves in the Target Language and provide more opportunities to practise the spoken language.

COUNSELLING: AN ENABLING PROCESS Dr. R. Dhakshina Murthy Introduction Counselling means different things to different people. To some, it is about advice and to others, it is sympathy. For others, Counselling is creating awareness. Counselling is a process of developing a co-operative relationship and then using that relationship to help clients to explore themselves and their environments to gain a clearer understanding and work out appropriate behaviours. The purpose of Counselling is to enhance the personal development, the psychological growth toward a socialised maturity of its clients.

Counselling can be defined as ―a therapeutic growth process through which individuals are helped to define goals, make decisions and solve problems related to personal, social, educational and career concerns. Specialized Counselling provides assistance with concerns related to physical and social rehabilitation, employment, mental health, substance abuse, marital & family problems, human sexuality, religious and value choices, career development and other concerns.

The Counsellor should recognize the role of client‘s environment in counselling even as concentrating on client. Consellor‘s ability to conceptualize and assess the social milieu, in which the client lives and works, is a vital asset to maximize treatment gains. Hence, the Counsellor should first help the client to ‗select‘ conducive environment. In case that is not feasible, the second strategy of ―change‖ should be attempted failing which the third strategy of ‗creation‘ should be implemented. The Relationship Oriented Environment thus produces a high degree of self-esteem and satisfaction in individuals. The social environment that emphasizes personal development produces high level of skills learning. Since it is learning and achievement oriented, it may also tend to produce high levels of anxiety in the individuals.

 Associate Professor, Centre for Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli. 13

Intervention Target Very often, it is assumed that the target of counselling is only the individual. But Counseling Intervention should be viewed from a broader perspective i.e intervention at the level of primary group and institution or community.

At the individual level, intervention usually takes place on one on one basis, by attempting to influence the individual through altering his or her knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, responses etc.

Primary Group is the basic unit of social organization, which affects and influences the individual most. It has intimate and personal associations on a face-to-face basis, for example, family and close friends. They strongly influence the individual‘s self-concept and behavior. Intervention at this level would include attempts to alter communication and interaction patterns, perceptions, structure, relationships in the Primary Group.

The intervention can also be exercised at the Associational Group to which individuals belong. These are more organized groups such as classes, clubs, and students in hostel. In the Associational Group, members share a consciousness of similar interests and needs. They unite together in some organizational way to pursue some interests or fulfill some needs. Intervention at this level would include attempts to alter goals, communication patterns, interactions, organization, methods of achieving goals etc.

The target of intervention can be at institution or a community level too. The members are parts of institution, school, neighbourhood, religious organization. Intervention in this case would include attempts to alter goals, communications, power distribution, sanctions, and information flow.

Purpose of Counselling Intervention Purpose of Counseling Intervention can be of three kinds: 1. Provide Remedy to an existing problem Remedial Intervention is called for when individuals have some problem. In relation to a group, Counselling Intervention is involved when the group is faced with some failure such as problems of lack of interpersonal and social skills, failure to make valid decisions or failures due to organizational or structural deficiencies.

2. Prevention of a potential problem Counselling in terms of preventive measures is concerned with identifying those skills and measures which are needed now or which may be needed in future to fight it out or cope up with a problem. Identification will be followed by providing means or by enabling individuals or group to acquire means to develop skills or measures. The focus is on anticipating to anticipate future problems and take measures to prevent them by providing individuals or groups with needed skills or by creating changes in the environment so as to prevent development of the problem.

3. Development of Skills, leading to positive and creative growth. Development Interventions include those programmed which are designed to enhance the functioning and developmental potential of healthy individuals or groups. The primary focus is to promote and enhance positive growth for all. It entails not only those who are identified as having or about to have problems but each and every member of the group or the community.

Effective Counselling is built on the following assumptions: 1. Faith in Counselling to lead to behavioural change. 2. A good relationship is a necessity. 3. Client should feel accepted and understood in the relationship. 4. Client should feel that the Counsellor is concerned and able to help. 5. Counsellor should be genuine and honest with client.

6. Both the members in the relationship must have confidence in the ability of the relationship to bring about changes in the client. Counselling Relationship The Counselling Relationship is an alliance between Counsellor and Client formed to help the client move towards a goal which is more appropriate behaviour. The client is able to bring about changes due to Counsellor‘s acceptance of the client as a person as well as rendering help in solving a problem. Characteristics of Counselling Relaionship: 1. Counselling Relationship is established and continued till client feels the need for a special help with a problem that he or she cannot solve independently. 2. The Counselling Relationship is formal and structured in that it is not continued on a casual social basis. It is characterized by specified duration, privacy and confidentiality. 3. The Counselling Relationship is limited to the therapeutic purpose. 4. Although Counselling Relationship is limited in time, it is a deeper and closer relationship than ordinary social friendship 5. The Counselling Relationship is powerful and thus effective because the principles of good human relationships are applied consciously and purposefully. The Counseling Relationship can develop rapidly and focus on the essentials. Essential Conditions for Effective Counseling Change in a client does occur only by maintaining good rapport with him. Two people must be in psychological contact and both client and counselor must be aware of the presence of each other. For any effective counseling, facilitative conditions like empathy, positive regard, genuineness, and congruence elicit greatest involvement of the client and ultimately significant constructive gains or change could be brought about in the client. 1. Unconditional Positive Regard: Growth and Change are more likely to occur in the client, if the Counselors is experiencing a warm, positive, accepting attitude toward ―what is‖ in the client. It means that the Counselor considers the client as an important and worthy individual regardless of his particular behavior. It means that he cares for client as a person, with potentialities and in a non-possessive way. The client has to be accepted in to, along with whatever behavior he exhibits, whether rebellion, submissiveness, hostility or anything. He

respects the client as an individual and shows positive liking unconditionally, without passing judgments or evaluating. 2. Empathy: The empathic behavior is the ability of a Counsellor to stand in the shoes of the client i.e. to see things from the point of view of the client. The quality of empathy is a must for the counseling process to succeed. Empathy calls for 'forgetting oneself so that the Counsellor surrenders himself completely towards the client. The process of empathisation is never total or complete, which leaves a lot to be desired. Empathy promotes growth in the relationship. The Counselor should sense the client‘s inner private world ―as if‖ it were his own and also, should be able to communicate some significant parts of his understanding to the client. The understanding and clarity about the client‘s experience or feelings will enable the Counsellor to communicate them to the client. It is this empathy which will make it possible for a person to learn, to change and develop. The client feels that he is valued and that his feelings and experiences are considered worth understanding.

3. Congruence: In his relationship with his client, the Counsellor should be genuine and without any façade. He should be open and not hide his feelings and attitudes, including negative ones which at that moment are flowing in him. Congruence, here, means that the Counsellor is aware of the feelings he is experiencing, he is able to live these feelings and be able to communicate them, if appropriate. It means that he comes into a direct personal encounter with his client on a person to person basis. The Counsellor should listen to and accept what is going on within himself. The more he is able to see himself, the higher the degree of his congruence. The more genuine and congruent the Counsellors is in the relationship, the greater the probability for bringing about change in the client. It is easier to trust and to relate with a person who is open and honest about himself, than one who is polite but superficial.

4. The Client’s Perception:-To have effective relationship, it is vital that the client has perceived the above three elements. It is when the client perceives the genuineness of the Counselors and acceptance and empathy on part of the Counsellors for the client, then growth and change in behavior are possible.

This implies that the Counsellor should not only be sensitive to what is going on with him but also that of the client-the way in which he is receiving counselor‘s communications. The Counsellor should behave and communicate in ways which make sense to the client. The client should be able to perceive and experience the relationship. Eventually, it is the client‘s perception that is going to decide the extent of change in behavior.

Dimmensions of Counselling Relationship Counselling Relationship does not develop automatically. The Counsellor has to consciously strive to nurture, direct and develop it. At times, the client may transfer to the Counsellor, attitudes or feelings that he had experienced with other people. The Counsellor, in turn, may experience counter transference by having some emotional reactions. In order to help the client effectively, the Counsellor should be able to understand all these relationship dimensions. He can recognize these dimensions through the client‘s verbal and non-verbal communications. The Counselor‘s Skills in understanding and communicating these dimensions can facilitate the Counselling Relationship and the movement from stage to stage that make up the counseling process. Therefore, Counseling is a relationship consisting of various dimensions.

In other words, several factors or dimensions in the interaction between Counsellor and Client influence the effectiveness of the counseling. Although facilitative conditions are the core, there are other dimensions that contribute to a good Counseling Relationship. The expression of feelings and thoughts, transference and counter transference, resistance and confrontations are frequently involved, through both verbal and non-verbal communication of which the Counsellors should be aware. Some of the dimensions are discussed as under.

Resistance: A client sometimes offers resistance to defeat the purpose of Counselling. It is subconscious opposition to bring to surface his subconscious mind and thus protect his ego. Even when a willing client desires to change, he blocks or distorts communication when Counselor approaches him. Resistance shows client‘s disability to deal directly and

constructively with his or her impulses. Sometimes he also resists his own impulses that are directed to the Counsellor in the process of transference.

Resistance arises in Counselling when the client perceives a topic or situation as threatening. To avoid further anxiety, he or she feels compelled to resist. He either fears to lay bare his own inner self or fears the growth and the concomitant change.

At times client fears that expressing his or her feelings may make the situation real and therefore, the client is reluctant. For example, to talk about death or losing love. At times resistance comes from within and he or she avoids discussing topic or situation that causes anxiety. However, there are occasions when resistance is caused due to external factor, that of Counsellor who perhaps, brings out material which the client is not ready to handle.

Resistance is common to many interviews. At times it may be an outright rejection of the Counsellors and many times it is expressed in subtle ways through inattention. It does not mean that the client does not want help but that most of the time, he or she is unaware of the existence of resistance. For an inexperienced Counselor, this kind of ambivalent behavior of the client is perplexing. There are two types of reactions which can be regarded as resistance.

(1) Client‘s unwillingness to give up autonomy or the tendency to fail to live up to the social standard of acting independently.

(2) Client‘s defense against inner conflicts when the nature of the Counselling Relationship tempts him or her to express conflicting impulses. In the Counselling Process, both the types of resistance are significant for the Counsellors. In the case of first type of resistance, the Counsellor should be careful lest he may encroach upon client‘s freedom and independence. In fact, the client‘s feeling of independence should be regarded as a positive sign by the Counsellors. When the client going through inner conflict, resists them, the Counsellors should provide supportive relationship to enable the client to

explore himself. Before a Counsellor handles resistance of the client, he should be clear if the resistance is due to some external cause or due to his own handling.

The following are five techniques for dealing with resistance;

(1) Counselor should be alert to client‘s resistance but should not respond to it. Instead he should recognize that resistance is normal and should concentrate on understanding the client‘s unique defensive style. (2) When a client shows enhanced disinterest in Counseling which is evident in his short answers or not hearing or seeing certain things, the Counselor may attempt to reduce resistance. The Counsellor can lessen the emotional impact of the discussion by shifting it to intellectual level or by shifting the physical position or by easing the tension with thoughtful humor. (3) If a good relationship exists between the Counsellor and Client, supportive and accepting techniques may help to clarify the situation and reduce the resistance. The Counsellor may offer an explanation of what the client is doing. The interpretation may help the client develop tolerance and acceptance of the resistance as well as its intellectual understanding. (4) If resistance is stronger, the Counsellor may redirect the interview to less threatening areas. This kind of temporary diversion takes the pressure off the client and also reduces the intensity of the interview. (5) The strongest technique is the direct confrontation or questioning centered around resistance, if the Counsellor feels confident. Self Disclosure Self Disclosure means revealing personal information to other person and makes the self known to the other persons. Client Self Disclosure is desirable for the success of Counselling. At the same time, the level of Counselor‘s Self-Disclosure is important because self disclosure occurs in a reciprocal manner. It is said that the verbal Self Diclosure of the Counsellor opens the communication channel in Counselling. This is partly dealt with while talking about Congruence or the essential condition for Effective Counselling.

Clients Self Disclosure is affected by various situations as under: (1) The degree to which the Counsellor is perceived as self-disclosing by the client. (2) Client‘s perception of the Counsellor as facilitative. (3) Origin and sex of the individuals.

Counselor‘s Self-Disclosure acts as reinforcement for the client‘s self-disclosure by increasing the likelihood of reciprocal self-disclosure. Therefore, Self-Disclosing Counselors will be more effective. Counselor‘s self-disclosure can also stimulate the client‘s memory to recall personal experiences, thereby facilitating client‘s self-disclosures.

Transference Transference is displacement of feelings from one person to another. It is the irrational elements carried over from other relationships, particularly from the past, now displaced upon the Counsellor. Transference is a reflection of unconscious motivation. It is natural and helpful to the relationship as long as the Counsellor and the Client are aware of their existence to any emotionally charged relationship and one tends to bring conscious and unconscious feelings and attitudes that originally arose in earlier important relationship. The transferred elements of attraction or repulsion, liking or disliking, occur spontaneously. They may emerge at any point in a relationship.

When a client begins to speak in a symbolic or metaphorical way about experiences that seem to be related to present relationship, the Counsellor may consider it necessary to expose the underlying implications to render the experiences more meaningful to the Counselling Relationship. For example, if a client repeatedly expresses doubt about others, the Counsellor may suggest, ―Perhaps you are doubtful of me.‖ It carries a message that the Counsellor is not fearful of client‘s feeling but that he is perceptive. The Counsellor‘s Adequacy is a function of the ability to recognize and respond directly to feelings, no matter what the feelings are. With regard to transference, the Counselor‘s main task is to encourage free expression of feelings while keeping the transference, attitude from further developing.

Counter transference Counter Transference is emotional reactions and projections of the Counsellor toward the client. Counter Transference may be conscious or unconscious attitudes toward real or imagined attitudes and behaviour of the client. In Counter Transference, a Counsellor‘s anxieties or unconscious needs and wishes may significantly colour his or her understanding of a client. It may also develop as a result of client‘s communication of feelings to the Counsellor. To be a successful Counsellor, he or she should not only recognize and deal with his or her feelings and responses but also be alert to those of the client.

Conclusion Counselling is the skilled and principled use of relationship to facilitate self- knowledge, emotional acceptance and growth and the optimal development of personal resources. The overall aim is to provide an opportunity to work towards living more satisfyingly and resourcefully. Counselling Relationships will vary according to the need but may be concerned with developmental issues, addressing and resolving specific problems, making decisions, coping with crisis, developing personal insights and knowledge, working through feelings of inner conflict or improving relationships with others. The Counsellor‘s role is to facilitate the clients work in ways that respect the client‘s values, personal resources and capacity for self- determination. Reference Dryden, Windy & Mytton, Jill, Four Approaches to Counselling & Psychotherapy. London & New York: Routledge, 1999. Kirschenbaum, H and Henderson, V.L (Eds.) (1990) The Carl Rogers Reader. London: Constable. Merry, Tony and Lusty, Bob, What is Person-Centered Counselling? A Personal and Practical Guide. Essex: Gale Centre Publications, 1993. O‘Leary, E. The Psychology of Counselling. Cork: Cork University Press (1982) in second printing. Rogers, C.R. Counselling and Psychotherapy: New Concepts in Practice. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1942.

Rogers, C.R., Gendlin, E.T., Kiesler, D.J., and Truax, C.B. (Eds.). The Therapeutic Relationship and Its Impact: A Study of Psychotherapy with Schizophrenics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967. Thorne, Brian. Key Figures in Counselling and Psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications, 2000.

MENTAL HEALTH: ATTITUDES AND VALUES S. Arumugam ―A positive mental attitude is the starting point of all riches whether they are riches of a material nature or intangible riches”. - Napoleon Hill Introduction Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or pain. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the ―Health Triangle.‖

Mental Health describes either a level of cognitive or emotional well-being or an absence of a mental disorder. Mental Health is an expression of emotions and signifies a successful adaptation to a range of demands. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines Mental Health as "a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully and is able to make a contribution to his or her community". There are different types of mental health problems, some of which are common, such as depression and anxiety disorders and some not so common, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Mental Health Being mentally and emotionally healthy does not exclude the experiences of life which we cannot control. As humans we are going to face emotions and events that are a part of life. According to Smith and Segal, ―People who are emotionally and mentally healthy have the tools for coping with difficult situations and maintaining a positive outlook in which also remain focused, flexible, and creative in bad times as well as good‖ (2011). In order to improve our

 Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli. 24

Emotional Mental Health, the root of the issue has to be resolved. ―Prevention emphasizes the avoidance of risk factors; promotion aims to enhance an individual‘s ability to achieve a positive sense of self-esteem, mastery, well-being and social inclusion‖ (Power, 2010). It is very important to improve our Emotional Mental Health by surrounding our self with positive relationships. We, as humans, feed off companionships and interaction with other people. Another way to improve our Emotional Mental Health is participating in activities that can allow relaxing and taking time for us. Yoga is a great example of its meditating aspect which calms our entire body and nerves.

Maintaining Positive Attitude Unfortunately it is not always easy to stay positive and keep a good attitude. As things go wrong throughout our day, it is easy to let negative thoughts start to take over. Thankfully there are many things that we can do to help maintain a positive attitude. These are things that we can do on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis to make sure we keep our positive focus.

1. Read Positive and Inspiring Books One of the best ways to maintain a positive attitude is by reading positive books. These books serve to encourage, inspire and teach. Reading requires that we sit still and focus, and by focusing on something positive it helps to keep a positive mindset throughout the day.

2. Listen to Podcasts/CDS The advantage of listening to podcasts or compact disks is that we can listen on the go. We can listen to motivating podcasts while we clean our house, exercise, or on a flight. In our car, we can play encouraging compact disks that help us to we make better use of our commute. Listening to recordings from people like Zig Ziglar, Tony Robbins, or John Maxwell, can both teach and inspire us.

3. Wake up Early One of the best ways to help us maintain a positive attitude is to create the habit of waking up early. Waking up early allows us to get a head start on the day. We can prepare for work and

start our day without feeling rushed. We can get a head start on important projects before the rest of the world is awake to interrupt us. We can spend time reading or in prayer or meditation. I start each day by listening to a 10 minute motivational podcast.

4. Exercise Very few things in life leverage our time as much as exercise. Obviously it makes a difference for our physical health but it also has significant benefits to our Mental Health. Exercise is useful to combat depression and to improve overall positive mood. Further, if we exercise early in the morning, we can go through our day, knowing that we have already completed the most valuable activity we had to do!

5. Plan our Week and Day Having a clear plan to our day and to our week, can go a long way in helping us maintain a positive attitude. By knowing what we want to accomplish, we will be able to focus on our important life priorities. Weekly Plan allows us to match our long-term goals to our weekly accomplishments. Our Daily Plan allows us to complete the activities we need to do so that we meet our weekly goals.

6. Understand that Things Won't Always Go as Planned If we plan and expect everything in life will go as planned, we will be quickly disappointed. One of the keys to maintaining a positive attitude is to understand that things will go wrong. If we expect things to go wrong, we won't be phased when they do. So have a plan, but understand that things won't follow the plan. The plan allows us to adapt to what went wrong and move back towards what is important.

7. Get Spiritually Connected Naturally this one will look different for everyone and this is simply an option to consider. If we are spiritually connected, we will have a positive outlook on life. This might mean prayer, meditation or reading Scripture. Set aside time each day to be connected spiritually.

8. Be Thankful Take some time and be thankful. Be thankful about what we have, who we are, and what our life is like. Think through all the things that we can be thankful for. Even if we are in a tough time in life, there are many things we have that we can be thankful for. We need to look for them and recognize them. The very act of focusing on what we are thankful for, will help us maintain our positive attitude.

9. Surround our self with Positive People The people around us have a big impact on us. They impact who we are, how much money we will make and what we value. They also impact how we think. If we surround our self with negative people, we will be negative as well. We can't help it. Hearing negativity all day leads us to negativity. The opposite is also true. Surround our self with positive people and we will be more positive. (Danny Gamanche, 2009)

Physical Health Connected to Mental Health Taking care of our body is a powerful first step towards Mental and Emotional Health. The mind and the body are linked. When we improve our physical health, we‘ll automatically experience greater mental and emotional well-being. For example, exercise not only strengthens our heart and lungs but also releases endorphins, powerful chemicals that energize us and lift our mood.

The activities we engage in and the daily choices we make, affect the way we feel physically and emotionally.

 Get enough rest. To have good Mental and Emotional Health, it‘s important to take care of our body. That includes getting enough sleep. Most people need seven to eight hours of sleep, each night, in order to function optimally.  Learn about good nutrition and practise it. The subject of nutrition is complicated and not always easy to put into practice. But the more we learn about what we eat and how it affects our energy and mood, the better we can feel.

 Exercise to relieve stress and lift our mood. Exercise is a powerful antidote to stress, anxiety, and depression. Look for small ways to add activity to our day, like taking the stairs instead of the elevator or going on a short walk. To get the most mental health benefits, aim for 30 minutes or more of exercise per day.

 Get a dose of sunlight every day. Sunlight lifts our mood and therefore, try to get at least 10 to 15 minutes of sun per day. This can be done while exercising, gardening, or socializing.

 Limit alcohol and avoid cigarettes and other drugs. These are stimulants that may unnaturally make us feel good in the short term but have long-term negative consequences for Emotional Health.

Tips and Strategies for Mental Health  Appeal to our senses. Stay calm and energized by appealing to the five senses: sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. Listen to music that lifts our mood, place flowers where we will see and smell them, massage our hands and feet, or sip a warm drink.  Engage in meaningful, creative work. Do things that challenge our creativity and make us feel productive, whether or not we get paid for it – things like gardening, drawing, writing, playing an instrument, or building something in our workshop.  Get a pet. Yes, pets are a responsibility, but caring for one makes us feel needed and loved. There is no love quite as unconditional as the love a pet can give. Animals can also get us out of the house for exercise and expose us to new people and places.  Make leisure time a priority. Do things for no other reason than that it feels good to do them. Go to a funny movie, take a walk on the beach, listen to music, read a good book, or talk to a friend. Doing things just because they are fun is no indulgence. Play is an emotional and mental health necessity.

 Make time for contemplation and appreciation. Think about the things we‘re grateful for. Meditate, pray, enjoy the sunset, or simply take a moment to pay attention to what is good, positive, and beautiful as we go about our day.

MUSIC THERAPY V. Venkatalakshmi

Music Therapy is an alternative form of therapeutic treatment, in which music is creatively used music to attain and maintain health and wellbeing. Individual of any age may benefit from Music Therapy Program, regardless of musical skill and background. Music Therapy may address physical, psychological, emotional, cognitive and social needs, with therapeutic relationships. It focuses on meeting therapeutic aims, which distinguishes it from musical entertainment or musical education. Music Therapy is the therapeutic application of music with proper methodologies and procedure, by trained Music Therapist, to restore, maintain or enhance the cognitive, socio, emotional and physical functioning of the normal and disabled persons of all ages.

Scientifically, many things are happening in our body while we are listening to music. While we are participating in a live music session with body movements, many parts of the brain, function in a coordinated pattern and help to enjoy the music, if we are well versed in music. The mind has the tendency to relate or identify things in known pattern and comes to a conclusion through our expressed behavior. If we let the music flow into us without getting into the nuances or intricacies of the particular piece which has been provided for the therapeutic purposes, it does wonders with the patients.

Classical Examples are found in various countries and communities. In Indian Mythology, there are Reference which indicate that the Vedic Mantras (chants) of the Rig-Veda and the Atharvaveda have curative power and many diseases are cured by chanting these Mantras. Their therapeutic effect is attributed to the fact that there are vibrations of sound at a specific level which have pronounced effects on the atmosphere and in turn affects the human beings. King Saul‘s miraculous cure from depression, from the playing of harp by David, is mentioned in the Bible. Egyptian Records relate of Priest-Physicians who resorted to musical charms in treating infertility of women. Odyssey narrates an episode testifying to the medically

 Assistant Professor of Music, Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts, Tiruchirappalli. 30

applicable power of music. Severely bleeding wound, suffered by the hero Odysseus, was stilled by a vocal chant.

These examples bring us to an important aspect of inter-twining of music, medicine, magic in the response of body and mind. a. Concept of Music Therapy: The concept of music as a part of therapy is mixed with myth, superstition, cult and religion. Music Therapy is are still in its infancy. Various theories have confirmed the existence of Music Therapy. The tonal structure of raga weaves around a hallucinating environment in which the artist expresses his feelings in a very methodical and effective manner. Due to this power of fine expression of inner feelings in a natural manner, music is considered as an important medium of therapy as any other discipline of therapy.

b. Therapeutic Use of Music Music Therapy can be used effectively as a prophylactic (preentive) measure and it can be used as an auxiliary to the main treatment after the onset of pathological conditions. If more awareness is created about the tonic effects of music, normal people will be inclined to try music for its therapeutic effects in their daily routine. The appropriate type of music helps to drive out negative feelings like despondency and loneliness. Music has a tendency to fill the mind. It creates an atmosphere of harmony and well-being.

1. One obvious use of music is that of a sedative. It can replace the administration of tranquilizers or at least reduce the dosage of tranquilizers or sleeping pills. 2. During the treatment, music helps to divert the patient‘s attention from his discomfort or pain. Most people are fearful of the Dentist‘s Chair and when they come in to have their teeth extracted, the Dentist finds it a great help to play music as diversionary tactics. In case of physiological trauma, as in war time, the right type of music diverts the mind of the patient from brooding on the horrors of past experiences. 3. Music helps in making the patient more cooperative and directs his behavior on positive lines. It is a helpful adjunct to the treatment of the maladjusted, the neurotics and others with mental and neurological problems.

4. Music has been found to stimulate motor activity and so it is used during physiotherapy for this purpose. Here music is not used for sedation but on the contrary, it is used to invigorate and stimulate the action of physiotherapy. 5. Music, when played in a room, creates a sense of security among the listeners, particularly for some patients who are afraid of either loneliness or big gathering. Their shyness is overcome and sometimes, fear from others and unknown reasons are also eliminated. c. Curative Power of Music In many tribal cultures, percussion music is often used to direct behavior and create appropriate moods. Rhythm is the organizer and it stimulates motor activities. Non-Rhythmic Music requires a longer attention span i.e. more concentration and it does not have the same excitement value. Specific Music Therapy for certain disorders has been established in this field. Blowing on the Horn improves abdominal muscle weakness. Playing on the Cello improves the working capabilities of a polio victim. Further, Piano playing improves finger co-ordination of the player and it is recommended for cerebral palsy. The blind ones are helped to have a career in music and thus gain self-esteem. Deaf Children are found to respond to rhythm and learn more through Music Therapy to control the volume of their own voice. Cripples develop co-ordination of limbs by moving them with the rhythm of music. In Geriatrics, old people feel better when they are given regular Music Therapy and so they suffer less from boredom and loneliness.

Some Scientists have experimented the effect of music. Dr.Vechkineski used symphony to cure insomnia. Dr.Eving Hunter supported the results of this experiment and found that music has good effect in reducing the body pain. Dr.Herbert Spencer experimented with people suffering from high or low blood pressure and found that fast melodies, having sharp notes, are effective in normalizing the low blood pressure while slow melodies having soft or Komal Swaras are helpful in lowering the blood pressure of the patient suffering from high blood pressure. A Russian Scientist studied the effect of music on the physiology of human body and concluded that music impacts the blood circulation and regulates the blood pressure. Usually heart beat increases or decreases depending upon the use of soft, flat or sharp notes and the use of the fast, slow or medium tempo. He also concluded that the patient, who received the music treatment, showed submissive behavior and some of them recovered fully of their diseases.

Thus, Raga-Raginis can successfully be used for the treatment of various diseases but there is a need to prepare good musicians and doctors who are expert in this discipline of therapy. Pandit Onkar Nath Thakur put to sleep Mussolini who was suffering from insomnia. On the same lines, musicians can follow this principle by using the Indian Ragas for the cure of insomnia. Indian Ragas have been assigned different moods and sentiments and they are sung according to their respective aesthetic sentiment for creating different emotional moods in the minds of the singer and the listener. The six primary Ragas are said to have particular qualities, sentiments and moods as given below:

1. Raga Hindol: The effect of this raga is to create in mind of the listener, all the sweetness and freshness of the spring season. 2. Raga Shri : This raga affects the mind and produces the effect of calmness and silence of the day approaching the evening and darkness. 3. Raga Megh Malhar : The quality of this raga is to produce the effect of approaching thunder-storm and rain. This raga has also been found to have the power of influencing clouds in times of drought. 4. Raga Deepak : This raga is said to be related to fire which can destroy the trees and animals. It can light the fire and as such creates wonder and surprise. 5. Raga Bhairav : This raga is to inspire the mind of the listener with the feeling of approaching dawn, humming insects and chirping of birds and the start of morning. 6. Raga Kaushik : The effects of this raga on the listener are known to be grave and serene.

In the Fifth Century, Matanga Muni described the intrinsic sentiments of ‗jatiragas‘ in Brihaddeshi. According to him, Raga Bhinna Shadja and Raga Bhima Pancham produce ‗Vibhasts‘ and ‗Bhayanak Rasa‘. Similarly, in Sangrit Samayasar, Acharya Parshvadev has also described the ragas having their respective sentiments of the moods. Sharngdev has described the sentiments of the ‗Gram Ragas‘ in Sangit Ratnakar and according to that, raga should be sung with the application of sentiments to be represented. On the basis of this concept, Ragas were depicted in the ‗Rag Dhyan‘ and their iconography to represent the specific mood. Thus, Music Therapy helps to enhance the lives of the wounded people in society and the whole world.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN HIGHER EDUCATION Dr. T. Govindaraj

Globalization has brought about a number of changes in various economic and social activities of the world. Movements of commodities and services from one country to another are on the increase. There are positive and negative impacts for developing countries like India. So far as education is concerned, Indian Students are seeking admission in reputed world class institutions in search of quality higher education. Indian Students are larger in number in all the premier higher education institutions of the world. The number is increasing every year. By assessing these numbers, many world class educational institutions are ready to open their education centers in India. The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) already provided the chance from 2005. Indian Higher Education prior to Independence Indian Educational System in ancient time was oriental system under Gurukula Pattern. Only privileged and well-off people could afford to learn. In 1834, T.B. Macaulay introduced a general education pattern throughout India. General Subjects like mathematics, science and social studies were taught in English at higher school level. The purpose of this pattern was to educate Indians in English to be absorbed in Government jobs.

Following this in 1857, three Universities viz Madras, Bombay and Calcutta, were started in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta Presidencies. British Rulers started three Presidency Colleges and the colleges were affiliated to the respective universities. The affiliating system, which was in practice in London University, was followed in India also. Even during the British Regime, number of colleges were started throughout the country by the Government and Missionaries. All these colleges were affiliated to the nearest universities. Universities were deciding the course pattern, period of study and curriculum. Examinations were conducted by the Universities and degrees were conferred on the successful candidates. Indian Educational System after Independence

 Reader, Department of Economics (Retd), AVVM Sri Pushpam College, Poondi.

Even after Independence, Universities and Affiliating Colleges, with multi disciplines, continued to play a significant role in the higher educational arena. For coordinating and regulating different universities, an apex body known as University Grants Commission was established. Funds are routed through UGC for all the higher education institutions. Even after six and half decades of freedom, Indian Higher Education follows the pattern that was introduced by the British Rulers. The reason why this pattern is followed without much change, is not known. Few changes were taking place in the field of Management Studies and Technology after the inauguration of Indian Institute of Management and Indian Institute of Technology. These institutions follow the ‗know how‘ method instead of ‗know-why‘ method. Realizing the importance of higher education, a separate Ministry, known as Human Resource Development Ministry, was created in the Union Government to monitor the Higher Education. Various changes were brought about in the field of Higher Education by introducing new concepts like Unitary University, Residential Universities, Deemed Universities and Specialized Universities.

The National Knowledge Commission was appointed to give suggestion to improve the quality of Higher Education. The Commission submitted its Report in 2006 and suggested 1500 Universities for India. India has a sizable percentage of population in the age group of 16-25 and the globalized world is in need of quality human resources in the fields of science, technology and medicine. India has a vast scope for Knowledge Export.

Recent Trends in Higher Education

To reduce the expenditure on Higher Education, the Government has permitted Self Financing Colleges and Universities. Like Western Countries, private institutions are having liberty to choose curriculum and improve the quality of Higher Education. Affiliating Colleges were given autonomous status to frame syllabi and conduct examinations. These institutions are encouraged to start job oriented degree and post- graduate courses. In addition, job oriented diploma and certificate courses, as add on courses are started by some institutions. Existing Colleges were accredited by professional bodies like NAAC, professional institutions like the Medical Council of India (MCI), All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), Bar 35

Council of India etc. They have started to control the respective institutions and with these efforts, there is an expansion in the field of Higher Education. Growth of institutions, 1950 2010 Teachers and Students No. of Universities 25 504

No. of Colleges 700 25951

No. of Teachers 15000 5.89 lakhs

No. of Students 1 lakh 136.42 lakhs Figures show a remarkable achievement in the field of Higher Education in the last sixty years. Present Status of Higher Education

Despite 150 years of University Education in India, not even a single University find its place in the first top 100 Universities of the world. In the first 200 Universities, our IIMs and IITs are accommodated. This shows the present status of Indian Higher Education. Only 32% Universities and 10% Colleges are accredited with ―A‖ grade. This shows that we have to take enormous care in empowering the quality of Higher Education.

The present Eleventh Five Year Plan has an objective of creating 30 Central Universities, 8 new IITs, 7 IIMs, 20 National Institutes of Technology, 20 Indian Institutes of Information Technology and 3 Indian Institutes of Science. As per the global requirements, the HRD Ministry is trying to improve the quality of Higher Education to the international standards.

The migration of Indian Students to USA and European Countries continues and the number increases every year. The hard earned foreign exchange is drained because of their migration. In addition, many Private Western Universities are opening their centres and a large number of Indian Students are joining in search of quality education.

To overcome this problem, leading educationalists suggest the implementations of the recommendations of the National Knowledge Commission, improving the quality of teachers,

changes in the teaching methods, complete change in the examination and evaluation patterns, enhancing the course contents and working hours per subject. Finally, University Administration should be free from political interference.

If the quality of Higher Education improves in India, Indian Students would prefer to join Indian Institutions. In addition, India will attract students from other countries. Indian Educational Institutions can also start their centres in foreign countries by utilizing the chances under GATS.

URBANISATION AND MODERNISATION

Dr. S. M.Suriyakumar

Introduction The Twenty First Century is reckoned as the period of Urban Millennium. Over the years, it is widely construed that cities are the primary engines of economic development and growth is said to be synonymous with urbanisation. According to the UN Population Fund Report, (―State of the World Population‖-2007), for the first time in the history of mankind, half of the people on earth would live in urban areas by 2008. The Twentieth Century had experienced tenfold multiplication in the urban population and there has been unprecedented pace of expansion of cities, especially in low and middle income countries. It is to be noted that in 1910, Europe accounted for fifty of the hundred large cities but now only ten of them belong to Europe. Asia has half of the fastest growing large cities today, with fifteen of them in China and eight in India.

Urbanisation Process

While Cities are the centres of wealth and prosperity, paradoxically they are also places of extreme poverty and inequality. The process of Urbanisation is increasingly determined by the choice of private enterprise to concentrate or avoid a location. However, the adequacy of institutions to adapt to the new changes leads to problems of alarming proportions questioning whether cities truly contribute to the well being or aggravate the misery of the people. At a time when close to one sixth of the world population living mostly in urban areas are homeless, there is an urgent need to rethink on the reliance on cities for global growth and development of nations. In the Indian context, Urbanisation is considered by many as a positive corollary to development. At the same time, it is undeniable that cities have emerged as necessary evils due to the neglect of rural areas.

Urbanisation is a complex process of change involving population concentration and socio psychological changes affecting both people and places. History abounds with numerous

 Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli. 38

instances of the role played by cities in transforming the society. Cities have been the setting for countless social, economic and political changes.

In Urban Locations, non agricultural activities become dominant. Large sections of people are engaged in manufacturing, trade, construction, transport, cultural activities, wide spectrum of services, administration etc. In course of time, the ‘urban way of life’ spreads to nearby areas, inducing rural dilution. Similarly, the diffusion of change (economic, social and technological) is transmitted beyond its own area, networking people and places. As per the ‘Tie about Hypothesis’, cities with better quality of public services, grow faster and expand in all directions.

Urban Growth: The process of industrialisation has undergone numerous dynamic changes in modern times. The optimism, hope and scope people perceive in migrating to Cities, have fueled the expansion of urbanisation worldwide. Though the reasons for urban growth may not be the same in all countries, there are certain common traits experienced by all nations. Following are some of those reasons for Urbanisation.

Agricultural Advancements: Improvements in farming techniques such as increased use of fertilizers, improved irrigation, farm mechanization, resulted in higher productivity and declining need for manual labour. Over the years, these developments rendered large rural labour force redundant. Consequently, surplus rural labour migrate to the cities looking for greener pastures.

Industrialisation During the last three centuries, the phenomenal expansion in manufacturing as a consequence of Industrial Revolution is the prime engine of modern industrial growth world over. The availability of infrastructural facilities has provided impetus for clustering of industries in cities. The agglomeration based economies of large scale production have given rise to huge industrial edifices in the cities, employing thousands of laborers.

Market Forces: The widening activities and generation of income contributes to readymade markets for consumer goods, giving further scope for new industries. This in turn requires more labour, ultimately enhancing the potential of the market. Thus a ‗Snowball Effect‘ is set in motion. The Urban Growth becomes self sustaining. Moreover, the need to link industries and their growing interdependence, leads to communication and transport development.

Growth of Services The need to meet the diversified needs of the population reaches new highs, with proliferation of retailing at various levels, for both capital and consumer goods. The growing population also needs catering and entertainment facilities and more people are attracted towards a wide range of services activities.

Improvements in Transport and Communication Larger the population, greater the need for transport and communication. The mobility of people contributes to the establishment of Towns along the major routes of transport. The expansion of Railways and Road Transport complemented Industrial Revolution in many countries. The consequent Urbanisation caused further dispersal of Towns and transformation of Villages as well.

Towns as Socio-Cultural Centres The emergence of Towns, as locations of entertainment, draws people from far off places, who long for the urban way of life. The widening opportunities provide scope for cultural activities and the possibility of success in many walks of life, luring people to the cities.

Natural Population Increase: In recent times, immigration has become a major cause of Urban Growth. Since most of the immigrants are of the fertile age group, they play a vital role in increasing the birth rates of the Urban Population. It is noted that at the turn of the Millennium, the migration in China has crossed 14m/year and 10m/year in India.

In the developing countries, the pace of indurtrialisation has been faster than in developed countries. While the annual urban growth is 0.8 per cent in industrialized nations, it is 3.6 per cent in the developing nations. It is estimated that by 2025, close to 57 per cent of the population

in developing countries will live in cities and 486 of 639 metros (million plus) in 2025, will be in developing countries.

The Patterns and Trends

The urban renewal of rehabilitation and conservation re-development has caused a metamorphosis of the Urban Landscape today and they result in an ever-changing transformation of the cities.

Suburbanization The notable trend in Urbanisation of the Twentieth Century, especially in the Capitalist Nations, was the expansion of the Suburbs around the edges of major towns and cities. Suburbanization is the result of migration of people from the city centre to the outskirts to escape the drawbacks of urban life. Improvements in transport facilities encourage people to live away from their workplace and commute everyday from home to job location inside the town. The ‗ribbon settlements,‘ along the major roads leading to the towns, are the first to evolve and developed due to their accessibility. But in course of time, the demand for Suburban Homes causes the lands in the hinterland of the Ribbon Settlements also to be developed so as to meet the demand. Rich people move to the outskirts in view of the expanse of the possible living space in the suburban vicinity. Gentrification: In contrast to the Suburbanization is the urge for people, mostly the middle income and high income groups, to move back to the central places of the City and it is referred to Gentrification. The conveniences and the increasing transit time from home to office owing to traffic congestion, besides many social reasons, are causes of Gentrification the extent of which differs widely among nations. Conurbations and Megapolis: The huge urban sprawls, containing more than five million people, have been sometimes called Conurbations (UK) and Megapolis (USA). They emerge by the spatial merging of two or more cities, along major transport corridor. Polynuclear Conurbation (Polycentric) results from the fusion of cities and many district towns. Uninuclear (Monocentric) Conurbation results from the expansion of a single City.

In the case of developing nations, Urbanisation involves a larger number of people, a large number of them with low levels of life expectancy at birth, poor nutritional levels and low

levels of education. Migration is more rapid, with industrialization lagging behind the rate of urbanisation. Most migrants find only marginal employment. Massive slum areas of Transitional Settlements characterize the large cities of developing nations. Unlike the developed nations of today wherein early modern urbanisation was closely linked to industrial activity, in the developing nations, there has been a larger inevitable role to administration in the Urban Expansion.

Urbanisation in India

The earliest traces of Urbanisation in India dates back to 2350 B.C, with the development of Indus Valley (Mohenjo Daro & Harappa) and the adjoining locations of Rajastan, Punjab extending to Western Uttar Pradesh. Cities of this period flourished for more than 600 years. The next spurt of Urbanisation evolved after a thousand years. This second phase began around 600 B.C and it was associated with the Aryan and Dravidian Cultural Groups. This phase signified the rise and fall of many dynasties and kingdoms across the nation. Ayodhya, Kasi, Surat, Ujjain, Puhar, Uraiyur, Madurai, Kanchi were some of the prominent Towns of this period.

The third urban expansion occurred during the Medieval Period (600 -1800 A.D), Delhi, Agra, Ahmedabad, Lahore, Cambay, Lucknow, Raipur, Chittagang, Midnapur, Hyderabad, Bijapur, Belur, Nellore, Golconda, Pune, Hampi, Kumbakonam, Tiruchirapalli, Cuddalore, flourished in this period. The fourth phase of Indian Urban Development, under the Colonial Rule, took place during 1800-1947A.D. The Europeans entered India during the Moghal Period. Portuguese were the first to enter. They established towns like Panai (1510) and Bombay (1532). The Dutch set up Machulipattinam (1605) and Nagapattinam (1658). The British established Madras (1639), Calcutta (1690). The last European, the French, established Surat (1668), Pondicherry (1673) and Chandranagore (1690). The ultimate British Supremacy accelerated Urbanisation across the country. The creation of British Metropolitan Cities, Cantonments, Hill Stations, and more importantly, the Railway Expansion widened the process of Urbanisation all over the country.

The Urban Development in Independent India has been rapid. The proportion of Urban Population to total population was less than 18 percent in 1951 but in 2011, this proportion has crossed 30 percent. The rehabilitation of refugees, in 14 model towns, creation of New State Capitals, establishment of Industrial Towns, triggered further Urbanisation. It is also notable that while Metropolitan Cities experienced substantial expansion, there has been stagnation and decline of small towns. The unabated construction boom in cities and the growth of slums, exist side by side. The opening up of the economy, emergence of Industrial Corridors, Super High Ways, and Internet Explosion also has contributed to Massive Urbanisation in the country.

Definition and Classification:

In the Indian context, an Urban Location is defined as a place with a population of 5000 and above, with a population density of 1000 per square mile; 75 percent of the workforce should not be engaged in agriculture and there must be provision of public utilities by the administration in the area. The following is the classification to determine the various levels of urbanisation: 1.Class I : 100000 population(CITY) 2.Class II : 50000 - 99999 3.Class III : 20000 - 49999 4.Class IV : 10000 - 19999 5.Class V : 5000 - 9999

Problems: Though the contribution of urban areas to the growth of the nation is irrefutable, there have also been multiple increases in the problems in the last sixty years. Excessive Size - Hyperurbanisation Overcrowding - no scope to expand - Aerial Expansion Shortage of Urban Services; transport, water, health, sanitation ….. Slums & Squatter Settlements – high infant mortality, poor health of children Housing Problem – Half a million residents in Kolkatta sleep the night in streets Widening Socio-Economic Gap – Most of the people of ‗Near-poverty‘ live in Urban India Social Issues (Mounting Crime) – second class status to foreigners in Middle East Lack of Social Responsibility

Environmental Degradation; outside resources-use/misuse/abuse and flush out –waste accumulation Emerging Trends: Urbanisation in INDIA: 28%; Chandigarh (Union Territory): 90%; Lowest: Himachal Pradesh: 10%; Highest: Tamil Nadu: 44% Repealing of Urban Ceiling Act in 1999 accelerated Urbanisation 100 percent FDI (allowed since 05-06) in property development, hotels, resorts, hospitals, housing projects, public-private participation in Urban Development has also facilitated Urban Expansion in India. IT Hubs: Bangaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai, Pune - Accumulation of higher level human capital. Issues: Urban Poverty Housing Deficit: 24m shortage (2007) Weak Governance to solve social & environmental challenges Problem of Escalating Rent Crimes & Encounters Traffic Congestions Resource Inadequacy

Modernisation:

Phenomenal changes in all aspects of life. Acceleration of change in the last 300 years- example of transportation-8 miles/hr camel caravan (6000BC) – Steam Loco of 13m/hr (1825) to 4000miles/hr Jet (A.Toffler)

Service Workers & Knowledge Workers – Innovation & Efficiency (P.Drucker) Quick Spread of New Knowledge, Converging Global Lifestyle, Essential Requirement: Adaptability.

Conclusion: Recent studies have projected that approximately 350 million Indians will move to Urban Areas in India and this number may reach 700 million by 2050. Therefore, there is a compelling need to create 500 New cities to accommodate the huge number of migrants. Otherwise every existing City will become a slum in the near future. It is stated that by 2020, India will be facing a housing shortage of 30 million dwelling units, 200 million water connections and 350 million people will have to be provided with access to sewage.

Cities are certainly the centres of growth, innovation and creativity. In a sense, it is not countries but cities which compete for resources and investment. Unless innovative measures are taken, it will not be possible to ensure Sustainable Urbanisation. In this context, India has to introduce an Integrated Urban Management System which includes effective pollution control, recycling, use of reclaimed water, reduction in waste generation.etc. Better Governance is the need of the hour.

DEPRESSED CLASS PEOPLE ENROLMENT SCENARIO IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN OVERVIEW Dr. A. Xavior Selvakumar Introduction It is little more than half a century since the Government initiated a planned development of higher education in the country, particularly with the establishment of University Grants Commission in 1953. Thus early fifties is an important reference point from which we could look back at our progress of higher education. It is necessary to recognize that the present approach towards higher education is governed by the ―National Policy on Education‖ of 1986 and Program of Action of 1992, The 1986 Policy and Action Plan of 1992 were based on the two land mark Reports, namely, the ―University Education Commission‖ of 1948-49 (popularly known as Radhakrishnan Commission), and the ―Education Commission‖ of 1964-66, (popularly known as Kothari Commission Report). These two landmark Reports, in fact, laid down the basic framework for the National Policy for Higher Education in the country. The National Policy on Higher Education of 1986 translated this vision of Radhakrishnan and Kothari Commission into five principles of Higher Education, which include Greater Access, Equal Access (or equity), Quality and Excellence, Relevance and Promotion of Social Values. The policy directions and actions covered in 1992, ―Program of Action‖, have been developed to translate these goals into practice. It is to be remembered that education, particularly Higher Education in India, has been charged with the responsibility of providing suitably trained man-power and for generation as well of transfer of knowledge required for the country to keep pace with the technological advances in the developed countries of the world. Higher Education in Independent India is expected to develop, within a few decades, knowledge and capabilities of a quality level that the Developed Countries took over two centuries to reach. But the task seems to be difficult because of the ―massification‖ of Higher Education, the burden of the Policy of Reservation, and the Inadequacy of Resources to maintain and upgrade facilities as needed.

 Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, TBML College, Porayar, Nagapattinam.

Under such circumstances, surprisingly, the Supreme Court of India on April 10th, 2008, in its landmark judgment in Ashok Kumar Thakur Vs Union of India & others, upheld the Government move for initiating 27 per cent OBC quota in all government funded institutions, including institutions of Higher Education. As a result of this, the Government is now in a position to reserve upto 49.5 per cent of the seats in all Central Universities, prestigious Professional Schools, and Elite Colleges, such as the Indian Institute of Technology (IITs), Indian Institute of Management (IIMs), National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) and Government Medical Colleges etc. Higher Education is considered throughout the world to be the key to both individual and societal aspirations. For individuals, education beyond the secondary level is assumed to be the way to social esteem, better paying jobs, expanded life options, intellectual stimulation and frequently a good time in the pursuit of any or all of the above. For societies, Higher Education is assumed to be the key to technology, productivity and other ingredients of international competitiveness and economic growth. It is believed to be a major engine of social justice, equal opportunity and democracy. The number of Universities has increased from 20 in 1947 to about 357 in 2005, indicating a thirteen-fold increase. There are now 20 Central Universities, 217 State Universities, 106 Deemed to be Universities, and 13 Institutes of National Importance established through Central Legislation and five Institutions established through State Legislation. The number of colleges increased from 500 in 1947 to 17,625 in 2005, indicating twenty-six-fold increase. In the spheres of technical education by 2004, we had about 1265 engineering and technology collages, 320 pharmacies, 107 Architecture, 40 hotel management, making a total of about 1749 institutions. In respect of post graduate educational institutions, there are 958 MBA/PGDM Institutes and 1034 MCA Programmes by 2004. Enrolment - Aggregate level The extent of higher education is generally measured by enrolment ratio in Higher Education. Three alternative methods are used to estimate the extent of access to Higher Education, namely, Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) and Enrolment of Eligible Ratio (EER)

Three alternative sources, namely, Selected Education Statistics (SES), National Sample Survey (NSS) and Population Census (PC) provide data on the number of student enrolment.

In 1950-5, the enrolment rate was 0.7 per cent, which increased to 1.4 per cent in 1960- 61. By early 2000, the GER based on the SES was eight per cent. The NSS and PC arrived at enrolment ratio of about ten per cent and 14 per cent respectively. Thus the SES data under reports gross enrolment rate by 4-5 per cent. For 2003/4 the GER worked out to nine per cent, 13.22 per cent and 14.48 per cent respectively. Enrolment in different groups After having assessed the progress at aggregate level, we now look at the progress with respect to certain groups and reflect on the situation with respect to inter-group disparities of multiple natures. The present paper allows us to study the disparities between (a) rural and urban. There are significant disparities in enrolment ratio between rural and urban area. In 2003/4, the GER for rural and urban area was 7.76 per cent and 27.20 per cent respectively-GER in urban area being four times higher compared with rural area. The population census came up with the GER of 8.99 per cent for rural area and 24.52 per cent for urban area in 2001 - the GER in rural area being all most one third compared with the urban area. The EER worked out to 51.1 per cent for rural and 66 per cent for urban area-latter being higher by about 15 per cent points.

Table -1

Table -2

The Action Plan of 1992 included schemes and programs which were directed towards expansion of intake capacity in general, and that of the disadvantaged groups such as the poor, SC, ST, minorities, girls, the physically challenged persons, and those in the educationally

backward regions, in particular. This Schemes / Programmers were designed to improve the quality through strengthening academic and physical infrastructure, to promote excellence in those institutions which have exhibited potential for excellence, and to develop curriculum to inculcate right values among the youth. The enrolment ratio in rural area compared with urban area was low in some States. It is particularly low among the ST, SC, OBC compared with higher caste. The enrolment is low among female compared with male. Among the religious groups, the enrolment is lower among the Muslim and Hindus compared with Jain, Sikh and Christian. The enrolment is also low among the poor and particularly low among person engaged in wage labor, household as compared with those engaged in business as self employed. Thus the group which suffered most from lack of access to higher education is SC, ST, OBC and Muslim in general, but particularly the female from this group engaged as the wage labourers in rural and urban areas. Among all them, however the poor from these groups suffered most. Among the SC, ST, Muslim, female and wage labor, those from rural area are the worst sufferers. Therefore there is need for comprehensive policy of inclusiveness, which will to reduce disparity among them. Given the uniqueness of each of these groups, it is necessary that the constrains of each of these group are addressed separately and group specific policies and schemes are developed to bring them on part with others. Table -3

Table - 4

Table -5

Conclusion Education is an important segment of our economy. Education in India is seen as one of the ways to attain upward social mobility. Good Education is seen as a stepping stone to a high flying career. Education System in India currently represents a great paradox. On the one hand, we have IIMs & IITs that rank among the best institutes in the world and on the other hand, there

are number of schools in the country that don't even have the basic infrastructure. Even after more than fifty years after independence, we are far from the goal of Universal Literacy. But on a positive note, Indian Professionals are considered among the best in the world and they are in great demand. This signifies the inherent strength of Indian Education System. The Indian Education System contains lot of hurdles such as gender partialities, higher fees, theoretical teaching method, system of valuation, corruption and so on. The Government should take necessary action to remove these hurdles.

Reference

Ministry of Human Resource Development Report (1986), ―National Policy on Education‖ Government of India. Ministry of Human Resource Development (1986), ― National Policy on Education –1986— Programme of Action‖, Government of India. University Grant Commission Report (1992), ―National Policy on Education –1986 -With Modifications Undertaken in 1992‖, Government of India. Ministry of Higher Education in India Report (1992), ―Program of Action –National Policy on Education 1986 – Revised 1992‖, Government of India. University Grant Commission Report 2008, 2009 and 2010

NEW MODES OF INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL

Vidya Antony Introduction

Information Storage and Retrieval is the systematic process of collecting and cataloging data so that they can be located and displayed on request. Computers and data processing techniques have made possible the high-speed, selective retrieval of large amounts of information for government, commercial, and academic purposes. Microfilms, micro-card, micro opaque etc., were popular library resources a few years ago. These microforms are now replaced gradually by electronic media, namely, Electronic Books (E-books), Electronic Journal (E- journals), Electronic Theses and Dissertation (ETDS) etc.

Information Technology is an ensemble of three components, namely, Computer Technology, Communication Technology and Information Science. Librarians belong to the third component though computer scientists believe that they are the sole proprietors of IT. The role of the librarian seems to be diminishing. The chaos resulting from the net, leading to unwieldiness of information is the result of the dominance of computer technology, continuously ignoring the role and participation of the librarians. These are points would put the digital library on a perfect track.

Modes of Information Storage There are several basic types of information-storage-and-retrieval systems. Document- Retrieval Systems store entire documents, which are usually retrieved by title or by key words associated with the document. In some systems, the text of documents is stored as data. This permits full text searching, enabling retrieval on the basis of any word in the document. In others, a digitized image of the document is stored, usually on a write-once optical disc. Database Systems store the information as a series of discrete records that are, in turn, divided into discrete fields (e.g., name, address, and phone number) and records can be searched and retrieved on the basis of the content of the fields (e.g., all people who have a particular

 Librarian, Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts, Tiruchirappalli. 53

telephone area code). The data are stored within the computer, either in main storage or auxiliary storage, for ready access. Reference-Retrieval Systems store Reference to documents rather than the documents themselves. Such systems, in response to a search request, provide the titles of relevant documents and frequently their physical locations. Such systems are efficient when large amounts of different types of printed data must be stored. They have proven extremely effective in libraries where material is constantly changing. In a relatively short period of time, electronic resources have expanded from a few dozen computerized bibliographies and databases to include the overwhelming information available on the Internet. Use of electronic resources has moved from accessing online databases to World Wide Web with a high speed multimedia personal computer that has more power than the early main frame computers. The following are the various modes of information storage: 1. E-Journal 2. E-book 3. Database 4. Electronic Thesis and Dissertation 5. E-Magazine 6. E-Archives 7. WWW 8. Electronic Reference Sources 9. E - newspaper

E-Journals An e-journal (electronic journal) is a journal published online. Electronic Journals are scholarly journals or magazines that can be accessed via electronic transmission. It is a very important source for the scientific research and development. E-journals are becoming vital to carry on any meaningful research. This resource is widely used by R& D workers and other users of the libraries to carry out day-to-day qualitative research and organize education and knowledge. It is simultaneously accessed by more than one user. It provides quick access and supports searching capabilities. It links to related items and saves physical

storage space. It contains multimedia information. It does not require physical processing. Other advantages are ease of downloading, on-line submission (article), wider dissemination, security, automatic alerting service, access to Non-Subscribed Materials (open Access) and so on.

E-Journal appeared during 1974 but became popular in 1996. E-journals are available on CD-Rom and a few may be available both in electronic media and in print. E-Books Publishing a book in electronic format is a quick publication and easy for storing, retrieving and disseminating of information. E-book or electronic book are a computer file format and read on all types of computers. The story writer, Stephen King was the first person who published his book in the electronic format. E-Books can be as familiar as their print counterparts or as unique as the electronic medium itself, containing audio, video, SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) and HTML or live hyper links.

2.3. E-Databases With the emergence of computers and communication technologies, the strength of information system in the development of modern database has taken a new shape. The information originating from a database has become a large segment of electronic publishing that provides a foundation for procedures such as retrieving information, drawing conclusions and taking decisions. The holdings of the library database consisting of books, periodicals, reports and theses can be converted into electronic form that allows access for public use through digital networks. Nowadays various electronic publishers account for publishing information with bibliographic and full text on CD-ROM‘s as well as making them available for online retrieval.

Databases are keys to find primary sources. They are abstracting and indexing databases (bibliographic databases), citation databases. Digital collections (images, audio, video), equipment/product catalogues, scientific data sets (numeric, property, structural databases), library catalogues (including union catalogues), museum and archives and virtual libraries.

ETD Electronic Theses and Dissertation are popularly known as ETD, which is a digitized version of unconventional theses and dissertation. ETD has unique features. Huge number of ETD is found in internet and intranet atmosphere. The Electronic Theses and Dissertations includes selected English-language articles, books, conference papers, technical reports, unpublished e-prints and other scholarly textual sources that are useful in understanding electronic theses and dissertations. The bibliography does not cover digital media works (such as MP3 files), editorials, e-mail messages, interviews, letters to the editor, news articles, presentation slides or transcripts, or web log postings. Where possible, links are provided to e-prints in disciplinary archives and institutional repositories for published articles. Note that e-prints and published articles may not be identical. E-Periodicals E-Periodicals is a new medium, which is a vehicle for scientific communication and it is purely a product of scientific research. This includes E-news letters, E-magazine and discussion list. Online Magazines: Online Magazine shares some features with a blog and also with online newspapers, but can usually be distinguished by its approach to editorial control. Online Magazines that are part of the World Wide Web, that is, all or part of a website are sometimes called webzines. An ezine is a more specialized term appropriately applied to small magazines and newsletters distributed by any electronic method, for example, by electronic mail. Some social groups may use the terms cyberzine and hyperzine while referring to electronically distributed resources. Similarly, some online magazines may refer to themselves as "electronic magazines" to reflect their readership demographics or to capture alternative terms and spellings in online searches. Many large print-publishers now provide digital reproduction of their print magazine titles through various online services for a fee. These service providers also refer to their collections of these digital format products as online magazines, and sometimes as digital magazines. Online Magazines representing matters of interest to specialists in or societies for academic subjects, science, trade or industry are typically referred to as Online Journals.

Electronic Reference Sources A number of reference sources are available on the internet. Encyclopedia, Dictionaries, Bibliographies, Geographical Reference Sources are available on the net. Besides the above, catalogues of various institutions called, ‗Web Cats‘ are available on the net.

Online Newspaper Online Newspaper or Web Newspaper is a newspaper that exists on a world wide website either separately or as an online version of a printed periodical. Online Newspapers are much like hardcopy newspapers and have the same legal boundaries, such as laws regarding legal privacy and copyright. Going online created more opportunities for newspapers, such as competing with broadcast journalism in presenting breaking news in a more timely manner. In India, major newspapers went online to provide latest and most updated news from them. Some newspapers even provide E-Paper which is regarded as the digital replica of the newspaper.

Gateway: Gateway is either hardware or software that acts as a bridge between two networks so that data can be transferred between a number of computers. For example, when you send an e-mail to a friend or when you log in to a Web site, there is a gateway that allows the connection to take place. Often, your connection to a Web site will involve many smaller connections to other servers along the way. In these cases, a number of gateways are used. A Gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the Internet, a node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point) node. Both the computers of Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are Host Nodes. The Subject Gateways, which give subject based information in a particular discipline, redirect a user to the site holding the material. The web, being a hypermedia-based system, allows linking amongst electronic resources stored on servers dispersed geographically on distant locations. The Portal Sites or Gateways redirect a user to the holders of the original digital resources. The librarians, being the earliest inhabitants on the Web, and following their professional instincts, immediately began to create link to collections on all sorts of subjects.

Subject Gateways are also known as Subject-Based Information Gateways (SBIGs), Subject-Based Gateways, Subject Index Gateways, Virtual Libraries, Clearing Houses, Subject Trees, Pathfinders and other variants. Subject Gateway is an important component of a library website designed for library users so as to help them discover high-quality information on the Internet in a quick and effective way.

Conclusion Automated Information Retrieval Systems are used to reduce what has been called "information overload". Library and Information Centers are providing numerous types of information resources and services. Information Storage Mode is changing with the passage of time. The global network internet has brought forth new dimension to libraries of modern digital world. With the latest technology, modern library users are also keen to extract billions of bytes of information pin-pointedly, exhaustively and expeditiously.

Reference 1. Malwad. N.M. et al., Digital Libraries: dynamic storehouse of digitized information: New Delhi. New Age international, 1996. 2. Jagdish Argora – Web based digital resources and services: Trends and innovations. Caliber- 2001 pune:185-211. 3. Gupta, K.K-and Gupta, P.K. E-books: A New Media for libraries: Ed.H. Anil kumar 2002 Caliber; Ahedabad, p.385. 4. Harsha Parekh, Information Management: trends and issue impact of digitization on development of informational professionals. New Delhi, pp 440-443. 5. Mounisamy P. and Swaroop Rani B.S. Evaluation of usage and usability of electronic journals. SRELS journal information management, vol.42 (2), June 2005. Pp. 189-205. 6. Levy, D.M., and Marshall, c.C.1994. Going Digital: a look at assumptions underlying digital libraries. Communications of the ACM 38(4). 7. Brewster Kahle. ―Preserving the Internet‖. Scientific American, March 1997. 8. A. Ishikawa, Future Computer and Information Systems (1986).

UNIVERSITY INDUSTRY COLLABORATION: NEED FOR GLOBAL IMPROVEMENT Gangatharan Muralitharan Introduction

Knowledge has become a critical resource in the present globalized economy. There are several new modes and new players in the creation and dissemination of knowledge. Educational Institutions have a significant role to play in this context, but in a vastly different manner. Partnership between the Industry and Institute is one of the important subjects discussed often in the field of higher education and research (Verga, 2000). This interaction has been in place in one form or the other for more than a century, be it industrial extension service, cooperative education, equipment donation, consultancy, exchange of personnel, research programmes, etc. Research Parks, Innovation Centres, Interactive Centres, Faculty Development Bodies were established mainly in the West (Hall et al., 2003). According to a Survey in Europe, the volume of contract research in Europe was above that of the US for the year 2005. It amounted to €2.8 billion in Europe, compared to €2.1 billion in the US. The Survey Researchers report that Europe has traditionally had a collaborative approach to research, based on smaller industrial companies (Cohen and Levinthal, 1989).

There are several ways of promoting and nurturing such partnerships (Cohen et al., 1998). At present, the following benefits for higher education institutions are perceived from stronger collaboration with enterprises, both in developed and developing countries:  opportunity to attract additional funds for teaching and research, increasing financial autonomy for higher education institutions;  co-operative research with enterprises/industries;  acquisition of or access to modern equipments & facilities;  opportunities for staff and students to familiarise with the state of the art technology and management systems and enhancement of the awareness of the challenges in industry;

 Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620 024,

improved interface between higher education institutions and industries for the development and adaptation of technology oriented degree programmes;  improved training and employment prospects for students

Indian Context India has the largest number of higher education institutions in the world, with nearly 382 universities and 45,000 colleges. For Indian Higher Education to become world class, some global practices are very much needed. University Industry Collaboration is in the best interest of both University and Industry. Industry can get greater returns and solutions for their problems at a lower cost, while the university infrastructure can be updated and upgraded. A lot of research in the academia is without focus either conceptually or practically. If the industry can fund and entrust research to the University, greater output would be possible. Academics will take up problem solutions, along with conceptual wrangling. The following Table illustrates the mechanisms of University – Industry Linkages.

Modality Group Type of Activity Description of Linkage Activity Cooperative education Students practical training in Industry, curriculum development Continuing education Seminars/Workshops (also in industry) on new technologies Training, Education Small business training Addressing issues of concern to small or nascent entrepreneurs Visiting Lecturerships Companies provide part-time staff to teach and update professional subjects Industrial extension services Testing, calibration, repair services, simple design modifications Services, Consulting Technology Assistance in obtaining, brokerage/licensing licensing and introducing (new) technologies

Consulting/services Design, manufacturing, maintenance schedules, servicing equipments Coordination of technology Through inter-organizational issues entities as technology councils or units Research consulting Research carried out for a company with specific terms Joint or cooperative research Often carried out in projects dedicated laboratories, centres or institutes Research Partnership contracts Long-term agreement between university and company Personnel interchange or Supervising/conducting joint industrial fellowship research projects (including theses)

The globalization and liberalization of economy has brought the industries and the institutions together for technology development. Within the context of knowledge-intensive societies, University-industry Linkages have become very prominent on the agenda of higher education policy-making (Meyer-Krahmer and Schmoch, 1998). Governments are increasingly acknowledging the importance of higher education institutions as strategic actors in national and regional economic development, given their potential to upgrade knowledge within the labour force and to contribute to product and process innovation through technology transfer. As a result of increased financial stringency, higher education institutions themselves have become very keen on developing relations with industry and business (Cohen et al., 2002; Colyvas et al., 2002).

Role of Indian Funding Agencies: Upon request from the Government of India, UNESCO New Delhi Office has developed a concept paper on ―Strategies for a University-industry Co-operative Programme in Science, Technology and Engineering in India during 1996‖, funded by UNDP New Delhi, which served as a basic document for developing new policy in this area. The Government has also been funding projects on Mission Mode for technology development, with the industry sharing part of 61

the funding and also commercializing the technology. Government funding agencies such as the Department of Science & Technology, also insist, on industry participation in the projects taken up by universities and institutions. The S & T Policy 2003 has proposed to promote such interactions (Ganguli, 2005).

The formation of the Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) by the Government of India, has also helped in identifying and assessing the status of technologies and development of indigenous technologies suited to the Indian conditions. Venture Capital Agencies and other financial institutions also promote the interaction between Industry and Institutions. The Ministry of Human Resource Development encourages institutions to work in thrust and frontier areas of technology by augmenting the facilities of the Educational Institutions to carry out the R&D work.

Science and Technology Policy 2003, Government of India Industry and Scientific R&D Every effort will be made to achieve synergy between industry and scientific research. Autonomous Technology Transfer Organizations will be created as associate organizations of Universities and National Laboratories to facilitate transfer of the know-how generated, to Industry. Increased encouragement will be given and flexible mechanisms will be evolved to help scientists and technologists to transfer the know-how generated by them to the Industry and be a partner in receiving the financial returns. Industry will be encouraged to financially adopt or support educational and research institutions, fund courses of interest to them, create professional chairs etc., in order to help direct S&T endeavours towards tangible industrial goals. There has to be increased investments by Industry in R&D in its own interest to achieve global competitiveness to be efficient and relevant. Efforts by Industry to carry out R&D, either in- house or through outsourcing, will be supported by fiscal and other measures. To increase their investments in R&D, innovative mechanisms will be evolved. Biotechnology Industry Partnership Programme (BIPP) The Government of India in November, 2008 approved the implementation of a Public Private Partnership Scheme for promoting innovation in research in the Biotech Sector. This BIPP program was launched in January, 2009.

The BIPP is a government partnership with industries for public support on a cost sharing basis for: i. Path-breaking research in frontier, futuristic technology areas, having major economic potential and making Indian Industry globally competitive and focused on IP creation, with ownerships by Indian Industry and where relevant, collaborating scientists. ii. The development of appropriate technologies in the context of recognized national priorities in the area of agricultural, health, bioenergy, green manufacturing, when the scale of the problem has serious consequence for social and economic development.

University Industry Collaboration in Bharathidasan University In Bharathidasan University, the Centre for University Industry Collaboration (CUIC) was established, with the primary focus on the following domains, namely, Campus Placement for UG and P.G Degree Students, Interaction between University and Industry, and Training Programmes for Students on Core Competency Development such as employability skills, awareness on employment avenues etc (http://www.bdu.ac.in/cuic.php). Functions of CUIC includes.. i. Campus Placement of Students ii. Industrial Associateship Scheme (IAS) iii. Industrial Training iv. Academic Interface Program with Industries

Business Development Cell (BDU-BDC)

In consonance with the current view that Institutions of Higher Learning should open out to global competition and move towards self-sustenance through external cash flow, an independent unit called Bharathidasan University Business Development Centre (BDU-BDC) was established.

In the last three decades, significant changes have been brought into Research and Development in Universities of India. Not only do the Universities look for greater generation of funding resources to sustain their research activities as funding from Government Sources have significantly dwindled but also the Universities have been motivated towards the service of the 63

society around them. Consequently, the researchers have been forced to ―sell‖ their knowledge and research outputs through Consultancy and Transfer of Technologies, which they have developed, to the needy industries. At the same time, this provided an avenue for transfering scientific developments to the society.

Since the individual scientists did not have the required time and expertise to facilitate the above activities, an organisational set-up was mandatorily required. In Bharathidasan University, this was taken care of by the Business Development Centre (BDU-BDC) since the year 2002. Although Bharathidasan University has been in the service of society for nearly three decades and has made a mark in the global map through academic excellence, in the present era of economic revolution, Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and World Trade Organisations (WTO), the establishment of Business Development Centre was a welcome one not only to create but also to protect the IPR of the constituent scientists. The activity of this Centre is splicing academic and users of scientific outputs of the university. The technologies related to process and product development generated from the University are to be transferred to the users. Within a span of four years, the BDC has persyaded many reputed Industries / Institutions to sign the MoU with the University on various aspects. The BDC is designed to function with a band of dedicated scientific and technocrats, drawn from technology providers/financial institutions and industries. The Advisory Council (AC) consists of not more than 18 members representing University Faculty, Research Institutes, Medicine, Patent Office, Industries, Business Establishments and Banks, with the Vice-Chancellor as its Chairman and the Co-Co-Ordinator as its Member Secretary. There is an Executive committee (EC) to assist the Co-Ordinator and it consist‘s of four members from Heads of Departments and four other members representing the University, as nominated by the Vice-Chancellor (http://www.bdu.ac.in/sbe/bdc/).

Conclusion It was observed that industries are increasingly becoming R&D oriented, probably because they are aware of the need to be innovative to survive in the competitive environment. In recent years, a key concern for policy-makers has been how to ensure that the wealth of

knowledge generated within Universities can be transferred to Industry so that society in general, and local businesses in particular, can benefit from university scientific and technological expertise (MacPherson, 1998). The realization that important research results would not reach society as a result of bottlenecks in the commercialization of university research results, led to increasing interest in finding the most adequate frameworks to promote University-Industry Partnerships for the transfer of technology. Reference Cohen, W. M., and Levinthal, D. A. ―Innovation and Learning: The Two Faces of R&D.‖ The Economic Journal 99 (No. 397 1989): 569-96. Cohen, W. M., Florida, R., Randazzese, L., and Walsh, J. ―Industry and the Academy: Uneasy Partners in the Cause of Technological Advance.‖ In Roger Noll (ed.), Challenges to Research Universities. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, pp. 171-99, 1998. Cohen, W. M., Nelson, R. R., and Walsh, J. ―Links and Impacts: The Influence of Public Research on Industrial R&D.‖ Management Science 48 (No. 1 2002): 1-23. Colyvas, J., Crow, M., Celijns, A., Mazzoleni, R., Nelson, R. R., Rosenberg, N., and Sampat, B. ―How Do University Inventions Go Into Practice?‖ Management Science 48 (No. 1 2002): 61-72. Ganguli, P., Development of University-Industry Partnerships for the Promotion of Innovation and Transfer of Technology: India (2005). Hall, B. H., Link, A. N., and Scott, J. T. ―Universities as Research Partners.‖ Review of Economics and Statistics 85 (No. 2 2003): 485-91. MacPherson, A. D. ―Academic-industry Linkages and Small Firm Innovation: Evidence from the Scientific Instruments Sector.‖Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 10 (No. 4 1998): 261-76. Meyer-Krahmer, F., and Schmoch, U. ―Science-Based Technologies: University-Industry Interactions in Four Fields.‖ Research Policy 27 (No. 8 1998): 835-52. Varga, A. ―Local Academic Knowledge Transfers and the Concentration of Economic Activity.‖ Journal of Regional Science 40 (No. 2 2000): 289-309.

TEAM BUILDING FOR EFFECTIVE IMPACT G. Sugapriya Introduction

Team Building Activities are stimulating problem-solving tasks, designed to help group members develop their capacity to work effectively together. Many Team Building Tasks are like kids games while others are novel, complex tasks, and designed for specific needs.

Team Building Activities are often used in meetings, presentations, workshops, training seminars, education programs, corporate training, with college, high, middle, elementary and pre-school school groups, sport teams, teacher training, youth work, and in therapeutic and correctional settings. Team Building Exercises can be adapted for virtually any setting, young or old, large or small, and across cultures.

Much depends on the role played by a Facilitator. Different Team Building Activities facilitated in different ways, with different groups, can and will lead to a wide variety of different experiences and different outcomes. In the hands of an excellent Facilitator, even the simplest game can become a significant experience for participants while with a poor instructor, even the well designed activity can go awry.

An important part of Team Building Exercises is participants' reflection and discussion about the activity, how they approached the situation, and possible points of learning. This is the processing stage of the experience. The idea of any Team Building Activity is to transfer the learning experience to other parts of our lives.

What is Team Building? Team Building refers to the various activities undertaken to motivate the team members and increase the overall performance of the team. You just can not expect your team to perform

 Lecturer, Department of Business Administration, Sri Bharathi Arts & Science College for Women, Kaikuruchi, Pudukkottai.

on their own. A motivating factor is a must. Team Building activities consist of various tasks undertaken to groom a team member, motivate him and make him perform his best.

Characteristics of a Good/Effective Team Success in the workplace depends on your ability to build a team, as well as to interact with others on that team. Together, people are able to accomplish what one person alone cannot.

Following are the characteristics of a Good/Effective Team: . A clear, elevating goal: This is a goal which has been communicated to all. . A results-driven structure: The goal has been jointly decided by all the team members. They are fully committed towards achieving it. . Competent members: Each team member has the required skill set in order to achieve the team objectives. . Unified commitment: There is nothing happening in silos. With the total commitment from team members, achieving organizational goals becomes easier. . A collaborative climate: Commitment from team members and a good leadership leads to a collaborative team with a productive work environment. . Standards of excellence: Quality orientation is vital to the success of any organization. . External support and recognition: Appreciation as well as appraisal is required to keep the morale of the team high. . Principled leadership: Leadership defines a team. An able-bodied leadership can chart the team‘s path to success. . Each team member participates actively and positively in meetings as well as projects. This shows a person‘s commitment as well as understanding towards a project. . Team goals are clearly understood by all: Communication is vital for achieving successful completion of any project. . Individual members have thought about creative solutions to the team‘s problem. Thinking ‗out of the box‘ is vital in today‘s economic scenario. . Members are listened to carefully as well as given a thoughtful feedback. Listening is an important skill for any team. Each team member is important. The thoughts and ideas of

each team member have to be listened to, with respect, no matter how silly they may sound at first. . Everyone takes the initiative in order to get things done. There is no concept of passing the buck. This is an indication of clear communication, leading to understanding of individual responsibilities. . Each team member trusts the judgment of others: Mutual trust and respect is highly important for the team. This is the only way to achieve the organization goals. . The team has to be willing to take risks: Risk taking is an attitude which comes with confidence. Confidence on yourself as well as on the team, besides the ability to face all consequences. . Everyone has to be supportive of the project as well as of others. A team is one unit. Unless these cohesive forces are there, the team will never be able to work efficiently enough. . There is ample communication between the team members. . Team decisions are made by using organized as well as logical methods. . Dissenting opinions are never ignored: In fact, they are always recorded in order to be revisited in case the future situations dictate so. . Teams are given realistic deadlines: External support as well as aid is vital to the success of any team.

An efficient team needs support from both inside and outside. It needs to meet the individual needs of its members in order to achieve the organization‘s goals.

Team Models - Different types of teams 1. The Traditional Model This is a group of people with a traditional boss. The boss also shares some of his/her responsibility as well as authority. How much is being shared by the boss is usually dependent on the issues under consideration.

2. The Team Spirit Model This is a group of people who are working for one boss. The team members are very happy and everything seems to be going well. There is team spirit in people. The fact remains that in reality this is not really a team. This is because there is one person who calls all the shots. Besides, there is no sharing of authority or responsibility.

3. The Cutting Edge Model This is a group of people who are managing themselves. There is no single person in this group who has the authority to make any such decisions about the events which will impact the whole group. This is also known as a self-directed work team. This is because each one has the authority as well as responsibility for all the decisions that they need to make. 4. The Task Force Model This refers to a group that comes together for a specific time only. This is because it has to work on a special project or a task. Such a group has traditionally been called a Task Force or a Committee. This may also include Quality Circles as are used in TQM efforts. 5. The Cyber Team In such a team model, members see one another rarely or even, not at all. These are also known as ―cyber‖ or ―virtual‖ teams. What makes these teams different is that the team has to work together in order to accomplish goals, but they may be meeting only at the beginning of their project. They may be interacting through e-mail, telephone or through video conferencing only.

It is important to know which kind of model your team fits in. Next step is to analyze why you feel that way. Now understand which is the model your team should follow in order to accomplish the given task. This is very important in order to achieve the organizations‘ goals. Building an Effective Team

Having goals or a clear purpose is important to each of us. In fact, people who set goals, are always more successful than the others.

For leaders who are serious about setting goals, some things are to be kept in mind. These goals need to be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and with Timeliness (SMART). Besides, for any organization, goals should also be expressed positively. And for a team, goals need to be personalized for each member of the team. All these goals should be put in writing, where you as well as the team can see them often. Once you sit down with your team and set some goals, it can be very useful to develop some kind of action plan for accomplishing that goal.

 Informality as well as Participation In order to build an effective team, the climate has to be informal, comfortable, as well as relaxed. There should be no tension or any signs of boredom. Teams enjoy getting together and they interact easily. There should be lots of good-natured kidding and laughter. Have seating arrangements in order to facilitate this. A circle is the best seating arrangement usually, while a typical classroom arrangement is the worst.

 Listening A highly efficient team has team members who use effective listening techniques. These include questioning, paraphrasing, as well as summarizing in order to get out ideas. Listening is the most effective factor that distinguishes effective teams from ineffective teams. This is a highly important subject which needs to be discussed in detail in another article.

The ability to really listen is a highly important skill. Each team member has to have it. Listening lets you understand what the other person is saying. Besides, it shows the other person that you‘re interested in what he/she has to say. But all of us experience common listening problems. We tend to let our attention wander. Our mind drifts away. We start thinking about the time, or other tasks at hand. This way we lose our concentration.

We miss the real point of what is being said. We may end up focusing on the personality of the speaker. Else we may let our judgment of the person based on past experiences, come in

the way. Or, we may be trying hard to look for hidden messages and lose out on the crux of the conversation.

Our emotions interfere with our judgment. This takes away our focus from what is being said. Our judgment of the person interferes with our understanding of what is being said.

We tend to interrupt and step on the statements of others. This way we don‘t listen to what is being said. Besides, there is a tendency to think ahead to what we want to say next and miss out on what‘s being said right now. This is Defensive Listening. It is important to use the steps of Active Listening in order to be a good listener.

There are many facets of building an effective team. Having an informal atmosphere as well as listening skills are some of them. Four Aspects of Team Building 1. Train managers to deliver effective performance management. Arming managers with the ability to properly develop goals, give and accept feedback, write up appraisals and provide motivation, will greatly improve the overall performance of management process. Training on how to actually conduct the appraisal meeting is also critical. 2. Differentiate and reward top performers appropriately. Use the performance management process to identify the true superstars in the organization. Then reward those people accordingly. If the top merit increase in your organization is 5%, and the average employee receives 3.5%, then there really is not much separation and you risk losing top talent. 3. Address and resolve poor performance. Simply rewarding high performers and ignoring low performers will not suffice. Similarly, culling the bottom 20% and replacing them would be a costly endeavor. Instead, identify the factors leading to the poor performance. Perhaps there are development opportunities that could help or conflict issues that can be resolved. Given the proper direction, a low performer can often become a high performer. If termination or similar actions are necessary, those decisions are made easier by examining all of the possibilities first.

4. Encourage continual feedback. Waiting until the end of the year to tell an employee how they are doing helps neither the high- nor low-performing worker. Low performers never get the course correction they may need to turn things around, and this can lead to an ugly appraisal meeting. High performers also benefit from ongoing feedback. The recognition of work well done can keep them engaged and on track. I. Three Types of Team Structure Larson and LaFasto describe three basic structures of teams: 1) the Problem Resolution Team; 2) the Creative Team, and 3) the Tactical Team. The following Table gives an overview of the purpose and features of these teams.

Type of Team Primary Features Characteristic Problem Trust truthful Resolution Team mature integrity everyone valued consistency respect focus on issues, not predetermined positions Creative Team Autonomy Removed from the organization Self-contained Common strategy Informal communication Tactical Team Clarity High task clarity for overall task High task clarity for supporting tasks Clear role definition: who does what? when, where, why, how?

II. Team Functions Team activities are sometimes divided into task and maintenance functions. Benne & Sheats assign three group roles: 1) Group Task Roles, 2) Group Building and Maintenance Roles, and 3) Individual Roles (Coleman and Van Aken, 348). Blanchard defines task functions to be "behavior which focuses on getting the job done," and maintenance functions as "developing and maintaining the group's harmony and cohesiveness" (Blanchard 75). Patton,

Giffen, and Patton gives an additional function - self-oriented behaviors (45). Hastings says that in selecting team members, both technical and "teamworking attitudes and skills" should be considered (176).

Blanchard (31) divides group interaction into two parts: content and process. Content answers the question "what?" and defines the task, while process answers the question "how?" and defines how the team will function. A diagram is given below.

III. Types of Teams Classified by Team Function Larson and LaFasto classified teams by the results desired from each: 1) the Problem Resolution Team, 2) the Creative Team, and 3) the Tactical Team. Francis and Young show seven types of work groups (Improving Work Groups: A Practical Manual for Team Building 16-19): 1. Strategic - top management 2. Management 3. Management - development specialist 4. Project - problem solving 5. Individual team members 6. Representative teams and committees 7. Work Groups Woodcock and Francis list five types of teams (8) 1. Top teams

2. Management teams 3. Project teams 4. Work Teams 5. "Standing" multidisciplinary teams Mintzberg defines five teams that define organizational structure: 1. Strategic-apex team at top of organization 2. Operating-core team basic work of organization 3. Middle-line team middle management 4. Technostructure team R&D 5. Supportive team maintain the organization

IV. Trust Morton Deutsch wrote, "An Experimental Study of the Effects of Cooperation and Conflict upon Group Process", in 1949. This study showed that high levels of trust, individual confidence, and higher anticipated positive consequences led to higher levels of cooperation. Deutsch showed that trust will be reciprocated with cooperation.

Francis and Young (Improving Work Groups: A Practical Manual for Team Building 88) wrote that there are five conditions that must be met in building a climate of trust: 1) honesty; 2) consistency; 3) realism (credibility); 4) application (actions follow words); and 5) compassion.

"The level of trust among team members," wrote Maginn (60), "affects how ideas are generated, how decisions are made, how conflicts are resolved... without trust, conflict can disable a team's progress toward its goals." Maginn's "trust builders" include: 1) consistently meeting commitments; 2) bringing reliable information to the team; 3) demonstrating skills; 4) showing sincere interest in others; and 5) making balanced judgments that attempt to account for the difficulties among team members. Maginn presents a self-assessment instrument for team member trust levels (62).

V. Communications Addux (48) writes that research shows a positive correlation between communications (understanding) and improved productivity, better problem solving, a reduction in grievances, ideas for improvement in methodology, improved working relationships, and greater personal satisfaction Hoevemeyer gives three communications channels that are present in teams (70): 1. team members --> team leader or facilitator; 2. team member -->team member; and 3. team --> another team. Senge calls the give and take of two way communication "dialog," and refers to it as an important part of team building (54).

According to Scholtes, (The Team Handbook), team members should practise these five rules for verbal communications: 1) speak with clarity and directness; 2) speak succinctly, avoid long anecdotes and examples; 3) listen actively; 4) avoid interrupting and talking while others are speaking; and 5) share information at many levels.

What kinds of team communication are useful? In his audio tape series, Mark Sanborn (Teambuilt: Making Teamwork Work) lists attributes of team communications which help to build teams: 1. Accurate information should be provided by communications 2. Messages should move quickly, and break down barriers 3. Information that is communicated may be useful now or in the future Logistical information is useful now Nutrient information is not directly useful now but might be in the future 4. New ideas should be communicated, creating "Kaisen" - continual learning 5. News about what is going on in the external and internal environments 6. Feedback performance -not personality feedback 7. Outcomes and results

Seminar‘s International's Team Leadership, gives twelve ways to keep the communications channels open (15): 1. Be specific 2. Be positive 3. Speak for yourself. 4. Listen at least as much as you speak. 5. Be patient. 6. Manage your own behavior. 7. Be empathetic. 8. Admit errors. 9. Be logical. 10. Encourage feedback. 11. Paraphrase facts. 12. Summarize. VI. Reward Structures A. Individual, Group, and Organizationally Oriented In an Individually Oriented System, there can be "numerous bugs", writes Barry Staw in Organizational Psychology and the Pursuit of the Happy/Productive Worker (77) . Managers who want to improve job satisfaction through rewards based on individual performance, writes Staw, need to create a system that supports those rewards. In a Group-Oriented System, Staw contends, satisfaction and performance increase group participation. This system is the most common in team based organizations. Staw also suggests turning many management functions over to the team. This will reduce managers' control of the group, but the rewards of a good running, team based organization will counteract the lack of control. Staw's, Organizationally Oriented System states that employees that contribute to the organization as a whole, ultimately benefit For example, employees who rotate jobs around the organization and managers that hold few status distinctions, tend to create organizationally based rewards and satisfaction.

Staw suggests that the system should not be mixed. Organizations are so complex that they contain elements of individuals, groups, and the organization. Trying to work within one system while ignoring the other, will create an organization that is less effective than a carefully balanced combination. Implementing such a matrix would be very difficult, but it is necessary in a complex organizational world. Daniels writes that team rewards should be sincere, specific, immediate, and personal (1993). To reinforce teams, Daniels writes, the leader should: 1) specifically identify the result being reinforced; 2) explain the importance or value of the accomplishment; 3) identify the behaviors contributing to the result; and 4) express appreciation. (2-18). The praise should be based on PRISM method.

P ersonal R einforcing I mmediate S pecific M eaningful S incere Administrative pay system must be able to record performance based on team accomplishments, yet also be able to make payments to individuals over a time period that may vary depending on the nature of the team assignments. Design considerations for team-based pay plans include: 1) setting group goals, 2) linking team goals to the organizations's strategic plan, 3) developing a performance measuring system, 4) determining the allocation method, and 5) devising a payment method (Bartol and Hagmann 24). Benefits of such a plan are 1) improved productivity, 2) improved employee satisfaction with job and pay, 3) reduced costs, 4) reduced absence and turnover, and 5) improved product or service quality (Bartol and Hagmann 25). Craig Miller wrote that he feels that group performance is easier to measure than individual performance, and that in rewarding teams, the leader should follow these steps (6): 1. Call a sample of customers 2. Ask customers what they need

3. Call employees as if you were a customer 4. Pinpoint assending targets and graduated payout 5. Point system - 60% or mere should reach goal 6. Publish team success stories in meetings, newsletters, on the wall in office 7. Publish "Great moments in customer service." 8. Let Upper Management know about team successes. 9. Reward team monthly or quarterly - not yearly 10. Don't use cash as an incentive: employees see it as compensation. They get used to it, and feel entitled to it. Non-cash rewards are seen as separate incentives because If cash is given, also give a letter or plaque as well (5). Examples of non cash rewards are catalog merchandise, travel, time off, gifts, lunches, plaques, trophies, company stock 11. Let the team pick its own rewards within budgetary limits

VII. Assumptions of Human Nature The assumptions revolving around human nature answer the question "what does it mean to be human?" This question has long been asked by organizational psychologists and it is central to creating an organization which promotes teamwork.

A. Theory X, Theory Y McGregor (1960) proposed that there are two basic management philosophies, which he called theory X and theory Y. I feel that an organization which wishes to promote self-directed teams, must adopt theory Y management to be effective. Theory X managers would not be inclined to relinquish control to the team. A basic component of McGregor's theory revolves around the issue of control. Teams are sometimes seen as ways to reduce struggles for control. It has been seen that teams will sometimes actually create worse domination than non-team environments, through the use of team rules and interteam hierarchies (Barker 13). Similarly, Blanchard and his associate‘s maintain that as teams are exposed to certain changes in their external environments, they may regress in their "maturity." Teams require members and managers to trust that the team will

work, requiring what Katzenbach and Smith (The Discipline of Teams: A Mindbook-Workbook for Delivering Small Group Performance) call "a leap of faith." Because teams divert from an individuals' control over work and personal objectives, Katzenbach and Smith argue that in many cases, teams are a very risky road to take.

B. Self-Actualization Argyris (1964) wrote that employees are basically self-actualizers, and that we need challenges and interesting work as outlets for self-actualization. Are teams a way to encourage self-actualization? Francis and Young (Improving Work Groups: A Practical Manual for Team Building) state that "a team environment that encourages risk also improves the work environment." The quality of team decisions may be better than individual decisions (Schein 89)(Bassin 19)(Blanchard et. al. 124). On the other hand, team decision making can lead to Groupthink. Janis explains that as group members work together, they have the tendency to think, work and feel alike. It seems to me that this would lead to less self-actualization, for no one individual takes the responsibility for important decisions. In creating a team based organization, a manager will need to balance individual and team tasks, for individual rewards are important for self-actualization, while team rewards are important for creating a committed team. C. Motivational Theories Maslow (1959) proposed that there is a hierarchy of needs, ranging from lower level to higher level needs. The satisfaction of these needs can create job satisfaction, and the lower level needs must be satisfied before the higher level needs.

In areas where teamwork is placed into effect, the assumption is that high level needs (social, esteem, and self-actualization) motivate employees to want to become team members. Lower level needs (physiological needs) must first be satisfied before these become motivational. In Schein (1980), we read that groups are formed, in part, to fulfill human needs of affiliation and self-esteem.

Team Management: Team Management refers to the various activities which bind a team together by bringing the team members closer to achieve the targets.

Important’s of team building 1. Team building activities improve the relations and strengthen the both among the employee. 2. Team building activities also reduce the chances of confusion, misunderstandings and making the communication effective. 3. Individuals feel more positive and confident at work. Conclusion Ideas of two persons lead the way to create new and efficient idea which would result in grand success. Behind the success of one person hides many persons in many ways. Single handled work gives good results while multi handled work gives best and effective results. Reference : Cohn, J.M., Khurana, R., Reeves, L. (2005). Growing talent as if your business depended on it. Harvard Business Review, October, p. 1-9. Driskell, James E., Goodwin, Gerald F., Salas, Eduardo, O’Shea, Patrick G., & (2006). Personality and team Effectiveness.

ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS Dr. P.Ramar

Introduction Environmental studies deal with every issue that affects living organisms. It is essentially a multi disciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human impact on its integrity. Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without protecting the earth‘s environmental resources. That‘s why we refer to our environment as ―Mother Nature‖. Respect for nature and all living creatures is not new to India. All our traditions are based on these values. Even in the 4th century BC, Emperor Ashoka proclaimed that all forms of life are important for our well-being. The word, Environment, is a general term that refers to external conditions in which an organism lives. The word ‗Environment‘ comes from a French word, ‗Environ‘ or ‗Environer,‘ meaning, ―round about‖, ―To surround‖ or ―to encompass‖. The environment is the base of all life, and the source of all goods. Environment is the sum of all social, economical, biological, physical or chemical factors which constitute the surroundings of man, who is both creator and moulder of this environment. Environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround man at a given point in space and time. The environment could be either Natural or Man Made Environment. Economic development in the present day world shifted with a new approach as modern technology evolved since the days of Industrial Revolution in Europe. Capital, labour and technology led to an expanding market cutting across continents, and the soaring profit line was a good enough incentive to invest more, produce more and market more products. Need-based life style has changed into an era of consumerism. ―Sky is the limit‖ is the concept that gained ground till the decade of 1970s. Retrospection was deemed essential by a group of intellectuals a and study supported by ‗Club of Rome‘ was published as a futuristic projection called ―limits to Growth‖. The ‗World Model‘ includes equations in which the ‗population growth increases with food output and in which the rates of resource depletion and pollution levels rise with the level of

 Assistant Professor, Department of History, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar.

industrial output‘. The time frame used was 1990 to 2010. It was observed that in the early period, population and industrial output per capital continued to grow but model predicts that industrial output and food per capita will plunge and at the end, the standard of living is likely to sink below the level prevailing in 1990. This was indeed a ‗Doomsday‘ scenario. One has to remember that the American author Rachael Carson predicted a ‗Silent Spring‘ about five years before the publication of ‗Limits to Growth‘. These studies had stirred the Western World. Right to Environment seems to have grown out of consciousness of human society with the observance of the ‗Earth Day‘ in April, 1970. A new beginning was made. A re-look at the very process of developmental economics, environmental policy and quality of life, has become imperative. The lesson learned become clearer with increasing awareness about the inherent problem the path of development is likely to face. While population explosion in the developing world was blamed for all the ills, the trend of consumerism in the Western World was equally criticized in view of the fast resource depletion to meet the privileged 25 per cent at the cost of suffering 75 per cent. The ―World Conservation Strategy‖ (1980) called for a paradigm shift in the methods of development. Sustainable Development becomes the key word, with enormous support from the report of the Bruntlund Commission.

Lesson Learnt from the Previous Century The enormous development of science and technology, empowered the human society to achieve new dimensions of economic prosperity. The advent of space science, remote sensing, nuclear power and finally, the magic of microchips, made the planet earth a wonderland. In the process, the finite resources started depleting at the fastest pace and the entire biosphere became arena for this new ―mantra‖ of development. Land, water, atmosphere, forest and vegetation, freshwater and marine resources encountered pathological syndrome of degradation and suffered from man-made pollution load. In May 1984, the World Resources Institute organized a meet of 75 experts from 20 countries to look at global resource and population problem and opportunities. The experts analyzed the situation and proposed initiatives for private and public action ‗allaying the restive pessimism that stands between the world we have and the one we

want‘. The key word that emerged is again ‗Sustainable Development‘. The Global Possible Conference declared that several critical transitions must be implemented. These include:  A demographic transition to a stable world population of low birth and death rate.  An energy transition to high efficiency in production and increasing reliance on renewable energy.  A resource transition to reliance on nature‘s ‗income‘ without depletion of its ‗capital‘.  An economic transition to sustainable development and on broader sharing of its benefits.  A political transition to a global negotiation keeping in tune the North and South, East and West. It was suggested that such a prosperous and sustainable future is attainable.

Constitutional Rights: Policy Indian Constitution has guaranteed ―right to life‖ and ―right to clean environment‖ but also underlined the duties of the citizens in exercising such rights. It‘s not only a part of fundamental rights guaranteed under Constitution of the Republic, but it is also the policy of elected governments in a democracy surviving over last six decades since Independence. The policy statements on environment, however, came much late in 1992 following action in setting up autonomous Pollution Control Boards at Central and the State level, way back in 1974. The environmental acts and rules promulgated since 1970s promise a clean and safe environment and lead one to dream a better quality of life. Acts and rules also led to setting up standards. Incentives for clean environment and disincentives for violation of laws were clearly publicized. But in reality, offenders often managed to go scot-free. Implementation of excellent set of legal instruments remained tardy. Citizens in India continued to suffer, the deprivation of clean environment. The failure of administrative bureaucracy perhaps sensitized the civil society. Environment Movement became the new events of Indian scenario. Reference to such movements can be found in several publications (Krishna, 1996; Dembowski, 2001). The issue of human rights over environmental resource was first widely felt during ―Chipko Movement‖ in Garhwal Himalayas in 1970s. The women‘s right to collect firewood from forestes was denied leading to a non-violent movement Hugging. The tree to prevent clear felling by contractors,

saved not only forests but established womens‘s rights to collect dried woods, lops and tops as only source of fuel. The government of India enacted Forest (Conservation) Act in 1980, recognizing need for re-looking at forest‘s role in ecosystem functioning. The women‘s group also is to have organized the largest voluntary afforestation programme through eco- development camps (Ghosh, 1989). While affected people established their rights over natural resources, elsewhere the citizens at large voiced their concern about possible negative impacts on one of the richest rain forests in Kerala due to a proposed Hydel Power Project. The years of 1980-83 witnessed ―Save Silent Valley‖ movement and the movement forced the Central Government to review the project and accept people‘s verdict. 1980s also witnessed the now famous movement to prevent ecological disaster in the Doon Valley against limestone mining. Judicial verdict in 1985 finally closed 27 mining operation and led to reclamation of degraded land and afforestations. Such movements to establish people‘s rights can be chronicled from Koel-karo project area in Bihar through Balco project in Orissa to the most famous movement named ‗Narmada Bachao Andolan‘, cutting across Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. While national media became increasingly sensitized over such mass based movements, state level case studies also demanded serious attention.

One such being the public interest litigation filed against conversion of 800 hectares of wetlands in east Calcutta. A movement organized by civil society and led by PUBLIC-a new born NGO, created media sensation and public interest and the verdict of the Calcutta High Court clearly went in favour of citizen‘s demand. Strangely, the same state government has now declared it as a ―Ramsar Site‖-Wetlands of international importance.

Changing Policy: Participatory Management The growing concern for environment gradually influenced the new policy formulation. The State and the Central Government felt the urge for decentralized system of governance and need for people‘s participation in conservation of natural resources. The formation of Forest Protection Committee (FPC) under Joint Forest Management (JFM) policy of 1988 and similar opportunities were extended for participation in Watershed Management or Minor Irrigation Management and they bear testimony to people‘s power. The legal sanction for a compulsory

public hearing during Environmental Impact Study, further established people‘s power. The Government has at last published a ‗Rehabilitation and Resettlement‘ Policy in 2005, a new ‗Water Policy‘ which advocated for a policy change towards ‗Rainwater Harvesting‘. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments empowered the local communities to establish a system of local self governance including management of the vital natural resources like land and water. The Panchayati Raj system advocated implementation of such a process of decentralization. The environment movement in India led the judiciary to establish special ―Green Branches‖ in the High Courts of Kolkata and Chennai. The Supreme Court of India also forced the Government to take suo motu actions, one such being cleaning up Delhi‘s automobile pollution through change over to CNG from conventional fuel. It is again, at the behest of a PIL, the Supreme Court forced the West Bengal Government to reallocate 400 odd tannery units in Kolkata with provision for a common effluent treatment plant and thereby minimize the chromium pollution of surface water.

The awareness in the civil society, backed up by media, had enforced a positive change of attitude in the system of governance. That felling of trees and conservation of wetlands are anti-environment, just to cite two examples, have now become a matter of common concern. The civil society apart, the role of judiciary helped to establish human rights over environment. Collectively, the actions perhaps made the system of governance more alert and accountable.

The human society especially in the tropics depends heavily on biodiversity and biomass. Wild and domesticated biological resources provide all the food, fodder, a large percentage of rural fuel supply, building material, textiles, paper and pulp, medicinal and hundreds of other essentials, raw or value added such resources are now valued in billions of U.S. dollars. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and Rules, 2004, rightfully acknowledge the rights of the local community by suggesting Biodiversity Committee (BMC) at the local level and Preparation of ―Peoples‘ Biodiversity Registers‖ (PBR) as a mandatory process of managing local resource is a vindication of human rights over local living resource.

Reference  Cassin Rene., Introduction: The International law of Human Rights, Recucil des course 144 (1974 iv).  Hambro, E, The Human Environment: Stockholm and After, year book of World Affairs, 1979.  Baumol, William J. and Oates, Wallace, E. Economics, Environmental Policy and the Quality of life. Prentice Hall Inc., N.J. 1979.  Dembowski, Hans. Taking the State to Court: Public Interest Litigation and Public Sphere in Metropolitan in India. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 2001.  Ghosh, Ashish. Environmental Movements-A Brief Review. Sci Tech Focus (3&4): 30:32. 1989.  Krishna, Sumi. Environmental Politics: People’s Lives and Developmental Choices, Sage Publications, New Delhi, London. 1996.  Meadows, Donella et al. The Limits to Growth: A Report of the Club of Romes. Project on the Predicament of Mankind. A Potomac Associates Book, published by Universe Books. 1972.  Paul Gormley W., Human Rights and Environment: The Need for International Cooperation 1, (Sijtheff 1976).

PARAMETERS OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT - AN INSIGHT Dr. N. Murugeswari & Bonita Lynette Cooper Introduction

Empowerment is now increasingly seen as a process by which those without power gain greater control over their lives. This means control over material assets, intellectual resources and ideology. It involves power to, power with and power within. Some define empowerment as a process of awareness and conscientization, of capacity building leading to greater participation, effective decision-making power and control leading to transformative action. This involves ability to get what one wants and to influence others on our concerns. With reference to women, the power relation that has to be involved includes their lives at multiple levels, family, community, market and the state. Importantly it involves at the psychological level, women's ability to assert themselves and this is constructed by the 'gender roles' assigned to her specially in a cultural system which resists change like India. The questions surrounding women's empowerment, the condition and position of women, have now become critical to the human rights based approaches to development. The Cairo Conference in 1994, organized by UN on Population and Development, called attention to women's empowerment as a central focus. The UNDP developed the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) which focuses on the three variables that reflect women's participation in society – political power or decision-making, education and health. The 1995 UNDP Report was devoted to women's empowerment and it declared that if human development is not engendered, it is endangered declarations which almost become a leit motif for further development measuring and policy planning. Equality, sustainability and empowerment were emphasized and the stress was on women's emancipation which does not depend on national income but on engaged political process.

Drawing from Amartya Sen's work on 'Human Capabilities' — an idea drawn from Aristotle, a new matrix was created to measure human development. The emphasis was on human well being and not on growth of national income as a goal. People's Choices have to be enlarged and they must have economic opportunities to make use of these capabilities. States and

 Department of Women‘s Studies, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli. 87

countries would consider developments in terms of whether its people lead a long healthy painless life, whether they are educated and knowledgeable and enjoy decent standards of living. The intuitive idea behind the capability is twofold according to Martha Nussbaum (2003). There are certain functions that are particularly central to human life. Second, there is something we do in a truly human way and not a mere animal way. The list of capabilities that she draws is cross- cultural as necessary element of truly human functioning.

They include: 1. Life-being able to live to the end of human life of normal length and not dying prematurely, or before one's life is so reduced as to be not worth living. 2. Bodily Health – being able to have good health including reproductive health, to be adequately nourished, to have adequate shelter. 3. Bodily Integrity – Being able to move freely from place to place, to be secure against violent assault, including sexual assault and domestic violence; having opportunities for sex satisfaction and for choice in matters of reproduction. 4. Senses, Imagination and Thought – Being able to use the sense, to imagine, think and reason in a truly human way including but not limited to literacy. Being able to use one's mind and imagination protected by freedom of expression. 5. Emotions – being able to have attachments, to love, to grieve, to experience longing gratitude and justified anger. Not having one's emotional development blighted by fear and anxiety. 6. Practical Reason – Being able to form a conception of the good and to engage in critical reflection about planning of one's life's protected by liberty of conscience. 7. Affiliation – Being able to live with and toward others to have social interactions, to have the capability of both justice and friendship. This would entail freedom of assembly and free speech. Having social bases for self-respect and non-humiliation, being protected against discrimination on the basis of race, sex sexual orientation religion caste or region. 8. Other Species – Being able to have concern for nature. 9. Play – being able to laugh, play and enjoy. 10. Control over one's environment.

a) Political Being able to participate effectively in political choices that govern one's life, having the right to political participation, protection of free speech and association. b) Material Being able to hold property, to seek employment on equal bases and having freedom from unwarranted search and seizure. In work, being able to work as a human being, exercising practical reason and entering into meaningful relationships of mutual recognition with the workers.

These capabilities cover the so called "first generation rights" (political & civil liberties) as well as the "second generation rights" (economic and social rights. It has been emphasized that women all over the world have been short shifted and have not found support for their central human functions. Women are capable of these functions given sufficient, nutrition, education and other support. Women are most often not treated as subjects. Women are as capable as men of exercising will, controlling desires and taking decisions but males enjoy support of social institutions and women are excluded as the 'other'. Women are often not treated as "ends in themselves" persons with dignity who deserve respect from laws and institutions. Instead they are treated instrumentally as reproducers, caregivers, sexual receivers, agents of family's general prosperity.

Human Development Reports since 1999 demonstrate that practically no country in the world treats its women as well as men according to the measures of life expectancy, wealth and education. Developing Countries present especially urgent problems where caste and class result in acute failure of human capabilities of women. Women in this part of South East Asia, lack essential support for fully functioning human lives. Within the country, there are many issues to be addressed closely.

Beijing Conference of 1995 had identified certain quantitative and qualitative indicators of women empowerment. Beijing Conference 1995 indicators of women empowerment, qualitative & quantitative are: Qualitative: 1. Increase in self-esteem, individual and collective confidence;

2. Increase in articulation, knowledge and awareness on health, nutrition reproductive rights, law and literacy; 3. Increase in personal leisure time and time for child care; 4. Increase of workloads in new programmes; 5. Change in roles and responsibility in family & community; 6. Visible decrease in violence on women and girls; 7. Responses to changes in social customs like child marriage, dowry, discrimination against widows; 8. Visible changes in women's participation level at meeting, participating and demanding participation; 9. Increase in bargaining and negotiating power at home, in community and the collective; 10. Increase access to and ability to gather information; 11. Formation of women collectives; 12. Positive changes in social attitudes; 13. Awareness and recognition of women's economic contribution within and outside the household; 14. Women's decision-making over her work and income. Quantitative Indicators A. Demographic Trends • Maternal mortality rate • Fertility rate • Sex ratio • Life expectancy at birth • Average age of marriage B. Number of women participating in different development programmes C. Greater access and control over community resources/government schemes-crèche, credit cooperative, non formal education D. Visible change in physical health status and nutritional level E. Change in literacy and enrollment levels

F. Participation levels of women in political process. Monitorable targets for the Tenth Plan and beyond had certain key issues related to gender. • All children in school by 2003; all children to complete five years of schooling by 2007. • Reduction of gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by at least 50% by 2007. • Reduction of IMR to 45 per 1000 live births by 2007 and 28 by 2012. • Reduction of Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) to 2 per 1000 live births by 2007 onto to by 2012. India's declining sex ratio caused through foeticide, infanticide and systematic neglect requires urgent and comprehensive action. It is well evidenced that low literacy, endemic under nutrition and social inequality are closely related to gender inequality.

Education Women's education is extremely important intrinsically as it is their human right and required for the flourishing of many of their capacities. It is, however, noticed that most programmes for education of girls and women in India have reinforced Gender roles specially motherhood, in curriculum as well as impact evaluation. The huge study of nearly 94% of India's population, done by Drez and others, looks at female literacy and its negative and statistically significant impact on child mortality.

The questions of power are interlinked and we understand that what is necessary is both objective power in terms of economic resources, laws, institutional roles and norms held by others as well as subjective power in terms of self efficacy and entitlements. Empowerment of women is closely related to formal and informal sources of education. Late 19th century & 20th century reformers advocated women's education as a principal strategy to answer the 'women's question'. Many innovative efforts are accelerated after the NPE. In UP, a renewal process of correcting gender stereotyping was initiated in 1998, by looking at textbooks and training, besides infrastructure and community mobilization. There is a marked improvement in girls enrollment and steady decline in dropout rates.

Despite statistically positive trends, privileged spaces in classrooms are occupied by boys and girls are rarely addressed by their names. Girls sit in last rows in classes of mathematics and rarely muster courage enough to come close to the board where the teacher sits (usually a male in most remote areas). Private school initiative for gender concerns is rare. Madarsas have large number of girls but like convents and Arya Kanya Pathshalas‘ gender transformation is not their agenda. Moral science text books still have preponderance of men. Women as agents of social reform are not mentioned. CSO efforts have very often shown greater enhancement of girls‘ self- esteem but in many cases, there is poor cognitive development, generally attributed to low paid, low qualified but highly motivated instructor. Kanya Vidya Dhan, free uniforms, mid-day meal, and school attached crèche and mothers meetings, have all had positive results.

In various surveys conducted by ISST it has been apparent that parental apathy or opposition to girl child education is fast receding even in traditional male dominated states of north India. Given the right infrastructure-schools located in neighbourhoods, preferably with female teacher‘s parents would allow girls to study "as long as they would like to". It may, however, be noticed, as evidenced by researchers that the same families, who are willing to see girls in college, react violently if the girl decides to choose her partner in marriage or challenge other norms of feminine behavior.

Health: National Status In the 2005-06 National Family Health Survey (NFHS –3) conducted by 18 research organizations, between 2005 December and August 2006, provides us with several important data based insights, not provided by earlier surveys. There has been a steady increase in institutional delivery percentages from NFHS – 1 to 3, from 26 to 41, the increase in rural from17 to 31 is more promising than urban from 58 to 69. Overall fertility rate has declined from3.4 to 2.7. The states of Punjab and Maharashtra have reached the replacement level of fertility, i.e. around 2 children per woman. Women in Chatisgarh and Orrissa are expected to have an average of about 2.5 children at current fertility rates. The urban areas in five states studied by NFHS Chattisgarh, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Orissa and Punjab have reached below replacement level fertility. There is a difference between the fertility of women with no

education and those with 10 or more years of schooling. Trends in antenatal care have remained more or less constant in NFHS – 1 and 2 between rural and urban women but have increased from 65 to 77% total. The five state studies show regional imbalances in post natal care from only 23 per cent in Chhatisgarh to 54-59 per cent in Maharashtra, Punjab and Gujarat.

More than 40% married women and about one third men in Orissa and Gujarat, are thin for their height, under nutrition is much lower in Punjab (12-14%), obesity is the major problem in Punjab where 38% women are overweight. Overweight or obese women percentage has increased in the last 7 years from 16 to 20 per cent in Gujarat, from 12 to 17 per cent in Maharashtra and from 4 to 7 per cent in Orissa. The extent of overweight is greater in women than men. Overall 14.8% of women are obese. Except in Punjab, in the other states, more than 50 per cent of the children of women without any education are underweight. The percentage of anemia ranges from 38% in Punjab to 63% in Orissa.

Anaemia prevalence is alarming among pregnant women, 57.9 which is more than last recorded 49.7%. 33% of women still have BMI below normal, which has declined from 36.2. IMR has gone down but gender differences persist. This is true also of under 5 mortality. Life expectancy of women, however, stands at a level higher than that of men. From 1961 to 2001, both in total population as well as in the population of 0-6, there has been a decline in sex ratio from 943 to 935 and 976 to 927 respectively. There is a fear that overall reduction of state resources in the welfare sector and especially less than 1% investment in health is going to exacerbate the existing gender bias in society. Political Participation Women's political participation has been considered a major measure of women's empowerment. Globally, through histories of the world we have records of very few regents, sovereigns, and active agents in nobility who were women. Champions of liberalism like John Stuart Mill, had advocated women's participation in governance. The struggle for women suffrage in the self avowed liberal west very well illustrates the entrenched nature of patriarchical resistance to women's empowerment. In the last century, more women heads of state could be counted in Asia as compared to Europe and the struggle for women suffrage in

India was physically less violent but this is not reflective of greater acceptance of women in decision-making in public spaces.

To measure women's empowerment now, GEM takes 3 indicators women's participation in economic, political and professional activities. Within political power, what is measured is mainly women in parliament, judiciary or in local bodies. Women's empowerment ordisempowerment has to be seen in all areas, physical, socio cultural, religious, political, legal and economic. It is also now often pointed out that women's empowerment must be seen as a process wherein we must consider women's awareness, consciousness, choices with live alternatives, resources at their disposal, voice, agency and participation. These are all related to enhancement of women's capabilities and decisions they take individually or collectively for themselves.

Several programmes in India like Mahila Samakhya, have accepted the process nature of women's empowerment. The understanding of empowerment in PACS has also been similar but planning of activity, time and budgets to ensure the empowering processes need greater scrutiny. Women's education, livelihood and personal exercise of agency have to be systematically promoted.

The 73rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution have impacted nearly 600 million Indian people in 500,000 villages. Interestingly the percentage of women at various levels of political activity has risen from 4-5% to 25-40%. Both nationally as well as at the state and local levels, women in elected bodies have been very few and even those who have been elected, when observed from closer quarters, present a complex picture. The money and muscle associated with the electoral process inhibits a large number of women from joining politics.

Restriction on mobility, lack of control over resources and low literacy rates are well known obstacles but recent panchayat elections have evidenced a phenomenally large number of elected leaders much beyond reserved 33% seats. Areas where PACS, Mahila Samakhya or other CSO initiatives are working, women are more articulate and vigilant and have used opportunity

to improve ICPS centres, primary schools, sanitation and have also publicly dealt with issues of misbehavour with girls, violence and alcoholism as well as sensitive issues of widowed women dressing in colored clothes. Women are increasingly demanding not only basics but also land, literacy and fuller and longer trainings instead of being short changed through orientations.

It is obvious that a more active Gram Sabha, which is sensitive to women's specific issues, is a much desired goal as a woman sarpanch or BDC member in a gender hostile panchayat may not be able to accomplish and sustain much for the benefit of women or the village community at large. More women in grass root organizations and better law and order will ensure better engagement of women in decision-making.

More than one million women have now entered political life in India and 43% of the seats are occupied by them at district, province and national level. Women's participation is understood in terms of voter turnout, number of women contestants apart from the number of those who succeeded in winning. However, the battle to make the PRI's affective instruments of local rural governance is a battle, a struggle the grass roots population (women and men) against administrative apathy and listlessness, against ignorance and low awareness. For women, these odds are accompanied and intermeshed with deep rooted patriarchal practices that determine and sanction norms of speech and behaviour, both within and outside the home.

Thus while pre election trainings of voluntary organisations and CSVOs serve to build awareness about the duties, responsibilities of PR's and about voting practices, the presence and working of women's voluntary organisations at the grass roots have served to sharpen women's nderstanding about the operation of patriarchy in personal lives and work places and the methods and practices to overcome and combat them individually and collectively.

Organisations such as Mahila Samakhya working to conscientise and organise women in groups and sanghas are able to address the issue of women and their participation in a twofold manner. On the one hand, they organise intensive training programmes for women PRI

representatives to make them effective functionaries and on the other hand their own programmes with their members within their collectives serve to build a culture of questioning, critical thinking, collective decision-making and mobilisation on public issues.

A mobilised community of women is thus able to raise issues of significance to the local community within the meetings, demand accountably from representatives and administrative officials regarding financial and procedural matters and intervene with creative suggestions. It is thus that the dominance of patriarchy money power, party politics and muscle power steadily undercut and eroded and women's concerns are gradually pushed to the forefront of local politics.

Women see effective and efficient functioning of panchayats closely linked to the issue of active women's participation. (Mahila Samakhya U.P. Annual Report 20045-05. Entry into public space, utilization of authority in practice, trainings by government and nongovernment agencies are all part of a process of gradual growth of knowledge, self-esteem and empowerment, which gives women to function effectively in the political process. Even proxy and dummy candidates may experience this process of empowerment. Women who stand and win from general seats are more likely to have a higher commitment towards, the political process.

Having a high participation of women at the local self government level can create an environment which is enabling for other women, receptive to the idea of gender based initiatives and can serve to monitor and implement community and gender based programmes of the government related to education, nutrition and health. It offers a potential opportunity which can be utilized at an optimum level by appropriate trainings -both capacity binding and information enhancing – by government departments and the NGO Sector.

Decision-Making In terms of decision-making, NFHS II had reported that rural women take 71% of decisions regarding "what items to cook", 26% decisions regarding obtaining health care for

herself, 10% in purchasing jewellery or other major household items. 12% decisions were taken by women with reference to staying with their parents or siblings and 37% about how to spend money, which they had earned. In the urban areas, these figures were 71%, 35%, 13%, 18% and 57% respectively. Women between ages 15 to 19 nearly 24% are not involved in any kind of decision-making and only. 14% do not ask permission to go to the market.

In rural sector, 10% are involved with any decision-making and 74% need permission for going to the market. In urban sector, however, only 7% are not involved with any decision- making and 53% need permission for going to the market. Survey reports that of the 52% illiterate women, 74% of urban resident, and 55% of rural resident have access to money.

Working women do believe that they have more experience (91.6%), enlarged social networks (48.3%) and stronger personality (32.2%) and an increased self esteem 985.3%), besides their decision-making power (62.2%). The Researchers, however, observe that objective state of affairs do not bear this out and women's decision-making is concentrated to making small purchases. In buying and selling assets, they have no say.

Self Help Groups: PACS programme has largely utilized SHGs as an empowering instrument. More than 80% of these are exclusively for women. The Fifth National Synthesis Report (Draft) reports that official perception has changed as SHGs are firmly raising voices and SHGs are being used to achieve RTI awareness: • Women members are elected as PRI representatives. • SHG/PRIs are regularly organising Gram Sabha as a forum for public appraisal. Self-help groups have emerged as an important strategy for empowering women and alleviating poverty. SHG's are based on the idea of dialogic small groups, which shall function at developing collective consciousness. Linked with micro credit, these groups are able to access credit and subsidy to meet crisis needs as well as developmental needs and thereby reducing their dependence on money lenders. There is fair amount of evidence to suggest that PACS SHGs have successfully ensured people's entitlements, including women.

Violence The questions regarding crimes against women are most entrenched, as most of them are committed within the family. NCRB records that the highest percdentage of crime against women is Torture (37.7%), followed by Moleslation (22.4%), Rape (11.8%), Kidnapping (8.8%) and Immoral Traffic (3.7%). 4.6 Dowry Death and 6.5% Eve Teasing were also recorded No age is safe for women. In U.P, nearly 32% crimes against women were committed within the family by husbands and relatives. This figure, when compounded with 12% dowry deaths makes 45% of crimes domestically located. Incidents of honour killings are often threats to women's functioning and their emotional development is severely blighted. In our caste – ridden society, women's caste membership increases her vulnerability. Efforts to train police by UN agencies and state initiatives are encouraging but very small in scale. They require follow-ups and support monitoring.

Women and Work Women's work is statistically less visible, non monetized and relegated to subsistence production. On the domestic side, this accounts for 60% of unpaid family work and 98% of domestic work. The non paid work includes domestic chores like cooking, cleaning, and child care for the elderly and the handicapped-traditionally understood as women's work. Subsistence activities like gardening, post harvest processing, feeding farm hands, live stock maintenance, gathering of fuel, forest produce, unpaid family labour in family farm or enterprise are done by women who are reported to be non working housewives. Census estimates 51.93% men & 25% women to be workers while NSS estimates 52.7 male and 25.68 female to be workers. Most men are in stable employment.

Micro studies report many challenges – 20 out of 104 women reported in a survey as non working were actually winnow wing, threshing or parboiling (WB). S. Mukhopadhyaya in her study reports 4 times more work participation in her study. Female work participation rate in U.P. is reported to be 11%, with a gender gap of 52%, equal to West Bengal but less than Punjab. 56% women are in community service, 17% in manufacturing & 8.6 rural women in agriculture. Only 4% women as against 10% men are in the formal sector. If women's work is rendered visible, specially unpaid household work there will be many dramatic results. R. Malathy's

extrapolation estimates Rupees 23,773 crores as the value of women's household service rendered by women in the urban sector alone. From 17%, women's contribution which will increase to 33% of agricultural earning will include unpaid household work. Restriction on women's mobility, complete child care responsibility, ideology of female seclusion, vulnerability to abuse, low access to information and mass media, low literacy, assumption that women's work is supplementary and confinement to largely manual untrained tasks, leads to women's poor access to income. Women and Reforms It is often argued that economic reforms have had a differential gender impact but there are further complexities. The reforms have meant more openness in trade regime and progressive decontrol of domestic production sector. There seems a steady withdrawal of state presence from the production sector, arguing that this would promote greater efficiency and accountability. There has, however, been much protest that this will leave labour more vulnerable as profit motive alone drives the market. Market argue that since women are crowded towards the bottom end of labour market, they will be more adversely impacted. The 55th round of National Sample Survey Organization (1999-2000) generally reflects that over the years, especially in urban areas, gender differences in the structure of industrial and occupational distributions and distribution of labour status categories seems to have lessened. There is higher demand for female labour in some sectors which can be linked to a thrust towards export orientation and deregulation in the domestic production sector.

According to Swapna Mukhopadhyaya changes in the structure of job opportunities have not translated into overall reduction in the degree of market segmentation along gender lines. There is marginal decrease in employment of men and marginal increase for women in urban India. Educated women in the labour market, who are unemployed are far more than their male counterparts - 62.7% unemployed women in rural areas as compared to 56.9% men. It seems IT enabled sectors in recent years may have benefitted educated women. There is not enough reliable data but persistently low wages of women to the tune of 50% to 80% compared to men, suggest systematic wage discrimination. Wage earnings in casual female workers in 1999-2000 were 64.70% of corresponding male earnings in rural India and they are even lower at 60.57% in

urban India. 2005 HDR report has said that women spend 457 minutes at work as compared to 391 minutes per day by men.

Ownership of Land A recent legislation of the Central Government, the Hindu Succession Amendment Act 2005 has also moved towards women's equality in property rights. It makes Hindu women's inheritance rights in agricultural land legally equal to those of men. All daughters, married or unmarried can reside, seek partition of the parental dwelling place and become ‗Karta‘.

These laws of the centre well have the power to displace any conflicting laws of the state which are unequal to women. This is a far reaching message to assure women control over property. According to a recent study made by Bina Agarwal in Kerala, women's risk of physical violence from husbands is dramatically less if they own hand or a house. The incidence of violence is 49 per cent among women without property, but 18 per cent among land owning women and 7 per cent if they own both land and house.

Recent initiative of the State of U.P. (ordinance of 23 Feb. 2006) regarding the reduction of stamp duty on the purchase of land from 7 per cent, 6 per cent has worked in the direction of more land being bought in the name of women in the family. This transfer of asset in favour of women, though initially used by male members of the family to save family money, will gradually contribute to build women's agency. 2,97,715 transactions have been done in the name of women in 68 districts of Uttar Pradesh between April 2006 and August 2006. The women move out of their homes to sign the papers and in many cases, it is their first exposure to an office. This initiative developed with women's trainings on legal, land and human rights literacy, will go a long way.

However, this effectiveness is greatly linked with the willingness of the state administration to devolve effective administrative and financial power to the local self-governing units, and the responsiveness and sensitivity of the lower echelons of the administrative machinery to the aspiration and needs of the local population. Alcohol has not favoured women

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and increase in indirect taxes has also impacted them poorly. The thrust of budgets also seems to push people to private providers.

Government schemes could be seen as Relief Policies like widow pension schemes. Gender reinforcing assistance like mother support schemes in health and empowering schemes for women help them to demand and enjoy full human rights. Conclusion Development Writers are so often used to repeating that focus of women development in India has shifted from 'welfare' in the 50's to development in the 70's and now to empowerment. This is hardly borne out in the programmes on the ground. There are largely schemes for relief like old age and widowhood schemes and major schemes related to Gender reinforcing assistance related to reproduction. The National Institute of Public Finance and Policy undertook the first gender budget exercise and categorized xpenditure into three categories. 1. Specifically targeted expenditure on women. 2. Pro women allocation – composite expenditure in the women component (at least 30%). 3. Mainstream expenditure with gender differential impact. It was understood that public expenditure can be clustered into four categories: a) Protective and welfare services accounting for 67% b) Social service-education, water, housing, health for 26% c) Economic resources-self employment, training, fuel supply management at 4% d) Regulatory services – awareness generation by NCW for 3% Allocation for women directed scheme is pitiful. Only ten Ministries/Departments have specially targeted schemes for women in India. The share of women specific programmes in Departments like education, agriculture, tribal affairs and social justice is also only around one percent. There is no proper administrative mechanism for execution and monitoring of expenditure. Heads still under rubric of benefits for mother and child. Shelter homes and counselling centres are still low on priority. It is, however, necessary that even though schemes are relief oriented, the process of accessing them has often been an individual and collected struggle which has sometimes led to

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empowerment and at others, disheartening. PACS strategy of collective pressure to access public resources for women has largely been empowering, though anecdotal. There are several critical issues to ensure a just and equitable State, with reference to gender. Some issues are not addressable due to procedural limitations of data collection which makes specific recommendations difficult. There is need to develop a workable Gender Audit System for Government and CSO programmes which would look at targets, training recruitments, promotion, infrastructure and decision making opportunities. The verbal change from Women Welfare to Women Rights needs to be converted into reality. This has some direct fall outs. Pitiful allotment for Vriddha and Vidva Pension and minimum wages will have to be reconsidered in terms of living wages, decent work and human right to opportunities for highest form of physical and mental health. Greatest inequity exits in family but poverty alleviation schemes address only the family. Gender Budgets need participation of other Departments, besides the existing ones. Gender Auditing of all organizations is necessary. As is evidenced in many studies, level of awareness of government schemes is very low and hence more effective publicity is necessary. A more effective MIS system for monitoring women welfare and women empowerment programmes is to be developed which is simple, transparent and involves both government and non government functionaries. Gender Resource Centres, with autonomy, need to be established in all States and in case of larger States, there must be more than one such centre involving academic & other activities. Practically no scheme exists to encourage women in non stereo typical occupations. Training of women in leadership market research and entrepreneurship, with follow ups, must be institutionalized. At the national as well as state levels, we need a fully fledged mechanism to ensure Gender Sensitive Policy and implementation through a participatory apex body. Clearer definition of work, joint pattas for women and men will ensure better control of women over resources as well as their acknowledgement in National income. Country's Inclusive Agenda requires a consistent engendering at all levels.

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Reference Dhameja S K (2002), Women Entrepreneurs: Opportunities, performance, problems, Deep publications (p) Ltd, New Delhi, p 11 Dynamics of entrepreneurial development and management – By Vasant Desai. Himalaya Publishing House. Entrepreneurship Development –By S.S Khanka. S. Chand & Company Limited. (Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110055). Indian Entrepreneurship

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FORMATION OF EARLY POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS IN MADRAS PRESIDENCY Dr. Mallika Begum Introduction

The British Imperialism gradually emerged to great height from Madras and slowly drifted towards its fall from the same place. Madras took the initiative in providing the masses the needed forum which deliberately discussed the political developments in different parts of the nation and the British exploitation of national economic resources. The Madras Elite were the first to create Political Associations at different levels, where political debates and discourses were arranged. In due course, not only elites but also common people participated either directly or indirectly in the matters affecting the nation. The Press rendered its major share in criticizing Government Actions as well as spreading the new idea of Nationalism and representative government among the people. It projected clearly the defects of the British Rule.

Early Political Associations Western education, in fact, contributed to the dissemination of knowledge on different aspects of life. Influenced by the progressive measures undertaken by the British, the people freely began to think about political ideologies, economic issues and social taboos. In the midst of this change, the work of the Christian Missionaries alerted the Caste Hindus who organized the Hindu Solidarity Move in the form of nationalism. To ventilate their grievances and get redressal for them, the Caste Hindus grouped together in Tamil Nadu.1 Gajulu Lakshminarasu Chetti, a Telugu Speaking Intellectual of Madras City, began to fight for the rights and privileges of the people and to guide them in the path of nationalism.2 He, along with a few intellectuals like P. Rangaiah Naidu, P. Anandacharalu, G.Subramania Aiyer and M. Vijayaraghava Chariyar, heralded the political consciousness in Madurai.3 Along with D. Venkateswara Naidu, he formed the Madras Based Political Association in order to appear before the Imperial Parliament for the cause of ventilating the grievances of the people.4 This Association became an independent body, working for the uplift of the middle and lower classes. Thereupon, the

 Assistant Professor, Department of Historical Studies, J.B.A.S. College for Women, Teynampet. Chennai-18.

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Association opened its branches in places like Cuddalore, Trichirappalli, Tirunelveli and Salem in order to collect information about the grievances of the people of the above localities. On this basis, in December 1855, the Association submitted a petition to the Parliament, Ventilating the grievances of its members.5 It charged the Company‘s Rule for its administrative anomalies and demanded its early termination.6

Thereupon, the Nationalists also founded the Madras Hindu Debating Society in 1852 under the leadership of M. Venkatarayalu Naidu, a merchant. The Society served as a representative organization of the Nationalists, voicing their claims and pointing out the flaws in the British Administration. Unfortunately, the Society became moribund with the death of its leader in the mid 1860‘s.7 In 1868, Ibrahim Ali, a Muslim Leader, established the ‗Triplicane Literary Society.‘ It represented the native opinion and discussed the important day to day issues of the people. As an expansion of its activities, the Society decided to voice the feelings and grievances of the people. The members of the Society felt the need for native newspapers for achieving their objectives. But Indian the Anglo Newspapers were going against the interest of the native people.8

The foreign writers viewed that the Political Consciousness was not so intense in the initial period of the Congress Organization in the Madras Presidency. The term ―Nationalism‖ has been variously defined, in the words of B.R. Ambedkar, ―as a feeling of a corporate sentiment of oneness which makes those who are charged with it, feel that they are kith and kin. It binds together those who have it so strongly that it overrides all difference arising out of economic conflicts or social differences‖. National Consciousness The Indian war of Independence of 1857-1858, though failed it proved very helpful in arousing political awakening throughout the country. Its most important result was the abolition of the misrule of the East India Company, and an Act for the ―Better Government of India‖ was passed in August 1858.9 It was followed by the famous Proclamation of Queen Victoria on the November 1, 1858, which ensured the material and moral improvement of the Indian subjects.

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The impact of western civilization for centuries aroused new aspirations and the spread of liberal education means the beginning of a tremendous upsurge. Besides, English education, the consolidation of British rule in India created condition favourable for the growth of nationalism. The advent of railway, steamer service and construction of roads created a new social mobility. It loosened the caste and religious restrictions and the injunctions regarding taking meals outside the house. The network of railways helped to link up different parts of the country which provided new facilities for contact and communication.10 Moreover, the tremendous steam of wealth that flowed from India to Great Britain resulted in country‘s poverty and recurring famines and caused unrest against British rule in the country.11 In spite of impoverishment and frustration, public spirited leaders tried to infuse a new lease of life into the prostrate nation. Their liberal work gave rise to new religious movements. The educative influence of the Bhramo Samaj, Arya Samaj, the Theosophical Society etc., had helped the spread of liberal ideas towards life and society.12 The aims of these religious movements were obviously religious reforms, social purification and cultural ameliosation of the Indians. But in this process they fostered political consciousness, helping the growth of nationalism.13 Madras Leaders Madras being the capital of the Composite Madras Province consisting of parts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It was natural that most of the linguistic journals and newspapers which promoted nationalism were first published from Madras.14 The first Tamil newspaper as such was the Swadesamitran, started by G. Subramania Aiyer in 1882, but for some years, it was not regular. It appeared as a weekly for sometime and then as a tri- weekly. The Hindu and the Swadesamitran were run by the same person till about 1898, when G. Subramania Aiyer left The Hindu and concentrated on the Swadesamitran which he converted into a daily in 1899.15 G. Subramania Aiyer had employed young Subramania Bharathi as sub-editor in Swadesamitran. Bharathi proved himself in due course to be the greatest Tamil poet of nationalism. Besides he was a gifted writer in Tamil prose as well. The first political news weekly in the Telugu language was started in the year, 1885 which saw the birth of Indian National Congress. This was the Andhra Prakasika, edited by A. P. Parthasarathi Naidu from Madras. Naidu was

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an ardent nationalist who carried on the publication of this weekly with vigour for more than twenty five years.16 Thenceforth, The national awakening had intensified with the emergence of a group of young graduates who were determined to work for the cause of the people. G. Subramania Aiyer, V. Bakshyam Iyengar, N. Subha Rao, R. Ragunatha Rao, C. Karunakara Menon and P. Anandacharalu were a few of such people. Among them, G. Subramania Aiyer in collaboration with a few more wage a struggle to defend the native opinion. He also went on a lecturing tour in the Madras Presidency for the purpose of popularsing the principles of local self- government.17 Thereupon, he spread hsi messages through press activities.18 His two newspapers served as vehicles for spreading the ideas of nationalism and tried to educate the masses. Madras Mahajana Sabha Further, these English educated native people began to seek jobs. They entered the legal profession and journalism. With the establishment of the Madras High Court in 1862, a large number of educated persons became lawyers.19 In this way Madras emerged as the gallery of educated employers, wealthy businessmen and aspiring politicians.20 There was an influx of people from different parts of Tamil Nadu seeking admission to educational institutions, securing berth in the bureaucratic machinery and getting footholds in the political organization in Madras. This unique development created a cultural synthesis of people from different walks of life and Madras emerged as the meeting ground for different cultures.21 When the educated started gathering together, they developed common political goal and with that end in mind, they sought a common political organization. As a result, the Madras Native Association was revived in 1882 under the presidentship of V. Bashyam Iyengar. It served as a forum for ventilating the grievances and showing the unity of the people. Even though G. Subramania Aiyer and Vijayaraghavachariar backed the association stoutly, it could not function as vigorously as it did under the inspiring guidance of G. Lakshminarasu Chetti. It ultimately emerged as the Madras Mahanjana Sabha on 16 May 1884.22 This sabha tried to promote nationalism among the people.23 The prominent among its leaders were G. Subramania Aiyer, P. Rangaiah Naidu, C. Vijayaraghavachari, S. Subramania Aiyer and Salem Ramasami Mudaliar. The establishment of the Association provided a form for the non official intelligentsia of Madras State.

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In reality, there was a shift of political leadership in Madras State from the merchant class to the intelligentsia, for the members of Madras Native Association confluenced into Madras Mahajana Sabha after considerable dismay.24 When the first conference of the Madras Mahajana Sabha was organized in December 1884. P. Rangaiah Naidu, the President of the Sabha, expressed his desire to organize similar conferences every year to air their opinions on vital issues such as the plight of the depressed classes, judicial reforms and legislative measures affecting the nation.25 Thus the educated members of the sabha grouped together and developed the concept of a common national political organization.26 Thereupon, the leaders from this Association met the leaders of Poona Sarvajanic Sabha and the Bombay Presidency Association in order to form a national Association. Accordingly, the Madras Mahajana Sabha acted as the provincial forerunner of the Indian National Congress. Madras occupied a significant place where the final decision was taken up for the formation of national organisation.27 When the session of the Indian National Congress met at Poona on 27 December 1885, the Madras nationalists like S. Subramania Aiyer, G. Subramania Iyer, M. Vijayaraghavachariar, P. Anandacharalu and P. Rangaiah Naidu participated in it and the Madras Mahajana Sabha affiliated itself to the Madras Provincial Congress Committee.28 These nationalists provided an opportunity to Madras to act as the venue for the third session of the Congress which met on 27 December 1887. All the prominent Madras leaders participated in the deliberations of the session. Almost all the communities, religious sections and professional groups attended the session. Many ordinary people involved themselves in the sessions‘s proceedings, which manifested the growth of political consciousness among the people.29 One the appeal made by the leaders in the session, district conferences were organized which ultimately worked for great awakening among the mass.30 In the Tamil districts like Coimbatore, Trichirappalli, Madurai and Tirunelveli such organizations promoted national spirit.31 The Congress again took the issue of exclusion of Indians from the higher public services.32 In 1904 Congress leader Annie Besant established the Madras Hindu Association to create cultural synthesis in the state.33 The people under foreign yoke could be awakened by idea, actions and associations. In Tamil Nadu, some premier associations showed the way for political awareness. They could ferment nationalisation and patriotism by ways of speeches, writings, petitions and persuations,

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propaganda and proposals. These associations not only awakened the learned but the illiterates, not only the saravanas but also the avarnas also. These associations and press thus carved out a place for them in the process of political, social and economic awakening of the people.

End Notes 1 Rajini Kothari, (ed.), Caste in Indian Politics, Poona, 1970, p. 263.

2. Unmai (Tamil Monthly), 15 April 1991, p. 8.

3. Sadasivan, D., The Growth of Public Opinion in the Madras Presidency, 1858-1909, Madras.

4. Ramgopal, How India Struggled for Freedom, The Political History, Bombay, 1967, p. 30.

5. Gopala Krishnan, S., Political Movement in South India, 1919- 1929, Madras, 1981, p. 9.

6. Majumdar, B.B., Indian Political Association and Reforms of Legislatures, 1818-1917, Calcutta, 1965, pp. 64-65.

7. Mahortra, S.R., The Emergency of the Indian National Congress, Delhi, 1971, pp. 204- 205.

8. Rangaswami Parthasarathi, A Hundred Years of the Hindu: An Epic Story of Indian Nationalism, Madras, 1978, pp. 1-5.

9. Tendulkar, D.G., Mahatma: Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, 1869-1920, Vol.1, New Delhi, 1988, p. 2.

10. Desai, A.R., Social Background of Indian Nationalism, Bombay, 1966, p.244. Also Sir George Chesney, Indian Polity, The System of Administration in India, New Delhi, 1984, p. 300.

11. Jawaharlal Verma, ‗Political Consciousness and National Awakening in the Baxar District,1858-1919,‘ in Shodhak, Vol. 31, Jaipur, 2002, p. 57.

12. Roy Chaudhary, Sahabad District Gazetteers, Patna, 1966, p. 107.

13. Ojha, P.N., (ed.), History of Indian National Congress in Bihar, 1885-1985, Patna, 1985, p. 6.

14. Sarojini Regni, ‗The Growth of Telugu Press‘, Sen, S.P., (ed.), The Indian Press, Calcutta, 1967, p. 84.

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15. Pillai, K.K., ‗The History of the Tamil Press‘ in Sen S.P., (ed.), The Indian Press, Calcutta, 1967, p. 84.

16. Sarojini Regani, loc. cit., p. 94.

17. Sadasivam, D., op. cit., p. 27.

18. Sundaram Pillai, K., Sri. G. Subramania Iyer, Madras, 1907, p. 25.

19. Kudi Arasu (Tamil Daily), Madras, 17 August 1939.

20. Baker, C.J., The Politics of South India, 1920-1937, New Delhi, 1976, p. 23.

21. Shankar Phatnak, Social Welfare, Madras, 1981, p. 74.

22. Sadasivam, D., op. cit., pp. 27-28.

23. Tara Chand, History of the Freedom Movement in India, Vol.1,Delhi,1972, p. 545.

24. Gopalakrishnan, S., op. cit., p. 12.

25. Venkatarangaiya, M., (ed.), The Freedom Struggle in Andhra Pradesh, Vol. 1, Hydrabad, 1969, pp. 212-214.

26. Low., D.A., (ed.), Congress and the Raj: Facts of the Indian Struggles, 1917-1947, New Delhi, 1971, p. 5.

27. David Arnold, op. cit., p. 17.

28. Sadasivam, D., op. cit., p. 33.

29. Pattabi Sitaramayya, B., Congress Mahasabhai Charitram, (Tamil), Madras, 1935, p. 57.

30 . The Hindu, 29 March 1902, Madras Native Newspapers Report, 1902, p. 5.

31. Eugene, F., Irschick, Politics and Social Conflict in South India, 1916-1929, Berkeley, 1969, p.23.

32. Sadasivam., D., op. cit., 43.

33. Nambi Arooran, K., Tamil Renaissance and Dravidian Natiraralism, 1905-1954, Madurai, 1980, pp. 10-11.

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DISASTER VULNERABILITY ON SPECIFIC GROUP – A STUDY Dr. A. Singaravel & Dr. R. Kanna Bramma Maheswaran

Introduction India is one of the most disaster prone countries in the world. It is mainly an agricultural country and its economy depends on the vagaries of the weather and in particular, the extreme weather events. The socio-economic impact of extreme weather events like earthquakes, floods, droughts, cyclones, storms, has been increasing due to rapid growth of population and its migration towards urban areas, which has led to greater vulnerability.

Human Vulnerability is the relative lack of capacity of a person or community to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard. Factors that increase human vulnerability to disasters include lack of knowledge about how to effectively resist the effects of disasters and also the factor of poverty. By the result of any disaster, people are forced to leave their land and migrate elsewhere.

There are a number of factors that make certain groups more vulnerable to disasters. The excluded are already put on the fringe of the society and are forced to occupy unsafe land areas or live in high-density areas. They have a lack of mobility while working in vulnerable, low paid occupations. The education level is low and so is the perception of risk as well as the absence of disaster management and planning. Assessing the impact of natural disasters on community is important for three reasons. First, such information is useful to community leaders to determine if there is a need for external assistance and if so, how much. Second, information about disaster impact can be used to identify specific segments of the community that have been affected disproportionately e.g., low- income households, ethnic minorities or specific types of businesses that might be affected in the future. Third, planners can develop disaster impact projections before disasters strike to assess potential vulnerability of alternative hazard adjustments.

 Director, UGC Academic Staff College, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli.

 Lecturer in History, Bharathidasan University Constituent College, Lalgudi.

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In the context of human vulnerability to disasters based on the experience of disaster in India, the economically and socially weaker segments of the population are the ones that are most seriously affected. Within the vulnerable groups, elderly persons, women, children especially women rendered destitute and children orphaned on account of disasters and the differently abled persons are subject to higher risks.

Definition of Vulnerability Vulnerability is defined as the extent to which a community, structure, service, or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to a disaster prone area. A badly constructed brick building is more likely to disintegrate with the violent ground shaking of an earthquake and therefore, it is more vulnerable to earthquake hazard. Social and economic conditions also determine the vulnerability of a society to an extent. It has been observed that human losses in disasters in developing countries like India tend to be high while compared with the developed countries where material losses predominate. Disaster Vulnerability on Specific Group

Natural Disasters do not affect people equally. In fact, a vulnerability approach to disasters would suggest that inequalities in exposure and sensitivity to risk as well as inequalities in access to resources, capabilities, and opportunities, systematically disadvantage certain groups of people, rendering them more vulnerable to the impact of natural disasters. Biological and physiological differences between the sexes are unlikely to explain large-scale gender differences in mortality rates. Social norms and role behaviours provide some further explanation but what is likely to matter most is the everyday socio-economic status of women.

At an individual level, some may experience a disaster with few psychological consequences while others will go through the same disaster more emotionally devastated. Beyond individual variation, certain categories of people are especially vulnerable in a specific ways. People‘s response to emergencies is grounded in their on-going relationships with their

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community. Differences in power or access to power and different pre-disaster stressors and pre- disaster social roles affect how individuals experience a disaster.

In general, those with the least power and resources are most exposed to the adverse effects of the disaster and its aftermath and have a harder time recovering from it. Pre-disaster high levels of stress, lack of resources, lack of information, lack of access to power, lack of access to transportation, lack of marketable skills, lack of literacy, all take their toll. For example, structural changes in the world economy have adversely affected women in many societies, reducing their standard of living, undermining their household based security, and intensifying their load of paid and unpaid work. For impoverished, uprooted peasants, urbanization may mean less substantial housing, relocation to more environmentally dangerous locales and exposure to toxic materials. Ethnic tensions, manageable before a disaster, may become the source of acute ethnic conflict in the wake of disaster. To the degree that inequality in the impact of disaster is rooted in the unresolved dilemmas of global political, economic, and social development, issues of social justice and sustainable development can be related to disaster preparedness and response issues. Not everyone in a given category has the experiences described and an individual may fall into more than one group. Goals, experience, and needs must be assessed on an individual basis.

Children During the disaster children, due to lack of awareness and fears, are unable to protect themselves. Two myths are potential barriers to recognizing children‘s responses to disaster and must be rejected: 1. that children are innately resilient and will recover rapidly, even from severe trauma; and secondly, that children, especially young children, are not affected by disaster unless they are disturbed by their parents‘ responses. Both of these beliefs are false. A wealth of evidence indicates that children experience the effects of disaster doubly. Even very young children are directly affected by experiences of death, destruction, terror, personal physical assault and by experiencing the absence of powerlessness of their parents. They are also indirectly affected through identification with the effects of the disaster on their parents and other trusted adults and by their parents‘ reactions to the disaster.

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Another barrier to recognizing children‘s responses to disaster is the tendency of parents to misinterpret their children‘s reactions. The parents, who are already under stress, misunderstand child‘s withdrawal, regression, or misconduct as willful. Another possibility is that parents may not wish to be reminded of their own trauma and that their life is again back in control, In either case, they may ignore or deny evidence of their children‘s distress. The child, in turn, may feel ignored, not validated and nurtured. This may have long-term consequences for the child‘s development. In the short run, feeling insecure, the child may inhibit expression of his or her own feelings lest he or she drives away the parents into even more distress. Majority of children respond sensibly and appropriately to disaster, especially if they experience the protection, support and stability of their parents and other trusted adults. However, like adults, they may respond to disaster with a wide range of symptoms. Their responses are generally similar to those of adults, although they may appear in more direct, less disguised form. Among pre-school children, anxiety symptoms may appear in generalized form as fears about separation, fears of strangers, fears of monsters or animals or sleep disturbances. The child may also avoid specific situations or environments which may or may not have obvious links to the disaster. The child may appear pre-occupied with words or symbols that may or may not be associated with the disaster in obvious ways or may engage in compulsively repetitive play which represents part of the disaster experience. The child may show a limited expression of emotion or a constricted pattern of play may appear. He or she may withdraw socially or may lose previously acquired developmental skills. Older children may engage in repetitious play in which the child re-enacts parts of the disaster or in repeated retelling of the story of the disaster. The child may express concern about safety and pre-occupation with danger. Sleeping disturbances, irritability, aggressive behavior and angry outbursts may appear. The child may pay close attention to his or her parents‘ worries or seem to worry excessively about family members and friends. School avoidance may appear. Magical explanations may be offered to fill in gaps in understanding, and other behaviors usually characteristic of much younger children. Other changes in behavior, mood, and personality, obvious anxiety and fearfulness, withdrawal, loss of interest in activities and distractible behavior, may also appear.

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As children approach adolescence, their responses become increasingly like adult responses. Greater levels of aggressive behaviors, defiance of parents, delinquency, substance abuse, and risk-taking behaviors may be evident. School performance may decline. Wishes for revenge may be expressed. Adolescents are especially unlikely to seek out counseling. Children of all ages are strongly affected by the responses of their parents or other caretakers to disaster. Children are especially vulnerable to feeling abandoned when they are separated from their parents. Protecting children by sending them away from the scene of the disaster, thus separating them from their loved ones, adds the trauma of separation to the trauma of disaster. For an adult, although the effects of disaster may be profound and lasting, they take place in an already formed personality. For children, the effects are magnified by the fact that the child‘s personality is still developing. The child has to construct their identity within a framework of the psychological damage caused by the disaster. When the symptoms produced by disaster are not treated because of the destruction wrought. The consequences are even more graves. The child grave up with fear and anxiety, with the experience of destruction or cruelty or violence, with separation from home and family. Childhood itself, with its normal play, love, and affection, is lost. Longer-term responses of children, who have been chronically traumatized, may include a Defensive Desensitization. They seem cold, insensitive, lacking in emotion in daily life. Violence may come to be seen as the norm, legitimate. A sense of a meaningful future is lost.

Women Women are integral part of functioning societies, with established roles and rules. In order to address how people respond to emergencies and why they respond the way they do, it must be highlighted that responses are grounded in an existing social structure. Social structures not only provide the context, form and meaning for response but also a critical part of vulnerability. The vulnerability of women stems from cultural, political, and economic conditions. The poor and destitute are the most vulnerable and they are disproportionately women and their dependent children. The organizational avenues through which people gain access to resources, social status and even psychological well-being, have an important bearing on perceptions of hazard, disaster mitigation and recovery.

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The situation of women must be understood both in terms of their capacities viz, what they can contribute and their vulnerabilities. Women should be seen as partners in formulating an emergency response for themselves and their dependent children since disasters focus responsibility for children more sharply on women. Women‘s roles and experiences create special vulnerability in the face of disaster. In poorer countries, women are more likely to die in disasters than men are. In richer countries also, women often show higher rates of post disaster psychological distress-depression, and anxiety. Several aspects of women‘s experience of disaster may contribute to these results: Women are often assigned the role of Family Care Givers. As such, they must stay with and assist other family members. This may affect their willingness to leave their homes when a disaster (such as a storm) threatens. While their own threshold for leaving may actually be lower than men‘s, their actual willingness to go may depend on their being able to leave with their children. Women have particular relevance in a time of disaster when absence of sufficient food would result in women and girls being the primary victims. Cultural and social subordination in a male-dominated power structure leaves women more vulnerable to Manipulation, and manipulation can take the form of having to extend favours, mostly sexual, in exchange for food or shelter for themselves and their children. Women may be more isolated and homebound due to their traditional roles and occupations. As a result, they may have less access to information. They may also be more vulnerable to the physical effects of a disaster on their house itself, both with respect to their physical safety and to the integrity of their work areas. In the aftermath of disaster, women may face another threat, violence. This threat may take several forms. Within the immediate family, disaster may initially lead all members of the family to unite in their efforts to deal with the crisis. Over the course of weeks or months, however, the continued strain may be divisive. As family stress mounts, women may become more exposed to physical or emotional abuse from their spouse. Other women, who have previously fled their marriage to avoid beatings, may be inadvertently re-exposed to their abusers (e.g., in shelters). Women may also be exposed to rape and other forms of violence in shelters or refugee camps. In war situations, women and girls may be specifically targeted. During the period of Post-Disaster Recovery, women often get less assistance. Their husbands, as ―head‖ of the household, often become the conduit for assistance to the family,

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which may or may not be equitably shared within the family. In some instances of food shortage, women have been given the lowest priority for getting a portion of what food is available. Discrimination with respect to food and medical attention in shelters has also been a problem in some instances. Health care facilities in shelters and refugee camps often do not attend to women‘s needs with regard to reproductive health and providing for relief of other sources of strain on women, such as responsibilities for childcare, often get a low priority. In the aftermath of disaster, women, who were widowed by the disaster, may find it harder to remarry than men. Lacking skills that are saleable in the paid job market, they may be left destitute. Alternately, husbands may leave the disaster community, seeking paid work elsewhere, leaving their wives more dependent on outside assistance and more isolated. On the other hand, the experience of women in disaster, it should be emphasized, can create opportunities for women as well. Women may have better social networks and hence, more social support than men. They may emerge as the leaders of grass roots level organizations. They may be able to use disaster aid to develop skills, acquire tools, and take on non-traditional roles. These changes are not without risk, however, since they may lead to interfamily-conflict. In addition, gender inequality in social, economic and political spheres results in vast differences between men and women in emergency communication; household decisions about use of relief assets; voluntary relief and recovery work; access to evacuation shelter and relief goods; and employment in disaster planning, relief and recovery programs, among other areas of concern in disaster relief. Women are portrayed as the victims of disaster and their central role in response to disaster is often overlooked. A woman‘s pre-disaster familial responsibilities are magnified and expanded by the onset of a disaster or emergency, with significantly less support and resources. Women play a central role within the family, securing relief from emergency authorities, meeting the immediate survival needs of family members and managing temporary relocation.

Elders Reports on the responses of the elderly to disaster are inconsistent. In some disasters, they seem no more vulnerable than younger people. In others, they appear more vulnerable. Despite the inconsistency in formal research studies, there are reasons to believe that the elderly are at

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increased risk for adverse emotional effects in the wake of disaster. They may live alone and lack help and other resources. Depression and other forms of distress among the elderly are readily overlooked, in part because they may not take on exactly the same symptom pattern as among younger people. For instance, disorientation, memory loss and distractibility may be signs of depression in the elderly. The elderly are also more vulnerable to being victimized. In the context of increased stress on the family and community, meeting their special needs may take on a decreased priority. One particular issue that may appear is feelings that they have lost their entire life (loss of children, homes, and memorabilia) and that, due to their age, there is not enough time left in their life to rebuild and recreate. The elderly are also more likely to be physically disabled.

Orphans, Female-headed Households and Single Parents A large number of children are left without their parents and this category requires special protection both immediately and continuing into the medium and long term. The respective State Governments have declared special compensation and care programs for orphaned children and adolescents. Similarly, female-headed households present a particular vulnerability as the women have to deal with their own psycho-social distress, loss of livelihood and the care of their dependents. Discussion with the communities revealed that many female headed households were not included in the relief beneficiary lists and care should be taken to ensure that they are not left out of rehabilitation schemes. At the same time, the loss of the male head or income earner, increases the family‘s economic vulnerability and significantly reducing its coping ability. Single-parent households, therefore, also need to be enumerated and provided special support. Priority should be given to uniting separated children with their families. Orphans need to be provided with culturally sensitive care options and psycho-social support and legal protection. Creating awareness and providing training on child rights and child protection should be carried out with relevant stakeholders. Female-headed households and disabled persons should also be provided with psychosocial support, livelihood restoration, and legal protection on matters related to property and inheritance rights and child custody. Vulnerable groups that cannot

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immediately undertake economic activities, need to be assisted through targeted social transfers and social protection measures.

Conclusion Problems of women in the broad context of disasters and emergencies have only recently been addressed. Gender usually has not been a conscious criterion employed by relief agencies to effectively assist the so called "vulnerable groups" in their special needs when an emergency or disaster occurs. Vulnerability of women is a fact, based on the larger number of women and woman-headed households in emergencies and on the responsibilities borne by women related to the stability of the domestic group, including a disproportionate responsibility for dependent children. Vulnerability, from this perspective, is primarily cultural and organizational. Natural disasters and emergencies often produce single-parent families. Vulnerability can be minimized if adequate measures of assistance and physical and legal protection are adopted. Considerable attention has to be paid separately to Women, Children and Elders during and after disaster. Awareness and preparedness programmes can be conducted to the vulnerable groups at national and local level to help them to face disaster. Intelligent Disaster Management System for remote villages in India provides a quick identification of disaster and helps to pay attention towards the vulnerable groups. It also gives a suitable warning to all the villagers predicting a possibility of flood and other disasters. The highlight of this system is that it does not need any power supply and hence the robustness of the system which works even in the worst of the times, i.e. when there is no power or telephones. Political System could minimize the vulnerability through declaration, legislation, policy decisions and action at the highest level, which would require the progressive implementation of disaster assessment and reduction plans at the national and community level. The need to enhance women's associations in developing economies during disasters and emergencies is identified. Associations are built up in some societies to respond to particular needs. Societies with strong indigenous associations have an organizational base for response to disasters and emergencies. Often these associations function to cross-cut kin groups, serving to balance dominating political and economic forces.

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Reference:

Humanitarian Response Review: An independent report commissioned by the United Nations Emergency Relief Coordinator & Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) August, 2005.

Kett Maria, Stubbs Sue, Yeo Rebecca: Disability in Conflict and Emergency Situations: Focus on Tsunami-Affected Areas, IDDC Research Report, International Disability and Development Consortium; 2005.

Raymond E. Wiest: The needs of Women in Disasters and Emergencies, Winnipeg, Manitoba; 1994.

Schwoebel, Mary Hope: Unsung Heroines: Women and Natural Disasters, Gender Matters Information Bulletin, No. 8, 2000 (January), U.S. Agency for International Development.

Venkataramanujam: Gorgonian resources of the east coast of India and methods of their conservation. In the Proceedings of the 4th International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila, 1989.

World Health Organization Situation Report No. 19, 16 January 2005.

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EDUCATION FOR EMPLOYMENT OR EMPOWERMENT? S. Iyyampillai

Introduction This note aims at answering the following questions? Do our schools and colleges give right type of education to our children and youth? Why does the gross enrolment ratio in India remain at a lower level, as compared to that in developed countries, in spite of the fast increase in the number of private colleges and universities in the recent years? Is employability of the students passing out of the colleges and universities in India, poor, as frequently pointed out by the Indian education administrators (eg. Chair Persons of National Knowledge Commission and University Grants Commission)? If so, why? How to correct this trend? Can the present method of enhancing education yield the desired results? Why do the so called rich, modern and highly educated countries too face social as well as economic problems? What is the role of education? Why do the students of very highly esteemed institutions also kill their class-mates and themselves (commit suicides)? Is the sole aim of education to get employment and earn more money? What about the objectives mentioned by the Indian educational philosophers? Is money alone enough? Can money do every thing or buy every thing? Can human being survive only with the money? Are all rich persons happy? Why do rich persons also commit suicide? Why does the Frustration Index1 go up? Meaning of Education Indian Philosophers

As far as Indian Philosophers are concerned, education is expected to promote caring, charity, commitment, compassion, faith, forgiveness, generosity, gratitude, harmony, honesty, integrity, love, loyalty, meditation, obedience, patience, purity, respect, responsibility, reverence, sacrifice, service, sincerity, simplicity, transparency, trust and unity. For Koutilya, education is training for the country and love for the nation. For Vivekananda, education is not the amount of

 Professor of Economics, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli

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information that is put into the brain and run riot there, undigested all through the life. He holds every man a traitor, who having been educated at the people‘s expense, pays not the least heed to them. For M.K.Gandhi, education (1) should manifest divine perfection already existing in man; (2) must develop not only the brain but also body and soul; (3) must draw out the best in child and man; (4) should enable the mind to find the ultimate truth, which gives wealth and inner light and love; (5) must develop various physical, intellectual, aesthetic and moral faculties; (6) must develop character, good habits and civic sense; and, (7) must bring social amelioration and change. For Tagore [1861-1941], nature is the greatest of all educators. Education should be for developing one into ‗whole man‘ and education should promote peace, love, kindness and ideals and aim at freedom and of sympathy with all humanity. According to Jawaharlal Nehru: ―A university stands for humanism, for tolerance, for reason, for the adventure of ideas and for the search of truth. It stands for the onward march of the human race towards even higher objectives‖. Education should not make the students to go along with the teachers but to go along with the society. In VKRV Rao‘s view (Former Education Minister and builder of three internationally reputed institutions), education should encourage the fullest possible development of the personality of each student. In others‘ view, education is an integrating process; education should help one to face the challenges in life and to realize one‘s potentials.

Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Schools and colleges increasingly undertake broad functions for the mass of the population that were formerly fulfilled by family, community and church. The educational system becomes a device for orderly change across generations [p.512]. Since education faces many forces in complex societies, its adaptation in one direction may generate serious strain in another [p.513]. The college is a formal social system with external relations and internal patterns that condition the educational process [p.515]. Education is a planned process of transmission, consisting of three elements: Preservation, Innovation and Dissemination [p.528].

Modern thinkers

For T W Schultz and Gary S Becker [Nobel Prize Winners in Economics], education is the process of training and developing the knowledge, skill, mind and character etc.. Education

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is the training in preparing for life or some particular task. Education is to equip men and women to better understanding of the world and the human situation and to develop their abilities to discharge their distinctive roles in society. Education helps acquiring capabilities2 that render future satisfaction or that enhances future earnings of the person as a productive agent3. Education in industrial societies is characteristically aimed at the production of experts. Education is a principal instrument for passing on the accumulated experience. Education decreases social disparities and promotes social mobility. Education prepares the human resource for the professionals, administrative and defence services, for business and industry, for teaching and health services, and for the leadership in all walks of life. Hence aiming at earning profit from educational institutions is unethical.

But do we find these in our syllabi? Why are not there? Should the educational institutions not consider and incorporate these aspects in the syllabi? How could it be done? Who should initiate this process?

Deploring the present conditions, Poromesh Acharya (1997, Educational Ideals of Tagore and Gandhi, Economic and Political Weekly, March 22, Vol.XXXII, No.12, pp.601-606), has observed, "Educational developments visualized by great educators have not been pursued by any country [p.601]. Gandhi and Tagore were remembered more by street names [p.601] rather than by ideologies ".

In the early days, the Government of India4 aimed at extending proper education to all people at affordable cost. The Education Commission of 1882 [or Hunter Commission] had recommended the gradual withdrawal of the State from the direct support and management of institutions of higher education. However, the Government of India, from 1910 onwards, agreed to subsidize the opening of elementary schools in every village, with more than 500 inhabitants. Maulana Azad, India‘s First Education Minister, envisaged strong control of the Central Government over education throughout the country, with a uniform educational system. In 1982, the TN Government introduced mid-day meal programme to cover all rural children in the 2-9 age group. It was then extended to urban areas and to ages 10-15 in 1984. National Mid-Day

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Meal Programme began in 1995. Free textbooks are given to all children upto class eight and free uniforms to all beneficiaries of the mid-day meal scheme. Madhya Pradesh pioneered the Education Guarantee Scheme. Rajsasthan started in 1987-88 Shiksha Karmi Scheme [as per this scheme, two para-teachers were appointed by the community]. Article 45 of the Constitution of India states: ―The State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of 15 years‖. Various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. SSA programme was started in 2001 to provide education to all children between 6-14 years by 2010. The Justice D.K.Punnayya Committee, appointed by the UGC, suggested Governments not to give up their responsibility for the Higher Education Sector. UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education (Paris, 5-9, October 1998) finalized a document entitled, ―World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-First Century – Vision and Action‖. Article 14 is on ―Financing of Higher Education as a Public Service‖. It states, ―Public support for higher education and research remains essential‖; ―Society as a whole must support education al all levels, including higher education‖.

Present situation But today, for the parents, teachers, schools and colleges in India, education is meant only for earning more money and amassing wealth. Indian Government‘s policies of recent years also go in the same line of thought. In the name of modernization5, basic skills get less/no attention. Gradually non-academic activities gain unduly larger space in college/university campuses. In recent years, more educational institutions have been allowed to be started by private parties. And in the last 15 years, they have become prosperous, fast enlarging their buildings and campuses. For attracting the crowds, they adopt various anti-academic strategies and fraudulent advertisements too. They bring people of cheap popularity for making cheap advertisement. The gullible parents and students get trapped into this deceptive net. They make the students happy by organizing frequent cultural programmes. They arrange comfortable transport and canteen facilities. They go for diluted syllabi. They are very liberal in giving attendance and awarding marks. Many private institutions arrange copying in examination halls and many are hidden,

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managed and manoeuvred and managed amicably, a few come to the surface. Recently, the District Collector of Thiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Anshul Mishra, has unraveled ‗organised‘ mass copying in the SSLC public examinations in a (mis)leading private matriculation school (Mount Saint Joseph Matriculation School). Seven supervisors were possessing ‗bit‘ papers with answers on them. Large number of xeroxed key for the examination on that day (Mathematics) and huge sum of money as incentives were dug out from the school office. This news appeared on the very first page of The Hindu (news paper of Tiruchirappalli Edition), dated April 17, 2012. The students, teachers, management and parents were aware of it. Though they blame each other when there is any problem, they are all party to it. With all these, the students are happy as long as they are there in the school/college campuses. Once they come out, they look for jobs with less work and high salary. Very few of these students are able to clear state level and national level competitions. Hence their Frustration Index goes up above one. These students, with little skills, end up with either more difficult jobs or low paid jobs through campus placements, where other than discipline (core subjects of study) related skills are looked for. Youthfulness, beauty6 and good-looking are the major parameters. The colleges advertise too much about the campus placement arrangements and they inflated the numbers too. Most of the students who get placements through campus selection process, quit the jobs soon. This is why attrition rate is very high in the firms that adopt campus placement process. Also, these institutions charge heavy fees, which are mainly used for enlarging and maintaining their properties. Obedient persons are appointed as teachers, who are prepared to accept lower salaries and to do all kinds of works, mainly non-teaching. Nepotism and favoritism are very much prevalent in the teachers‘ recruitment. These foot-loose teachers spend more time in searching for jobs in government institutions. In the month of March, 2012, in Madurai, the Association of Self Financed College Teachers had requested the Government of Tamil Nadu to take over all self-financed colleges. Against this background, these powerless teachers and powerful managers spend their time, money and man-power mainly to maintain discipline in the campus, rather than the educational qualities. For attaining this, fines, punishments and internal marks are misused as weapons. In the name of discipline, the students are deprived of freedom of expression and are always kept under a threat from the managers of the institutions. Instead of imparting skills to the students, more time is wasted in finding out the ways of inflating marks. This situation is

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creating many other problems too. With high marks and too many degree certificates, the students‘ psychic cost increases and hence they expect very high salaries. But salaries in the private sectors are normally linked to the workers‘ contributions to the companies‘ profits. With this mismatch, a very high proportion of the youth are unable to get suitable job and they go on roaming from pillar to post in search of higher salaries, raising the attrition levels. Too many degrees with little skill create problem in the married life too. The present day youth, with unfounded confidence, look for alliance with lots of expectations. But gradually they learn their inability to get the job as they desired and the degrees they obtained fail to fetch them suitable job. This situation creates misunderstanding and mistrust in the families too. To manage this problem, they travel long distance in search of suitable job and end up with long duration of separation and finally divorce and lonely life. On the other hand, the government institutions are not without deficiencies. Here the fees are lower; scholarship is more; salary for the teachers is greater but accountability is less; holidays are more; infrastructure is poor; toilets with water is almost absent; libraries are kept locked. Nobody bothers about any body. Totally indifferent environment prevails. Signing the attendance is given top most priority and this is the only important job for all – teaching and non- teaching staff and students. Once that is done, almost all are happy. For students, the scholarship is the most important thing and hence they come in large numbers in the morning. It is difficult to make them do any academic work and if it is enforced, the students would create many more problems. On 16th April 2012, there was a commotion in front of the Government College, Musiri and some students were blocking the entry into the college. The cause for this situation was that the police had beaten up a person who was creating nuisance in public place in Musiri and the person was one of the students of this college. Teachers have no power to control the students. Teachers are very particular in signing the attendance register. Summer and winter holidays, study holidays, local holidays due to celebrations, flood and non-availability of water, casual leave, medical leave, earned leave, examinations and admissions eat away large number of days. Almost all students get first class with distinction and failure is almost nil. Many students are not aware of UPSC, TNPSC and other similar examinations. They hardly make any attempt to know all these and they hardly clear any state level or national level competitive examinations. But both teachers and students

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of the colleges find fault with the conduct and nature of competitive examinations and they easily pass on bad comments on these examinations. For improving the quality of academic environment here, the State has to do a lot more monitoring, supervision and evaluation along with socio-economic developmental programmes for the students and their family members and just giving jobs and salaries for some and admissions and scholarships for others, would not achieve what the society needs.

Public versus private funding With all these problems, Discussion Paper of Government of India suggests raising fees. The National Policy on Education, revised in 1992, had promised to commit six per cent of GDP to education. But it remains hardly around three per cent for long and It would adversely affect the gross enrolment ratio. Eighty five per cent of the students terminate at UG level, expect to find job, but suffer only frustration5. This will limit our ability to compete with other countries. Public Funding for Higher Education in other countries is much higher than that in India (89%). It is 99% in Denmark, 98% in the Netherlands, 93%in Ireland and 90% in Canada. For a long time, Great Britain had no fees up to bachelor‘s degree. The fee as a percentage of expenditure on higher education is 25% in US, 10% in China and less than 5% in Japan. Even in the USA, enrolment in private institutions is only to the extent of 25 %. Private institutions and foreign institutions are ―fly-by-night‖ institutions. The World Bank (WB) espouses loans in lieu of increased fee, but shows poor recovery rate. WB states that due to higher default rates, and high administrative costs, the financial performance of loan schemes has been unsatisfactory. Loan Scheme would face utter failure in India because India‘s student population (more than 2 crores, which is much larger than some countries whole population in the world) is interested more in obtaining degree certificates rather than skills and hence the probability of getting desired job is lower and as a result, their repayment capacity is also lower. They would soon ask the Government for waiving interest and loan. The Governments also would do for getting their vote during the elections. Against this background, the Educational Administrators in India still advocate the policy of privatization7 of education. This has helped many rich business persons to earn more money by running colleges and universities and by producing large number of diploma and degree

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holders. The following statistics are evidence to the present day situation in India. As of 2009, in India there are 20 Central Universities; 215 State Universities; 100 Deemed Universities; 16,000 Colleges [1,800 only for women]; almost 50 per cent of the colleges today are not eligible for UGC assistance (teacher records are not proper). Teachers are unable to get the eligibility condition as per the UGC norms. The minority institutions have become employment offices for their own kith and kin. Deemed Universities have become ―family fiefdoms‖. Fake degrees are common. One raid in Bihar found one lakh fake certificates; UGC found 19 fake institutions operating in India; 3 per cent of Indians are illiterate; only 15 per cent of Indian students reach high school; only seven per cent of Indian students are graduates; as much as 25 per cent of teaching positions nationwide are vacant and 57 per cent of college/university teachers are not duly qualified. Conclusion In India now, thanks to privatization, the cost of degree certificates goes on increasing. The high cost environment excludes the have-nots. As a result, the gross enrolment ratio for this group is very low in India. These dropped out8, excluded and unemployed degree holders form a disappointed section in the society. For the survival in the high living cost economy, they are desperate to earn more money. This situation could be easily utilized by anti-social activists, militants and terrorists. These recent developments are very unfortunate and needs government‘s rethinking and positive intervention. If Government fails to check this mala fide growth, the society sooner will have to pay a very heavy price. Already the heat is being felt by right thinking people.

End notes: 1. Since education is expected to enhance the knowledge and intelligence of the people, the educated people should know how to manage stress, strain, pain, frustration and risk. Frustration Index is given by William James as ―WANT / GET‖. It is stated that in traditional society, frustration remained fairly constant and at a relatively low level because wants were relatively few and unchanging. Frustration is now alleged to be accelerating because articulated wants are increasing, diversifying and spreading at erratic rates [p.392]. People are unable to manage their needs. The corporate sector,

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through its colourful advertisement in penetrating media, lures the people. Today‘s education has enabled the people to blindly follow the advertisements in the media but failed to make the people to think critically on their own. Thus wants go on increasing and as a result, the Frustration Index is greater than one for many so called educated people too. This also has got implication on health. As reports show in India, the incidence of communicable diseases has come down but on the other hand, the incidence of non-communicable diseases (may be high sugar levels, blood-pressure, obesity, heart- attack) or life-style diseases is going up and the average age of the persons affected is coming down.

2. Theodore W Schultz (1963) has discussed the above issues. Denison (1962) reported that past expenditures on education had accounted for 23% of economic growth in the US during 1929- 57. In 1966, Denison made another study in UK and concluded that the productivity differentials between US & UK could not be explained significantly by differences in investment in education. Coleman Report (1966) concluded that the marginal effect of various school inputs on student achievement was small compared to the impact of families and friends.

3. Development of higher education is correlated with economic development. To cite some instances: a. the enrolment ratios in higher education is 51% in OECD (Organistion of Economic Cooperation and Development) countries, 21 % in middle income countries and just 6% in low income countries. b. Investment in higher education in India contributes to increases in labour productivity and to higher long-term economic growth (which are essential for poverty alleviation), because the estimated social rates of return from investment on higher education is more than 10 per cent. d. Primary, secondary and higher education play complementary roles in development. e. In the present competitive and open world, India should not stop the growth of higher education (already enrolment is very low). If it does, the Indians will be forced to go out of the country for higher education, which is already happening. UK and Australia have been targeting Indian students for making money. Without higher education, no country can grow.

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4. First Indian Universities Commission, 1902 First Indian Universities Act, 1904 Madras Elementary Education Act, 1920 [This Act gave powers to levy a special tax to raise funds for education and introduce compulsory primary education] Dr.Zakir Hussain Committee Report, 1937 The University Education Commission or Dr.Radhakrishnan Commsion, 1948 Secondary Education Commission, 1952 University Grants Commission Act, 1956 The Institutes of Technology Act, 1961 D.S. Kothari Commission 1964 Committee on Governance of Universities – Gajendragadkar – 1969 Sen Committee – 1973 Mehrotra Committee – 1983 National Commission on Teachers, 1983-85 National Policy on Education, 1986 [modified in 1992] The All India Council for Technical Education Act, 1987 The National Council of Teacher Education Act, 1993 Rastogi Committee [set up by UGC], 1997 The National Council for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004 National Knowledge Commission 2007 [Chairperson: Sam Pitroda] National Institute of Technology Act, 2007 High Level Group on Services, 2008 [led by Anwarul Hoda] Right to Education Act, 2009 [Indian Parliament has enacted a legislation making free and compulsory education a Right of every child in the age group of 6-14 years, which has come into force from 1st April 2010] Yashpal Committee, 2009.

5. Meaning of ―modernization‖: According to Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Edited by David L Shills, The Free Press, Vol 4, modernization means the process of change whereby less developed societies acquire characteristics common to more developed societies. Modernity may

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be understood to be the increment of mobility in the society – understood as personal freedom of physical, social and psychic movement. However, there is no single theoretical formulation as yet commands consensus among Social Scientists concerning modernization [p.387]. As per UGC Guidelines, modernization of education means (1) starting special courses of areas of study on an interdepartmental basis; (2) using more teaching aids; (3) granting autonomous status to colleges. The concept of modernisation is always confused with ‗westernisation‘, ‗Americanisation‘, ‗electronification‘, ‗capital intensification‘, ‗liberalisation‘, ‗privatisation‘, and ‗quantification‘. Tapas Majumdar, (1997-98, Economics of Indian Education, The Indian Economic Journal, Vol.45, No.4, pp.39-48) has observed, "Unfortunately, whenever we have to go for any large scale introduction of the computers and computer education into our education systems, we find ourselves to be choosing implicitly and unthinkingly only systems that would further empower the few" [p.45]. Winin Pereira in his book ( Global Parasites [Five hundred years of western culture]), has observed, "Westernized elites are the internal parasites who prey on their own fellow species [p.vii] Western technological and scientific system developed more efficient process of expropriation There is neither moral nor ecological limits to the accumulation of wealth. Now, transfer of wealth from two thirds of world to the West is taking place. Hence one western man could consume the volume of natural resources that is equivalent to 100 persons‘ consumption in UDCs".

6. Daniel S Hamermesh and Jeff E. Biddle, (1994) in their article titled, ―Beauty and the labour market‖ in The American Review (Vol. 48, No.5, December, pp.1174-1194) find some evidence of a positive impact of workers‘ looks on their earnings [p.1192] Other things being equal, wages of people with below-average looks are lower than those of average-looking workers and there is a premium in wages for good-looking people…. There is also some evidence that the labour market sorts the best-looking people into occupations where their looks are productive [p.1192].

7. When the United Nations Development Programme wanted a Report, this Report was prepared by the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP). It divided merit and non-merit goods or services for the purpose of deciding which items deserved subsidies. Education beyond elementary level was classified as non-merit services because in their opinion,

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the benefits of higher education accrue primarily to the recipients (GOI, Dept. of Educational Affairs, 1997, p.6). The merit goods/services are those for which the benefits spread well beyond the immediate respondents. The authors (NIPFP) claim that the ―subsidies are advocated when the social benefits of a particular service or commodity are greater than the sum of private benefits to the consumers‖. This argument is based on World Bank (WB) policy pronouncements, one of which is quoted below: ―higher education should not have the highest priority claim on incremental public resources available for education in many developing countries‖. The WB observes (1994, p.3) that the countries that have not yet achieved adequate access, equity and quality at primary and secondary levels, should not subsidize higher education because the social rates of return on investments in primary and secondary education usually exceed the returns on higher education. In WB‘s view, investment in basic education can improve equity because they tend to reduce income inequalities. This is true but it does not mean that higher education cannot reduce income inequalities. This observation has been refuted by another study of WB researcher. The above observation by WB will lead to serious damage to higher education in India, and it will make India to be continuously underdeveloped country.

8. As observed by one of the former UGC Chairpersons (A R Desai), Universities and Colleges are over-loaded with examination and valuation works. Examination tests the capacity of memorization of out-dated facts, as the syllabus remains fossilized because it is difficult to introduce changes. The teachers, with secure jobs, do not want to change themselves. Hence colleges and universities have become teaching shops. With unmotivated teachers and students, autonomy is misused. Students make no demands on the performance of the system. They demand mostly the postponement of examinations or more marks. While at least some parents show concern for their wards when they are in school, they become remarkably absent in the higher education scene. There is no pressure from the beneficiaries of the system for better performance. Public debate on education is non-existent. Teachers‘ Associations fight for their own welfare and not for the cause of education. Political system is keen to get money out of universities and colleges. Criminal activities within the college/university campuses are frequently reported/suppressed. Allegations on appointments of teachers, principals, vice- chancellors…are very common. Degrees have failed to be the symbol of wisdom, knowledge,

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information or status. UGC was established in 1953 and given a statutory status in 1956. As education is a concurrent subject, the UGC Act does not provide for controlling expansion nor for assuring qualitatively sound institutions. UGC has taken many initiatives to improve the quality of teaching through Academic Staff Colleges, Orientation and Refresher Courses, Special Assistance Programme [SAP], funding for major and minor Research Projects, JRF, Teacher Fellowships. However, the intended goals are stated to be missing.

Reference: Alain, 1985, Recovering the cost of public higher education

Bruce, 1986, Sharing the costs of higher education

Carlson Samuel, 1992, Private financing of higher education

Douglas Albert, 1993, Student loans: An effective instrument for cost recovery in higher education, The World Bank Research Observer, Vlo.8, No. 1, January, pp.71-90

Economic Review, Vol.6, No.1, January, pp.171-188.

Ernesto, 1990, Economic incentives in higher education

Gary S Becker, 1964, Human capital

George P, 1994, Returns to investment in education

Jacoby Hanan, 1989, The returns to education

King Elizabeth, 1989, Does education pay in the labour market?

Mishan .E.J., Costs of Economic Growth

Paul Gertler, 1992, The willingness to pay for education for daughters, The World Bank

Stelcner, 1987, Wage determinants and school attainment

Schultz T.W., 1961, Investment in human capital, American Economic Review, Vol.51, March & 1964, Under-investment in the quality of schooling

Tapas Majumdar, 1983, Investments in education

Tapas Majumdar, 1996, Efficiency and equity in public investment in education

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Tilak B G., 1995, Costs and financing of education in India

World Bank, 1986, Financing education in developing countries

Sarvekshana, Vol.XXIII [3], 82nd Issue, January-March, 2000, Published by NSSO

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EVOLUTION OF VOTING RIGHT IN COLONIAL TAMIL NADU Dr. A. Singaravel & R. Ramesh Introduction India‘s Independence was significant not only as a major historical event but also the termination of the Colonial Era and initiation of another Era. India has chosen Representative Democracy through a Parliamentary form of Government through Adult Franchise. This was the logical outcome of the unique nature of India‘s Freedom Movement from its origin. Today, India is the largest democratic country in the world. We are proud of fifteen general elections peacefully conducted for Lok Sabha and similar number of elections for State Legislatures and to have worked a fully vibrant democratic system for the last sixty years. But historically, democracy evolved over several stages in India. The election process is a fundamental aspect of political life under a democratic system. In the democratic elections constitute a major political activity for the people, perhaps the only one for the illiterate. Election not only provides an opportunity to the people for choosing their representatives, but also it gives them scope for participation in the wider political process. Thus, in all modern phase of development, electoral practices have come to be accepted as political participation. However, the right to political participation was gradually included in colonial Tamil Nadu.

Initiation of Legislative System Though elections, based on Adult Franchise, have been held only under the present Constitution, India had the experience of elections under the British Rule also. However, the elections during that period were hedged in by numerous restrictions and limitations; the divisive influences were provided encouragement, as the British Government had consistently recognised the system of communal electorate, under which each minority sent its own representatives to the legislature. Indian Councils Act of 1861 was a great landmark in the growth and development of the legislatures. The movement for independence also raised the question of women' suffrage.

 Director, UGC Academic Staff College, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli.

 Research Scholar, Department of History, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli.

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The beginning of elections in India dates back to the year 1892, when the Indian Councils Act was enacted by the British Parliament. For the first time, the element of election was introduced into the Indian Political System.1 The Act made a limited and indirect provision for the use of election for filling some non-official seats in the Provincial Councils as well as the Central Legislative Council. The word ‗election‘, to be sure, was not used and the process was explained as nomination made on the recommendation of certain bodies.2 Thus, five additional members obtained entry into the Indian Legislative Council in this way-one being recommended by the non-official members of each of the Four Provincial Councils and one by the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce.3 Writing about this Act, R. Coupland observed that ―Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy, was prepared to concede at least a measure of election. He proposed that while some of the non-official members should still be nominated, others should be elected. But Lord Cross, the Secretary of State in Lord Salisbury‘s second Government, refused to sanction a fundamental change of this description, without much more positive evidence in its favour than was forthcoming. The upshot was a compromise. A few of the non-official seats were still to be filled by simple nomination; but for a majority of them ‗recommendations‘ were to be made by local bodies or corporations, religious communities, municipalities, universities, chambers of commerce and the like. In the event, this half-hearted evasion of the elective principle came to nothing. Since the ‗recommended‘ candidates were in practice accepted as a matter of course, the process became virtually election.‖4

Minto – Morley Reforms 1909

The principle of election, thinly veiled in this Act, received direct approval in the Minto- Morley Reforms of 1909,5 in which there was provision for the return of representatives to the Councils from recognised corporate bodies, associations, interests, and classes. The method of election continued, as before, indirect except in the cases of newly created land-holders‘, Muslims‘, and Sikhs‘ constituencies. It should be pointed out that the adoption of the principle of election in no way reflected any intention to take the country and its people towards the democratic form of government. In 1908, Lord Morley, then the Secretary of State for India, took care to emphasise: ―If it could be said that the chapter of reforms led directly or indirectly to

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the establishment of a parliamentary system in India.‖6 A landmark in the history of elections, the Act of 1909 formally introduced the elective principle. Each legislative council now comprised of three classes of members – the elected, the officials, and the nominated non- officials. The relative strength of these three classes – figures pertains to the year 1912, and excludes the Head of the Government or the experts, was as follows:

Nominated Name of the Council Elected Officials Total Non – officials Madras 21 20 5 46 Bombay 21 18 7 46 Bengal 28 20 4 52 United Provinces 21 20 6 47 Eastern Bengal and Assam 18 17 5 40 Punjab 08 10 6 24 Burma 01 6 8 15 Bihar & Orissa 21 18 4 43 Assam 11 09 4 24 Source: Annual Report of Madras Legislative Council, 1912.

The elective principle, however, was cramped down by severe limitations, restrictions, and distortions. The Legislative Councils had severely limited powers. Furthermore, the franchise was extremely narrow-based and in effect, robbed the elective principle of its real meaning and purpose. In the case of the Imperial Legislative Council, the average number of voters in the general constituency was 21, and in one case, the number of voters was 9.7 ―The total number of votes, by which all the elected members of this Council are returned, can scarcely exceed 4,000. That gives less than an average of 150 for each member. Similarly, members of the Legislative Council of the United Provinces are elected by about 3,000 voters or an average of about 143 for each elected member.‖ Besides, the election was indirect.8 To the non-official members of the Local Boards was given the right to elect the representatives of the general public to the Provincial Councils. Likewise, the non-official members of the Provincial

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Councils were empowered to elect representatives of the general public to the Imperial Legislative Council. The link between the common man and the representative was, therefore, remote and, consequently, ineffective and meaningless. There was ―absolutely no connection between the supposed primary voter and the man who sits as his representative on the Legislative Council, and the vote of the supposed primary voter has no effect upon the proceedings of the legislative Council.‖9

In addition to territorial representation, the elections accorded recognition to class, communal, and special electorates. Accordingly, the electorates were classified under three categories: (i) General Electorates consisting of non – official members either of Provincial Legislative Councils or of the Municipal and District Boards (ii) Class Electorates, comprising of (a) Landholders‘ Constituencies, and (b) Mohammedan Electorates and (c) Special Electorates, comprising of Universities, Chambers of Commerce, Port Trusts, Presidency Corporations, Plantation and Trade Interests,10 etc. Certain qualifications were laid down for the voters as well as the candidates for election. ―No person shall be eligible for election, if such a person (a) is not a British Subject, or (b) is an official, or (c) is a female, or (d) has been adjudged of unsound mind, or (e) is under twenty-five years of age, or (f) is an uncertified bankrupt or undischarged insolvent, or (g) has been dismissed from the Government Service; or (h) has been sentenced by a criminal court to imprisonment for an offence punishable with imprisonment for a term exceeding six months or to transportation, or has been ordered to find security for good behavior or (i) has been debarred by the Governor-General in Council to be of such reputation and antecedents that his election would be contrary to public interest. ―The candidates seeking election from class or special electorates had to satisfy, besides these general qualifications, certain special qualifications. As regards the qualifications of the voters, females, minors, or persons of unsound mind were not entitled to vote. Separate qualifications were laid down for Mohammedan Electorates, and the landholders‘ Constituencies.11 The qualifications of a voter from the Landholders‘ Constituencies varied for the Imperial Legislative Council and the Provincial Legislative Councils, for Muslim and Hindu Voters, and from Province to Province.12 Generally speaking, higher qualifications were prescribed for voters to the Imperial Council. In

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the case of the Mohammedan Electorates, the qualifications varied for the Imperial and Provincial Council and also from Province to Province.13

It is necessary here to warn that this scheme of class and special electorates was ‗extremely puzzling and often very confusing‘, to quote Lord Minto himself. This ‗puzzling‘ and ‗confusing‘ system emerged from the fact that the Government was, in the words of Lord Minto, ―very anxious to avoid any appearance of a Parliamentary Franchise.14 I set my face against anything that might appear to resemble it. We did not want a parliament at all; we wanted Councils, but did not want Councils elected on Parliamentary lines.‖

Women Suffrage Movement Fourteen women from different provinces joined the deputation and presented a memorandum to South Borough Franchise Committee. Kamalabhai Chattopadya, Rukmani Arundale, Muthulakshmi Reddy, and Rukmani Lakshmipathi from Madras Province were the distinguished participants of franchise right of women movement. South Borough Committee primarily rejected the memorandum. When Montague discussed Indian demands for political representation, women's wings of political parties raised the issue of women's suffrage. The political entry of these women marked the beginning of a new phase in which women started agitations against the British Government. As per the 1919 Act, the right to vote was granted to women with various restrictions. This Act adopted to enfranchise men and women was based on age and property. It empowered provincial legislatures to remove the sex barrier at their discretion. Many of the provinces immediately introduced resolutions to enfranchise women.15 Madras was the first province to grant at least a limited franchise to women in 1921, followed by Bombay in 1921 but it was not until 1929 that other provincial legislatures gave women the right to vote and admitted them to be elected on the same basis as men.

The Madras Legislative Council was set up in 1921 under the Government of India Act, 1919. Justice Party Government in Madras took the credit of the first state in extending franchise right to women.16 In 1926 the Government of India gave right to women to stand as candidates for and sit in the Provincial Legislature. The same issue was taken by Madras Legislative

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Council in July 1926 and the law was passed.17 Under this Act, two women in the Province contested the election, but both were defeated by a margin of 500 votes by their male rivals. Kamala Devi Chattopadhya was the first Hindu lady to come forward to contest in an election as independent candidate. But she was defeated by a margin of 515 votes by her male rival. Hawan Angelo jumped to in the arena of election in Madras, but she was also defeated. This development generated a powerful current of enthusiasm among them. The WIA influenced the Government of Madras to nominate a woman in Legislative Council and Government was pleased to nominate Muthulakshmi Reddy. Muthulakshmi Reddy, a Tamil lady got the honour of being the first Indian woman legislator, when she was nominated to the Legislative Council of Madras in 1927 under the British rule. She was also elected unanimously as the Vice-President of this council and in this capacity she became the first lady to hold such a post not only in India but also in the whole world.

Reddy clearly worked up to the expectations of both the nationalists and the women's groups, remaining with the realm of what may broadly be termed ―Social feminism.‖ This consisted in welfare of women and children and argued that such issues could be understood and represented by women alone. As far as Indian is concerned, Madras was the first state and Bihar was the last to enfranchise women in 1921 and 1929 respectively. Women got enfranchisement in equal terms with men.18 Women now voted and were elected or nominated to Provincial Legislature. Indeed the Act enfranchised less than one per cent of the total female population in Madras. The proportion of female electorate to adult female population was less than one per cent, i.e. Bombay 0.8 per cent and Bengal 0.3 per cent. In 1926, the Government of India gave right to women to stand as candidates and sit in the Provincial Legislature. Gandhi said as early as 1929, ―Women must have votes and equal status. But the problem does not end there. It only commences at the point where women begin to affect the political deliberations of the nation.‖19 At the Karachi Session of the INC (1931), Nehru piloted the ―Fundamental Rights Resolution‖ which accepted the principle of complete equality of men and women in political life.20 INC declared at Karachi session that in free India, there would be no discrimination on ground of sex.21 The spread of women's suffrage over the subsequent four and a half decades was most rapid. As per the Government of India Act 1935, elections were held in the provinces in 1937.

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Government of India Act 1919 The system of election was enlarged since the passage of the Government of India Act, 1919.22 This was natural enough in the altered, and higher, political goals set out for India. ―The policy of his Majesty‘s Government,‖ the Secretary of State said, ―with which the Government of India are in complete accord, is the increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible Government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.‖23 The elected element in the legislature-both Central and Provincial, was enlarged; the franchise was broadened; and the election became direct. However, the separate representation of certain communities and special interests continued to be provided by means of Communal and Special Electorates.24 The proportion of directly elected members of the Provincial Legislatures could not be less than seventy per cent, and of the official members not more than twenty per cent. There was also the provision for nomination of non-official members mainly to give representation to certain classes and interests that would otherwise remain unrepresented. The elected members were in majority and in all the Provincial Councils taken together, they constituted 77.8 per cent of the total number. At the central level, the Legislative Assembly consisted of 140 members of whom 100 were elected and 26 officials.25 The first conscious advance in the direction of Responsible Government was the Reform of 1919, which introduced Dyarchy in the Provinces.26 The intention was to establish, within a definite range, responsibility to an Elected Legislature.27 This Act of 1919 created a Bicameral28 Legislature at the Centre, the Lower Chamber called the Legislative Assembly29 and the Upper Chamber called the Council of States.30 These Houses consisted of both elected and nominated members. The Legislative Assembly had tenure of three years and the Council of States, five years. But the Governor- General could dissolve either Chamber earlier or extend its tenure.31

Electorates The Act of 1919 extended the franchise and over five million persons were given the right to vote for the local legislatures.32 This figure constituted about nine per cent of the adult male population. Women did not have the right to vote, though the Provincial Legislatures were empowered to enfranchise them. The franchise qualifications varied from Province to Province,

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and they varied in urban, rural, and landlord constituencies also. Generally speaking, qualifications were based on residence in the constituency during the previous twelve months plus payment of income tax, land revenue, or rent, or municipal taxes. A person, who (i) was not a British subject; (ii) was a female; or (iii) had been adjudged by a competent court to be of unsound mind; or (iv) was under 21 years of age, was not entitled to vote.33 Persons, convicted of a criminal offence punishable with imprisonment for a term exceeding six months or of corrupt practices, were disqualified for five years, although the Provincial Governments were empowered to remove this disqualification.34 Dismissal from Government Service was no longer a bar provided a person did not suffer from any of the above mentioned incapacities. The qualification for a voter in the Landholders‘ Constituency was the possession of a landed estate assessed for land revenue, varying from Rs. 500 to Rs. 5,000.35 In the University Constituencies, Graduates of at least seven years standing were given the right to vote. No special qualifications were prescribed for candidates seeking election to the Provincial Legislatures except that they were not less than 25 years of age, were qualified to be the voters in the particular type of constituency, and did not incur any of the disqualifications enumerated above. Some other disqualifications also existed in the case of candidates such as insolvency, dismissal, or suspension from legal practice, etc. The residential qualification for a candidate in his constituency was imposed in the three Provinces of Bombay, Punjab, and Central Provinces.36

The system of Communal Electorates, which existed only in the case of Muslims under the Government of India Act, 1909, was now extended to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Europeans, and Anglo-Indians.37 Special Representation existed earlier for the Landlords, Commerce and Industry, Plantation and Mining Interests, and the Universities. There was still another distinction made under the Act and a certain proportion of seats were allotted to urban areas, and the rest to rural areas.

Even though franchise was broadened under the Act of 1919, it continued to be greatly restricted in scope. In fact, nearly two per cent of the population was enfranchised under the new dispensation. Female Suffrage was left to be decided by the Legislative Councils.38 The system of Communal Electorate made deeper inroads into the Indian Political System.

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Distribution of Powers A greater advance was made in the case of Provinces despite the general supremacy of the Centre. Responsibility for certain subjects was delegated to the Provinces. But these subjects were divided into two categories, viz. ―Reserved‖ and ―Transferred‖. The ―Reserved‖ subjects were Irrigation, European Education, Land Revenue, Famine Relief, Police, Newspapers, Loans and Factories and they were under the administrative control of the Governor‘s Council of four Members or less.39 The ―Transferred‖ subjects were Local Self-Government. Public Health, Indian Education, Public Works, Agriculture and Fisheries, Co-Operative Societies, Excise and Industrial Development and they were under the control of the Ministers who, though selected by the Governor, were responsible to the Provincial Legislatures.40 Each Province had triennial, single chamber Legislature, consisting of from 53 members in Assam to 132 in Madras.41 In Madras, the Governor nominated 34 members and the rest were elected. Franchise was granted to those who paid rates or taxes.42 Women were enabled to vote at elections for all Legislatures created by the Act except the Council of States.43 While under the Transferred subjects, there was considerable degree of control by the Elected Legislature, its powers and those of the Ministers were trammeled in financial matters. The Governor could restore a demand for grant, refused by the Legislature and he could certify a rejected Bill as a reserved subject deem it essential for the discharge of his responsibility whereupon it could normally be laid before the British Parliament before being presented for the King‘s Assent. But it became law immediately, if he further certified a State of Emergency. The Governor could also stop discussion on any Bill.44

Statutory Commission 1928 Another landmark in the history of election is the Government of India Act, 1935, in which only the provincial part of the Act could come into force. The question of franchise attracted the attention of several bodies during the evolution of this Act. The Indian Statutory Commission (also called the Simon Commission), recommending in 1928, showed itself in favour of enfranchising at least ten per cent of the total, or twenty per cent of the adult population, and greatly increasing the ratio of women voters.45 The Simon Commission was in

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favour of empowering the Provincial Legislatures to extend the franchise after every ten years,46 thus enfranchising twenty per cent of the total population in fifteen years‘ time.

Franchise Committee 1931 The Franchise Sub-committee of the Round Table Conference argued for similar powers for the Provincial Legislatures. In 1931, the British Government appointed a Franchise Committee under the Chairmanship of Lord Lothian.47 It considered the question of Adult Suffrage.48 While summing up the arguments in its favour, it wrote: ―The first is that adult suffrage is the only method by which absolute equality of political rights can be secured to every adult citizen. Any form of restricted franchise necessarily infringes the principle of equality between individuals in some degree.49 The second reason is that Adult Suffrage is the best means of securing that the legislatures represent the people as a whole. The third reason is that it solves, so far as the electoral roll is concerned, the difficult problem of securing the fair representation of all elements of the population, communal and racial, rich and poor, town and country, men and women, depressed classes and labour.50 Whether Adult Franchise results in fair representation in the legislatures depends on the system of representation adopted, as the endless controversies in the West no less than in India, about proportional representation, the second ballot, reservation of seats, and special or separate electorates, abundantly prove. The fourth reason in favour of Adult Franchise is that its adoption avoids the necessity for devising special franchises, for example for women or the depressed classes. It may discourage the formation of groups based on sectional, communal or similar interests, and will facilitate the development of parties based on political ideas and ends, which are the true foundation of sound political life.‖ The Committee, however, was not in favour of its adoption. It observed: ―Having regard to the prodigious task of educating a mainly illiterate electorate, the fact that party organisation is still in its infancy, and the burden both for the official machinery and for the candidates of dealing with 130 million voters, it seems to us to be the course of wisdom and statesmanship not to attempt to launch the new constitution on the basis of Adult Franchise,51 but to seek a more manageable basis, at the same time providing that the system of franchise will give reasonable representation to the main categories of the population.52 It will then be for the legislatures themselves, after a definite period has passed, to determine at what pace the electorate, should be

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expanded, and the date when they may wish to introduce Adult Suffrage.‖ This Committee regarded Adult Franchise as administratively impossible and, generally toeing the line of the Round Table Conference Sub-committee, was in favour of extending the franchise to ten to twenty-five per cent of the total population. It recommended property qualification to be the ―main element‖ of the franchise though it supported an independent educational qualification and special qualifications for depressed classes and women. The Committee was in favour of enfranchising ten to fifteen per cent of the total population. It supported enfranchising women by virtue of their husbands‘ qualifications and a literacy qualification and thus the ratio of female voters to male voters could he raised from the existing 1:45 to 1:2 for the entire country. The Joint Committee on Indian Constitutional Reform, 1933-34, was in general agreement with these recommendations.53 The Report of the Joint Committee provided the basis of franchise for the new Provincial Legislatures.54

Government of India Act 1935 Government of India Act 1935 was provided the voting right to the Indian people on the basis on the literature, property and other qualifications to the men and women. It was the mail stone of the history of voting right in India. In this connection, this Act was reduced some eligibility qualifications to the electorates, in this situation electorates were increased in entire India.

Qualifications of the Electorate The Act of 1935 did not envisage any change of principle in the allocation of seats in the Legislative Assemblies and Councils. Separate, communal electorates and ‗weight age‘ were retained. The franchise was mainly based upon property, education, and income qualifications. A voter had to be twenty-one years of age, a British Subject or subject or ruler of a federated or any other prescribed state, and to belong to the community to which the seat was assigned; the general disqualifications were unsoundness of mind, serving a term of imprisonment, etc., or disqualification due to election offences.55 The qualifications were based mainly on income, property and education. The franchise for the Upper Houses was much higher. Though they formed separate electorates, the qualifications of the voters for the different communal

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constituencies did not differ. The depressed classes were given a lower franchise.56 Women in all provinces were given some additional qualifications, mainly by virtue of their husbands‘ qualifications. The new franchise gave the vote to about 14% of the population, raising the number of voters from less than nine millions to about thirty-five millions. The member of the Assembly and the Council had to be not less than twenty-five and thirty years of age, respectively. A person qualified to vote for the general or Mohammedan seat could be elected from any constituency of similar communal description. Candidates for other seats in the Assembly had to be persons qualified to vote for them.57 Similarly, a candidate for any of the elected seats for territorial constituencies of the Upper House had to be qualified to vote for the seat or any other seat of similar communal description.

Conclusion Democracy has been gradually included in India under the British Government of India. After the Independence, the Constituent Assembly and Interim Government made a sincere effort to make democracy real in India. Hence the Constitution provided an independent body called the Election Commission for conducting the free and fair election in India. The Commission has conducted fifteen general elections for Parliament and more than hundred in State Assembly Elections in India. Article 326 provides equal opportunity to participate in democratic process as voters on the basis of Adult Franchise. End Note

1 Anil Chandra Baneerjee, The Constitutional History of India, Vol. II, Macmillan Company of India ltd, Meerut, 1978, p.81. 2 Ibid, pp. 92-93. 3 Charles Hentry Alexandowicz,Constitutional Development in India,Oxford University Press,London, 1957, p.206. 4 Shriram Maheswari, The General Election in India, Chaitanya Publishing House, Allahabad, 1963, p.9. 5 Indian Councils Act 1909. 6 Shriram Maheswari, Op.Cit, p.13. 7 Indian Councils Act, 1909 8 Shriram Maheswari, Op.Cit, p.17. 9 Annual Report of Madras Presidency 1909, pp. 19–21. 10 Annual Report of Madras Presidency 1910, pp. 11-14. 11 Shriram Maheswari, Op.Cit, p. 15 12 Anil Banarjee, Op.Cit, pp. 27-29 13 Ibid, p. 32 146

14 Indian Councils Act, 1909 15 Lakshmi Menon, The Position of Women, Oxford University Press, Bombay, 1944, p. 27. 16 Aparana Basu, Women's Struggle: A History of the All India Women's Conference 1927-1990, New Delhi, p. 20. 17 G.O. No. 309, The Government in Law (Legislature) Department, 05.08 1926. 18 Aparana Basu, Op. Cit, p. 23. 19 Usha Narayanan, Key Note address of “Women and Political Participation: Twenty-First Century Challenges” at New Delhi on 24. 03.1999. 20 Niroj Sinha, Women as Marginals in Politics, and Pramila Dandvate (ed.all.), Widows Abandoned and Destitute Women in India, Randiant Publishers, New Delhi, 1989, p. 69. 21 Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Indian Women, Publication Division, Minister of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1975, p. 32. 22 Government of India Act, 1919 23 Richard L. Park and Bruce Brueno De Mesquita, India’s Political System, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1979, p.84 24 Annual Report of Madras Presidency 1919, p.39 25 Government of India Act, 1919 26 Justice Party Golden Jubilee Magazine, 1968, p.90 27 Ibid, pp. 92-93 28 Bicameral Parliament or Bicameral Legislature is a legislature which consists of two chambers or houses. Bicameral egislatures tend to require a concurrent majority to pass legislation. 29 Shriram Maheswari, Op.Cit, p. 9 30 R. Ramesh, Initiation of Legislative System in Pudukkottai, Published Article, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Session, Tamil Nadu History Congress, Pollachi, 2010, p. 41 31 Shriram Maheswari, Loc.Cit, p. 11. 32 Government of India Act, 1919 33 Annual Report of Madras Presidency 1919, p. 43 34 Ibid, p. 36 35 Government of India Act, 1919 36 Annual Report of Madras Presidency 1919, p.42 37 Government of India Act, 1919 38 Shriram Maheswari, Op.Cit, p. 17 39 Annual Report of Madras Presidency 1919, p.57 40 L. Curtis, Dyarchy, Oxford Clarendon Press, London, 1920, p.368 41 Annual Report of Madras Presidency 1919, p.57 42 Go. No. 108, Law (Legislative), Public Department, 10.05.1921 43 Ibid. 44 P.N. Masaldan, Evolution of Provincial Autonomy in India, Hind Kitabs, Bombay, 1953, pp.109-110 45 Report on the Simon Commission. 46 Ibid 47 Franchise Committee Report,Vol.I,Government of India,Central Publication Branch,Calcutta,1932, p.1 48 Go. No. 449, Public Department, 20.03.1932 49 Franchise Committee Report, p.18 50 Ibid, p. 15 51 Anand Ballabh Kafaltiya, Op.Cit, p.79 52 Government of India Act, 1935 53 Report of the Round Table Conference 54 Franchise Committee Report, Vol. I, 1932, p. 9 55 Government of India Act, 1935 56 Franchise Committee Report, Vol. I, 1932, p.29 57 Ibid, p. 34

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