THE JOURNEY TOWARD VISIBILITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS
OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES IN HONDURAS
DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO
THE DWIGHT SCHAR COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
ASHLAND UNIVERSITY
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree
Doctor of Education in Leadership Studies
Christine M. Croyle, M.A.
ASHLAND UNIVERSITY
ASHLAND, OH
2014
© Copyright by
Christine M. Croyle
All rights reserved
2014
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A DISSERTATION
ENTITLED
THE JOURNEY TOWARD VISIBILITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES IN HONDURAS By
Christine M. Croyle
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for The Degree Doctor of Education in Leadership Studies
Dr. James L. Olive, Committee Chair Date
Dr. Constance Savage, Committee Member Date
Dr. James Chapple, Committee Member Date
Dr. Carla Abreu-Ellis, Committee Member Date
Dr. Judy Alston, Chair, Department of Leadership Studies Date
Dr. Linda Billman, Acting Dean, Dwight Schar College of Education Date
Dr. John E. Moser, Interim Dean of the Graduate School Date
Ashland University November, 2014
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THE JOURNEY TOWARD VISIBILITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS
OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES IN HONDURAS
By
Christine M. Croyle
ASHLAND UNIVERSITY, 2014
Dr. James L. Olive, Chair
This study explored the perceptions of Honduran children, teachers, parents and administrators of children with disabilities and how these perceptions impacted the education of students with disabilities in rural areas of Honduras. Preexisting literature indicates that children with disabilities in rural Honduras often do not attend school due to access, negative stigma, teacher preparedness, and poverty. This study advances our understanding of the access and equity challenges facing these students. The study consisted of a collective multi-site case study. Observations, interviews, focus groups and children’s drawings were used to identify the following four themes: (a) culture, (b) government, (c) poverty, and (d) education process. Findings from the research suggest that the cultural perceptions related to an environment of corruption, drugs, and violence led to disintegrated families which negatively impacted their ability to provide support for the educational needs of their children with disabilities. The high level of poverty, in conjunction with a lack of understanding and apathy on the part of the government, kept funds that were designated for education from reaching the rural schools. Results, implications and future research are discussed.
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Dedication
The champions who inspired this venture are the wonderful children and families of
Santa Cruz de Yojoa. They have captured my heart since the day we met. I dedicate this
dissertation to them: To the first mother who welcomed me into her home; to the children with disabilities who were hidden away and now play freely in the school yards and town square; and to Dr. Francisco Pineda, affectionately referred to as the ‘doctor to the poor’. He championed this cause with his profession and his passion even to the final
evening of his life. He was my colleague, my friend, and an advocate, who gave the
ultimate sacrifice in his efforts to make Santa Cruz de Yojoa a wonderful place for all
children to live, learn and grow together.
Above all, to God, who arranged the moments in time that allowed us to connect and
filled us with passion and perseverance.
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Acknowledgements
The dissertation journey is not a solitary adventure. Around every bend, advisors, family members, friends, and colleagues appear, just in time, to provide a supportive word, a smile, or marker to point to the next turn in the road. I want to express my heartfelt appreciation for those who walked with me during this journey.
To my committee: The chair, Dr. Olive, thank you for pushing me to stay on target with deadlines and timelines and keeping the process organized in bite sized, manageable pieces; Dr. Savage, thank you for helping me keep the big picture in view and your gentle coaching; Dr. Chapple, thank you for contributing your expertise in special education and your shared heart for Honduras; Dr. Abreu-Ellis, thank you for your attention to detail. To
Dr. Nierengarten, thank you for sharing your gift of teaching with the teachers in Honduras and walking with me through this process.
To the founders, staff, and volunteers of Schools for Children of the World, thank you for the countless hours spent planning and continued support of the students and staff at the
CIPIE.
To the teachers in Santa Cruz de Yojoa, thank you for welcoming me into your classrooms and sharing your stories. El Pelon, thank you for your support of the CIPIE and working together to move the project further each year.
To my friends: Dr. McTyiere, thank you for being my forever cheerleader and unflinching editor; to Andrea Leán, thank you for the hours spent translating documents and many late night Skype meetings. To my Ashland cohort members, the culture club, thank you for pushing me to be a leader and offering me the critique I needed to make this project better.
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To my family: Thank you for your patience during these three years. I appreciate the grace you showed me. To my daughter, Charity, thank you for your joyful spirit that made me smile when we were doing homework together. You often provided a much needed distraction of delight. To my son, JC, thank you for your constant belief in me. Your calls from around the world reminded me that I need to be courageous, too.
Finally, to my loving husband, Tom, thank you for understanding of my time away: at school, in Honduras, in the office, and sometimes even while sitting right next to you. You carried my load for three long years. You have been my rock, a constant friend. I appreciate your sacrifice, unconditional love, and perseverance through this journey. I am forever grateful.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER
I. Introduction ...... 1
Identification of the Problem ...... 4
Purpose of the Study ...... 6
Research Questions ...... 6
Significance of the Study ...... 7
Researcher’s Lens ...... 10
Definitions ...... 14
Summary ...... 16
II. Literature Review...... 18
Honduras ...... 18
Geographic Location ...... 18
Economy ...... 21
Living Conditions ...... 21
Culture...... 22
Government Structure ...... 24
Corruption ...... 25
Violence and Drugs...... 26
Education System...... 27
Special Education...... 30
Current Practices in the United States ...... 30
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Guiding Regulations ...... 30
Teacher Preparation ...... 32
Universal Design for Learning...... 33
Differentiation ...... 34
Co-Teaching ...... 34
International Guidelines ...... 35
State of Special Education in Honduras...... 38
Guiding Regulations ...... 38
Service Delivery...... 39
Summary ...... 41
III. Methodology ...... 43
Design Rationale ...... 43
Research Questions ...... 44
Participants ...... 44
Data Collection ...... 45
Observations ...... 47
Interviews ...... 48
Focus Groups ...... 51
Children’s Drawings ...... 53
Data Analysis ...... 54
Observations and Interviews ...... 54
Focus Groups ...... 55
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Children’s Drawings ...... 55
Trustworthiness ...... 56
Credibility ...... 56
Confirmability ...... 57
Dependability ...... 57
Transferability ...... 58
Ethics...... 58
Summary ...... 59
IV. Findings...... 60
Culture...... 61
Environment of Violence and Drugs ...... 61
Disintegrated Family Structure ...... 62
Cause of Disability ...... 64
Religious Beliefs and Superstitions ...... 65
Isolated and Silenced by Stigma ...... 67
Governance ...... 71
Matters of Trust...... 72
Culture of Corruption ...... 73
Systemic Apathy ...... 75
Lack of Support...... 77
Education Process ...... 79
Overcrowded Classrooms ...... 80
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Family, Student, and Teacher Relationships ...... 82
Teacher Preparation ...... 86
Limited Resources ...... 89
Students with Disabilities ...... 90
Poverty ...... 93
Devastating Hunger ...... 91
School Facilities ...... 95
Inaccessible Services ...... 95
Limited Instructional Supplies ...... 96
Conceptual Relationships...... 98
Government...... 99
Parents ...... 101
Summary ...... 102
V. Summary and Discussion ...... 106
Overview of the Problem ...... 106
Purpose Statement ...... 106
Research Questions ...... 107
Review of Methodology ...... 107
Summary of Findings ...... 108
Cultural Challenges ...... 108
Governance of the Education Process...... 110
Availability of Resources ...... 111
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Discussion ...... 112
Sub-question One ...... 112
Sub-question Two ...... 114
Sub-question Three ...... 115
Research Question ...... 116
Reflections ...... 116
Implications for Action ...... 118
Recommendations for Further Research ...... 121
REFERENCES ...... 124
APPENDIX A: Human Subjects Review Board Approval ...... 135
APPENDIX B: Informed Consent Form ...... 139
APPENDIX C: Interview Protocol ...... 146
APPENDIX D: Children’s Oral Explanation Protocol ...... 149
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List of Tables
TABLE
2.1 International Policy Documents Pertaining to Disability and Education ...... 37
2.2 Data Collection Timeline ...... 45
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List of Figures
FIGURE
2.1 Map of Honduras ...... 19
2.2 Map of Drug Trafficking Routes ...... 20
2.3 School Facilities in Santa Cruz de Yojoa ...... 28
4.1 Children’s Drawings ...... 71
4.2 Student Assessments ...... 80
4.3 Rural School...... 95
4.4 Government Official Conceptual Map...... 99
4.5 Parents Conceptual Map ...... 101
5.1 Researcher Conceptual Map ...... 112
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CHAPTER I
Introduction
For generations, education has been identified as a cornerstone of society and a key factor in the development of human capital (Keeley, 2007; United Nations
Development Programme, 2013). Since the founding of the first free school in Virginia in 1635, Americans have placed a high value on education. This value for education prompted the passage of the first mandatory education law in 1852 in Massachusetts and by 1918, all states had compulsory education laws. Education is regarded as the path to individual, community, and national economic development. As an individual’s educational attainment increases, their earning potential increases and they are more likely to be involved in community development (Keeley, 2007).
With the passage of the Bill of Rights in 1791, the administration of education in the United States (US) was granted the states. Therefore, each state establishes their governance. How education is provided and what is included in the education process varies from country to country, state to state, and even school to school. The most recent demonstration of these differences has been seen in the policies that were developed to determine how teachers are evaluated. Ohio is one of 23 states that require teachers to be evaluated with a systematic process that connects student achievement through student learning objectives to a teacher’s performance rating (Lu, 2013). The newly adopted evaluation system was designed and implemented as part of the Race to the Top (RTT) incentive program at the federal level. As reported by the United States Department of
Education, the RTT program was part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
2 of 2009 (ARRA). This law was established to stimulate the economy, create jobs, and invest in other critical aspects of development, which included education. As part of the
ARRA, RTT is a competitive grant program that encourages and awards states for innovative practices that improve performance in education. Included in the criteria is rigorous and systematic evaluation of teachers and principals. Although this is a federal program, evaluation design is determined at the state level with 13 states requiring a strict adherence to the structure of the state mandated evaluation system, while 21 states permit individual districts to design their own evaluation system to submit for state approval
(Lu, 2013). The differences noted in the evaluation process are one example of how education policies may differ and demonstrate the continued state governance of education. At the same time, the high value of education at the federal level is evident in incentive programs such as RTT.
Additionally, there is control at the school or site level. School to school differences may include the length of a class, how many grades levels are taught in one room, what time the school day starts and ends, how many teachers are in one classroom, and whether students may use electronic devices in the classroom. Although local schools have the freedom to govern these aspects of the education process, education agencies must also comply with federal and state guidelines designed to ensure that equity and access are maintained.
However, for students with disabilities, one of the first guidelines came in the form of Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). The ESEA, for the first time, directed federal funds to assist with education for certain student groups which
3 included students with disabilities. In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children
(EAHC) was passed. This law is also known as Public Law 94-142 and Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA was reauthorized in 2004 to align with the No
Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). This reauthorization included requirements for special education teachers and students. As a result of this reauthorization, teachers are required to meet highly qualified teacher standards and students receiving special education services need to have goals and assessments that are aligned with the goals and assessments of those in general education. These mandates were designed to ensure that all students have opportunities to receive a free and appropriate public education (United
States Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 2014). Education agencies are required to abide by these mandates in order to receive education funding from the federal government. As a result of these regulations, teachers who desire to teach students with disabilities are required to complete additional coursework and licensure requirements beyond what is required for teachers who teach typically developing students.
Although these laws, licensure requirements, and accountability measures have been established in the US, there are locations around the world where community members are just entering the beginning stages of implementing policies to ensure that every citizen develops their human capital through participation in appropriate education thereby increasing the national development potential (Officer & Shakespeare, 2013;
UNICEF, 2013). One such nation is Honduras, a developing country that is in the beginning stages of establishing education priorities, policies, and systems for
4 accountability, in order to educate students with disabilities. Policies are developed out of a community’s or nation’s deeply held values and beliefs (Fowler, 2013). Therefore, in order to consider a community’s approach toward educating students with disabilities, an important step is to learn what the community believes about the issue. Freire (2000) suggested that “both fact and what results from it may be prejudicial to the person. Thus, it becomes necessary, not precisely to deny the fact, but to see it differently” (p. 52). In order to see it differently, this study explored the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, community members, government officials, and administrators of students with disabilities in the rural areas of Honduras through dialogue with them.
Identification of the Problem
Students with disabilities have been a marginalized segment of the population in the rural areas of Honduras (UNESCO, 2010). This marginalization is evident in the condition of the schools, the perceived negative stigma attached to families with disabilities, and the availability and preparedness of teachers to teach students with disabilities (Officer & Shakespeare, 2013). Children in the rural, mountain areas attend schools in less than ideal conditions and often do not attend (Altschuler & Corrales,
2012). Buildings are in dilapidated condition and sometimes non-existent (Powers,
2005). In addition to the condition of the physical structure, many schools have one teacher for multiple grades with a teacher to student ratio of 1:60 (A. Madrid-Avila, personal communication, May, 13, 2011). These two conditions alone impact the education that these students receive in the rural village schools. A student with a disability who may require assistance or need modifications to the structure in order to
5 access the building, is excluded. For example, typical children in rural areas walk to school through fields and up hills. A student without the ability to walk, is excluded simply based on the student’s physical limitations and the location of the school facility.
This physical disability would be visible, however, the invisible stigma associated with the disability is the greater disadvantage. “Disability is one of the least visible but most potent factors in educational marginalization” (UNESCO, 2010, p.181).
In the U.S., teachers who teach students with disabilities are required to take additional course work to understand how to meet the needs of diverse learners with challenges beyond those of a student without disabilities. In Honduras, teachers in the rural areas do not receive the level of training needed to integrate students with disabilities into the classroom. As a result, students with disabilities in the rural areas are often not able to receive instruction in a way that allows them to access the curriculum in order to gain any meaningful benefit from education. Consequently, these students do not attend school (UNICEF, 2013).
Resources are limited and poverty in rural areas is high (World Bank, 2010). The high level of poverty makes it difficult to provide the necessary human and material resources for general education. Many rural schools lack access to text books, supplies, qualified teachers, and often meet in less than ideal conditions in dilapidated buildings without running water or electricity (UNESCO, 2009). The limited resources and rural locations compound the problem of access to education for students with disabilities.
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] (2013) reports that ninety percent of students with disabilities who live in rural areas do not
6 attend school, citing issues of stigma, access, poverty, and attitude (Officer &
Shakespeare, 2013).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to gain a greater understanding about the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, community members, government officials, and administrators of Honduran students with disabilities. The secondary focus was to increase our understanding of how these perceptions impact the education of Honduran students with disabilities. Understanding these perceptions is a critical first step in the process of learning how these perceptions impact the education of students with disabilities.
Research Questions
This study addressed the following research questions:
1. How do the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, and administrators of
Honduran students with disabilities impact the education of Honduran children
with disabilities?
a. How is the governance of the education process perceived and how does
this impact the education of Honduran students with disabilities?
b. How are the availability of resources perceived and how does this impact
the education of Honduran children with disabilities?
c. How do cultural beliefs impact the education of Honduran children with
disabilities?
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Significance of the Study
This study possesses significance in a number of ways. First, with regard to leadership, I believe this study has the potential to add to the literature that supports the servant leadership philosophy (Greenleaf, 2002) and the leadership practices of low power actors with particular focus on multinational organizations (Bouquet &
Birkinshaw, 2008). The primary purpose of a servant leader is to apply leadership abilities and resources to improve the well-being of others. The premise is that society and individuals will be improved through the process of serving (Greenleaf, 2002).
Servant leadership is often realized initially when individuals are acting from a position of low power. Individuals with little power in organizations have tools that allow leading from that position. Three of the tools that were addressed in this study are awareness, building community, and commitment to the growth of others. As a low power actor within the organization, I used feedback seeking and coalition building strategies to learn more about how students with disabilities are perceived in their school and community.
“Low power actors are not held hostage to their situations; provided the right strategies are put in place, they may be able to increase the influence they have over Multi-National
Corporation (MNC) decisions” (Bouquet & Birknshaw, 2008, p. 488).
Second, the theoretical significance of this study stemmed from its potential to add to the understanding of equity, efficiency, and access to education for students with disabilities. Equity in education demands that every student has access to and participates in education in a meaningful way. Efficiency in the process allows maximum benefit of both human and material resources. Although this premise is clearly
8 understood and widely accepted in the U.S., this study has the potential to demonstrate the importance of these principles in the developing nation of Honduras. Honduras, as a developing nation, is fraught with poverty, corruption, and violence. These factors interfere with access, equity, and efficiency. This study focused on how the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, community members, government officials, and administrators of students with disabilities, and the challenges they face with equity, access, and efficiency during their journey in education in rural Honduras.
Third, by identifying the underlying beliefs about students with disabilities in the classroom and the community, it is possible to examine the policies that mandate how all students receive education with a new perspective. This new insight may provide guidance for modification to how policies are written or the how policies are implemented and monitored. The implementation and monitoring of policies has the potential to impact teacher preparation, classroom instruction, and parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities.
Four, children with disabilities are a priority for global development organizations such as the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the
World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Bank (UNICEF, 2008; World Bank,
2013; WHO, 2011). This study has the potential to add to the knowledge about disabilities in developing nations and more specifically, the rural areas of Honduras.
According to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006), article seven mandates that:
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States parties shall ensure that children with disabilities have the right to express
their views freely on all matters affecting them, their views being given due
weight in accordance with their age and maturity, on an equal basis with other
children, and to be provided with disability and age-appropriate assistance to
realize that right. (p.7)
In order to realize that right, children with disabilities will need access to education. This study has the potential to identify potential barriers and ways to provide access to education for students with disabilities.
Finally, this study provides a voice to those who have been silenced. The
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006), article eight, requires participating member states “To raise awareness throughout society, including at the family level, regarding persons with disabilities, and to foster respect for the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities” (p.7). Through the process of interviewing members of the education community, teachers and administrators were given opportunities to reflect on their own perceptions about students with disabilities. Family members and students had an opportunity to share their stories. As a result, this study raised the awareness of the education community and the community at large about children with disabilities and set the stage for internal transformation of education for children with disabilities in the rural areas of Honduras. Freire (2000) proposed that the method for revolutionary leadership is grounded in dialogue which “unveils the reality” (p. 69). This unveiling process may highlight the gap between espoused values and enacted values.
Espoused values are those values that are stated as beliefs while enacted values are those
10 that are acted upon. When there is a gap between the espoused or enacted values within a group, it hinders the progress that can be made. These values are socially constructed by the group, or groups, of people interacting together. It is when the gap is recognized and acted upon by the oppressed that true transformation can begin for both the oppressed and the oppressor. Freire (2000) proposed that the power for transformation must come from the oppressed; “Only power that springs from the weakness of the oppressed will be sufficiently strong to free both” (p. 44).
Researcher’s Lens
With little understanding of the way education happens in a developing country, I stepped across a ditch, a literal and figurative divide, into the yard of a small shack in rural Honduras. This divide was one of ‘education is for every child’ on one side to education is only for ‘children without disabilities’. As I crossed that ditch, I met a mother of two children with disabilities. I asked this mother which school her children attended. Her response was, “No pueden ir a la escuela. Estan ciegos.” (English translation: “They don’t go to school. They’re blind.”) Although I did not understand her Spanish words, they were spoken with a tone that I understood clearly. Her tone conveyed to me that my question was unfamiliar to her. My facial expression may have conveyed to her that her response was unfamiliar to me. Without words, we communicated that we were operating from different viewpoints. There was a divide of beliefs. These distinctly different unspoken beliefs about education were undoubtedly set in place long before we met. Her belief that children with disabilities do not participate in the education process was part of her experience as a child growing up in the rural
11 mountains of Honduras and now a mother whose children have not been given an opportunity to attend school because of their disabilities. My belief that all children can participate in the education process was part of my experience as child who went to school with children who had disabilities and one as an adult who taught children with disabilities in a public school. That day marked the beginning of my journey as an educator committed to action that would make education an option for every child. This journey began by spending time with the people who, in my mind, were the disenfranchised and marginalized. According to Freire (2000), in order to avoid the cultural invasion of placing my values on another, I must make a commitment to join and communicate with them. Since that day, I have spent ten years with the community establishing relationships, learning with them about the situation and how they understood it, and learning together about culturally responsive ways to transform education to meet the goals for their children and their future.
During this ten year period, I had been volunteering with an educational non- governmental agency (NGO), Schools for Children of the World (SCW). SCW has been working with Honduras and other underdeveloped nations to improve educational opportunities through providing quality school facilities. I began volunteering with this organization in 2003. In 2007, I met and partnered with a local doctor from the small community of Santa Cruz de Yojoa who had also identified the issue of students with disabilities not being educated in the public schools there. Together with SCW, parents, teachers, community members, and the local government, we began to work on a project that is known today at the Centro Integral Para La Inclusion Escolar (CIPIE) with an
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English translation of The Center for Inclusive Education. The CIPIE provides assessments and interventions for children with various forms of disabilities, including learning, physical, and emotional. Services include diagnostics, tutoring, training for parents, and training for teachers so children can be re-established into their regular school systems. The mission of the CIPIE is to provide rehabilitation services to groups and individuals of children with special needs, who are an integral part of the community of Santa Cruz de Yojoa and the surrounding area, and to integrate these children into the public education system and society. The vision statement of the CIPIE is:
By 2014, the CIPIE will be recognized both locally and nationally as a pilot
center for the integration, empowerment, and educational inclusion of children
with special needs led by an interdisciplinary team of highly trained, united,
dedicated, and dynamic staff that develop creative socio-cultural activities. (SCW,
2014, CIPIE section, para. 5)
As an educator and an activist in this situation, I hold strongly to the belief that people are not objects to be acted upon but that “people are capable of participating in the pursuit of liberation” (Freire, 2000, p. 169). An activist cannot bring freedom to the oppressed, but may initiate the process and work with them as they seek it for themselves. Furthermore, this cooperative process allows us to re-create together. The dialogical theory of action holds that one subject does not impose their view on another, but together they “meet to name the world in order to transform it” (Freire, 2000, p.167).
Guba (1990) argued that “Realities exist in the form of multiple mental constructions, socially and experientially based, local and specific, dependent for their form and content
13 on the persons who hold them" (Guba, p. 20). This multiple perspectives mentality fosters a growth mindset with collaboration as a natural part of the process (Dweck,
2006). I believe when conducting research, the process is shared, as is the resulting new shared pool of information. Education, leadership, and research are shared processes of the human experience with great potential for shared outcomes. I embrace a combination paradigm which includes critical theory and constructivism. Morgan (1989) proposed that people construct reality through their interpretation and their resulting actions based on those interpretations. Thereby, suggesting that “Realities are not given; they are made” (p. 93). My aim is to emancipate the disenfranchised through shared inquiry co- intentional education whereby the leader and the people identify reality and re-create it together. My voice is clearly described as a “passionate participant as facilitator of multi- voice reconstruction” (Guba & Lincoln, 2005, p. 194). I believe in learning through active engagement in the process.
I value learning for more than just the accumulation of information. One of the most important aspects of learning is the element that happens from the actual process. I believe the success of a task cannot be determined simply by its outcome but by what we learn through the process and the relationships we develop as a result. The words spoken by a mother in a remote village in Honduras have echoed in my mind since the first time I heard them in 2004. It was at that moment that I decided I needed to prepare to serve that community. That interaction unveiled a hidden problem; children with disabilities were not expected to be educated. That was the catalyst for this study.
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Definitions
Terms/acronyms and definitions related to this study are defined below:
ARRA – (American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009). This law was established
to stimulate the economy, create jobs and invest in other critical aspects of
development which included education.
Amerindian – Indigenous people of Honduras of which there are seven different groups.
CIPIE – (Centro Integral Para La Inclusion Escolar) English translation-The Center for
Inclusive Education – a non-profit organization located in Santa Cruz De Yojoa
that provides educational assessments and interventions for children with various
forms of disabilities. Services include diagnostics, tutoring, and training for
parents and teachers.
Cultural bias – The practice of judging an action or situation on the basis of one’s own
culture of origin.
EAHC – (Education for All Handicapped Children) This law is also known as P.L. 94-
142 required education agencies receiving federal funds to provide equal access to
education for students with disabilities.
ESEA – (Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965) This law provided federal
funding to states to assist with and encourage the development of programs for
educating disadvantaged students to include those with disabilities.
FAPE – (Free and Appropriate Public Education) The principle that children with
disabilities have a right to receive an education that is designed to meet their
specific needs.
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Gini – A calculation of income distribution.
GDP – (Gross Domestic Product) A calculation of the monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders.
IASE – (International Association of Special Education)
IDEA – (Individuals with Disabilities Act) Federal law designed to protect the education
rights of children from birth through age 21.
IEP – (Individualized education program) A detailed plan prepared by a multidisciplinary
team that reflects a student’s present level of performance, special needs, and how
that team intends to meet those need to provide access to the curriculum.
LAST Protocol – (Looking at Student’s Thinking) A protocol developed through Project
Zero to document what is seen in the artwork produced by the children.
LRE – (Least Restrictive Environment) The setting where a student receives education.
This mandate requires that students be educated with their peers without
disabilities to the maximum extent that is appropriate.
Municipio – A geographic division with a department. Santa Cruz de Yojoa is one of 12
municipios within the department of Cortes. There are 45 villages within the
municipio of Santa Cruz de Yojoa.
NCLB – (No Child Left Behind) A law designed to improve educational achievement for
all students. This law came with a requirement of proficiency in math and reading
for all students by 2014.
PROHECO – (Programa Hondureño de Educación Comunitaria) A community school
initiative that promotes a decentralized model of education that transferred the
16
responsibilities of education from the ministry of education to the community
with increased parental oversight.
RTT– (Race to the Top) A competitive grant program offered through a federal program
to encourage and reward innovation in education in order to improve education
performance for the US.
SCW – (Schools for Children of the World) A non-governmental agency that provides
quality education facilities for underdeveloped nations.
UDL – (Universal Design for Learning) A method of teaching that considers student
diversity in the initial planning of instruction.
UNESCO – (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization) An
international organization formed in 1945 to promote peace through international
cooperation in education, science, culture, and freedom.
UNICEF – (United Nations International Children’s Fund) An organization formed to
advocate for and uphold the rights of children, particularly those who are
discriminated against, around the world.
WHO – (World Health Organization) The authority within the United Nations
responsible for research and agenda setting for the global matters related to
health.
Summary
With equity in education at the forefront of globalization in the 21st century, this study investigated how education is perceived for children with disabilities in the rural areas of Honduras. In this section, the marginalization of students with disabilities was
17 identified as the problem of focus for this study. In addition, this chapter stated the research questions and sub questions along with the method of inquiry.
The potential significance of this study was stated as: leadership, policy, access, equity, and awareness. I hope to add to the knowledge of leadership as a low power actor in a multinational corporation in the role of a servant. As a result of the information gleaned through this qualitative investigation, there is the potential for shaping new policies and how they are implemented in rural areas. With access and equity in education, there comes the opportunity to realize one’s voice. This study adds to the awareness of children with disabilities and promotes their voice regarding the education of students with disabilities. The next chapter will review the literature related to
Honduras and the education of Honduran students with disabilities.
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CHAPTER II
Literature Review
As the primary research question in this study seeks to identify the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, and administrators toward students with disabilities in rural
Honduras, this literature review begins with a survey of the nation of Honduras and its systems in which education is embedded. Education happens within many complex systems and the environment can have a significant impact on teaching and learning.
Littky and Grabelle (2004) asserted “Teaching and learning are about problem solving.
Education is the process by which you put teachers and learners in the best possible environment for them to do this together” (p.16). In order to create a complete picture of the environment, this literature review provides descriptions of the geographic location, demographics, current state of the economy, government structure, the general education status and cultural aspects that have potential to impact education. In the final section, I present a review of what we know about education in the US as it relates to students with disabilities, international guidelines, and the current state of special education practices in
Honduras.
Honduras
Geographic Location
The village of focus for this study is Santa Cruz de Yojoa, in the rural mountains of Cortés, Honduras. Santa Cruz de Yojoa is located in the southern corner of Cortés and shares the border of Lago de Yojoa with Santa Barbara. San Pedro Sula is the capital of
Cortés and is located about 70 kilometers north of Santa Cruz. Honduras is a Central
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American country with water boundaries of the Caribbean Sea on the North and the
Pacific Ocean via the Gulf of Fonseca on the south. Land borders include Nicaragua to the East and El Salvador and Guatemala to the west. See Figure 2.1 for a map of
Honduras and the surrounding countries (U.S. Department of State, 2007).
Figure 2.1. Honduras Map.
This location makes Honduras an ideal “transshipment point for drugs and narcotics with young men often being coerced to transport drugs” (Central Intelligence
Agency, 2014). The areas of Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala are known around the world as the Northern Triangle because of the countries’ location to one another, their shared history and the role they have played in the drug trade in Latin American (Ayuso,
2012; Sampaio, 2012; World Bank, 2011). Honduras continues to play a defining role in part because of its geographic location within the Northern Triangle (Ayuso, 2012). See
Figure 2.2 (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2014).
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Figure 2.2 Drug Trafficking Routes [map]
According to the Central Intelligence Agency (2013), Honduras is a developing country with a population of 8,448,465 and a land area of 111,890 square kilometers; an area comparable to the state of Ohio (Ruhl, 2010). Santa Cruz de Yojoa, the municipality of focus for this study, has a population of 13,595 and a land area of 722 square kilometers. Santa Cruz is the second largest city in Cortes and has a mountainous terrain which can be difficult to navigate through due to the rural rain forest areas.
Consequently, many families in rural areas walk or ride bikes to get to the village. At the time of this study, there were ten buses in the Santa Cruz area that provided transportation to the major cities. There were also local trucks and vans that functioned as public transportation through the mountains to transport people and things to and from the center of Santa Cruz de Yojoa. Although this terrain can make travel difficult, it has the ideal conditions for growing coffee, bananas, and sugar. This agriculture accounts for
39.2% of the labor force (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). In 2013, unemployment in
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Honduras was reported at 4.3% while underemployment was 36.5% (U.S. Department of
State, 2013).
Economy
According to World Bank (2013), Honduras is one of the poorest countries in
Central America with 60% of the population living in poverty, with an even higher percentage of poverty in the rural areas at 65.4%. It has been estimated that 76% of all children in Honduras are living in poverty (UNICEF, 2011). This poverty is complicated by a high level of inequality with Gini index at 0.55. This suggests that much of the resource is held by a few (Svenson, 2012). The gross domestic product (GDP) was reported at 18,434 (reported in millions US dollars) with a GDP growth annual percent of
3.9. Although the annual growth is increasing, inflation is also increasing at 5.2%
(Central Intelligence Agency, 2012). “The increased productivity needed to break
Honduras' persistent high poverty rate depends, in part, on further improvements in educational attainment. Although primary-school enrollment is near 100%, educational quality is poor, the drop-out rate and grade repetition remain high, and teacher and school accountability is low” (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). As a result of globalization and the shift to a knowledge economy, United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organization [UNESCO], (2010) suggested that the social and economic gaps will continue to widen unless education is made accessible for everyone.
Living Conditions. With this level of poverty, it is difficult to meet even the most basic needs such as food and water. Water conditions have improved across the country, however, there is still 23% of the rural population with unimproved drinking water
22 sources (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). This may be a contributing factor to the high risk for infectious diseases such as hepatitis A, typhoid fever, dengue fever, and malaria. These diseases are linked to an increase in infant mortality, higher death rates and lower population growth rates. Malnutrition has also been identified as a factor in the high mortality rate of children under age five in Honduras (39/1,000). Although some children survive malnutrition beyond age five, those who survive may suffer from cognitive delays which can impact their education and future earning potential
(Alderman, Hoogeven, & Rossi, 2009).
Culture
Culture can have many connotations and its meaning is dependent upon each individual’s experience. Jahoda (2012), analyzed the history of the definitions of culture and proposed that each person should decide for themselves how they choose to define culture. For the purpose of this study, culture is defined as, “the set of important understandings (often unstated) that members of a community share in common” (Sathe,
1983, p. 6). Aspects of this shared understanding include values, language, religion, and family.
The values of a given culture are considered the “peoples’ ideas about what is good, bad, right or wrong” (Sullivan, 2007, p. 41). A group of individuals operating together as a society or community then determine which values dominate within a given culture. According to the social-conflict paradigm, the struggle to determine these values creates social inequalities shaped by those with power, resulting in perceived social inequalities by those with little power (Macionis, 1992). In Honduras, the coup was a
23 cultural and historical moment as those who perceived injustice, at the hand of those in power, banded together with a “new faith in their power” (Frank, 2010, p. 19). The value at the heart of this conflict was one of inclusion of all groups of people and a true democracy where all groups have a voice. Those within the marginalized groups, the oppressed, resisted those in power through peaceful protests.
The official language of Honduras is Spanish with Amerindian dialects. Although
Spanish is the official language, many schools in the urban areas are bilingual schools that teach English and Spanish. The predominant religion is Catholic with 97% of the population professing Catholicism as their religious preference (Central Intelligence
Agency, 2014). Honduran holidays are primarily linked to Catholic days of remembrance and government meetings often begin with an invocation and end with a final prayer of blessing.
Family structure has changed in recent years. Women in Honduran families are increasingly responsible for both household chore responsibilities and earning wages to support the household as single women (Pine, 2008). Families often send the family member with the highest wage earning potential to the United States to work and send money back to Honduras to support the family (Sladkova, 2007). This has been attributed to the high level of poverty and the need for work which has not been available within the country. With the higher wage earners in the family away for long periods of time, extended family members often care for the children whose parents are working in the U.S. Blanchard, Hamilton, Rodriguez, and Yoshioka (2011) examined the shifting trends of migration and reported that 88% of the returning migrants were men with 64%
24 between the ages of 18-30 (p. 73). Blanchard et al. (2011) also found that while in the
United States, 96% of Hondurans sent money home for the purpose of helping their family, suggesting a strong value of familial responsibility.
Government Structure
Honduras is considered a democratic constitutional republic. This differs slightly from the United States which is considered a direct democracy. A democratic constitutional democracy has elected leaders who vote on policies in contrast to a direct democracy where individuals elect leaders and vote on policies (Central Intelligence
Agency, 2014). There are two major political parties; the National Party and the Liberal
Party. Since the coup d’état coup in 2009, other groups have formed and the 2013 elections were conducted with nine different parties represented (Honduras Embassy,
2013). In 2013, Honduras elected its President and three vice presidents. The country is comprised of 18 departments: Atlántida, Choluteca, Colon, Comayagua, Copan, Cortes,
El Paraiso, Francisco Morazán, Gracias a Dios, Intibucá, Islas de Bahia, La Paz, Lempira,
Ocotepeque, Olancho, Santa Barbara, Valle, and Yoro. According to the Honduras
Embassy (2013), each department is represented in the 128 member National Congress.
There are 298 municipalities among the 18 departments and each municipality is governed by an elected mayor, who serves a four year term and may be re-elected.
In 2009, Honduras experienced a coup d’état in which the President, Manuel
Zelaya, was taken from his home by military force, as directed by a court order, and sent to Costa Rica (Kergin, 2011; Ruhl, 2010; Taylor-Robinson & Ura, 2012). The military acted on the court order following Zelaya’s attempt to “hold a referendum on calling a
25 constituent assembly” (Ruhl, 2010, p. 94). With this came the possibility of changing the constitution to allow a president to hold office for more than one term (Cassel, 2009).
Fasquelle (2011) reported that Zelaya was attempting to convene a constituent assembly in order to “rewrite the country's 1982 constitution so as to include mechanisms for popular democratic participation and break down the monopoly of the two-party system that keeps the oligarchy in power” (p.17). Within hours of the ousted president’s removal, Roberto Micheletti, the president of the congress, was announced as the new constitutional president of Honduras (Fasquelle, 2011; Joyce, 2010; Kergin, 2011). The lack of transparency about the process, the increased involvement of the military and the increased willingness of the public to accept undemocratic methods has complicated the struggle for democracy in a nation already battling poverty, violence, corruption, and economic instability (Ruhl, 2010). The Honduras Embassy (2013) has stated the highest priority of the 2013 elections was “transparency of the electoral process…in order to continue to strengthen representative democracy in Honduras” (p. 3). The hope is that with the strengthened democracy, corruption, and violence would decrease.
Corruption. In addition to the aspects of poverty and a struggling democracy, the Honduran government is battling a high rate of corruption and violence (Ruhl, 2010;
U.S. Department of State, 2013). According to Transparency International (2013),
Honduras received a Corruption Perception Index (CPI) score of 26. This is 2 points lower that the score of 28 received in 2012. The CPI measures the perception of public corruption on a scale from 0-100 with 0 being perceived as highly corrupt and 100 being perceived as very clean. Honduras’ country ranking on this scale was 140th of the 177
26 countries included in the CPI Index for 2013. By comparison, the U.S. was ranked 17th of the 177 countries that were ranked and a score of 73. New Zealand and Finland were ranked 1st and perceived as very clean and Somalia and North Korea were rank lowest at
175th and perceived as the most corrupt. On the World Bank Control of Corruption
(WBCC), Honduras received a standard normal unit score of -.069 (range of -2.5 to +2.5) with a percentile of 28.5 (WBI, 2009). Higher values indicate a better rating on the control of corruption scale. Control of corruption is defined as “the extent to which public power is exercised for private gain, including both petty and grand forms of corruption, as well as “capture” of the state by elites and private interests” (World Bank
Institute, 2009, p.1). This corruption is evident on two dimensions: (1) Grand corruption- high level (2) Petty corruption-low level (Ruhl, 2011). In his inauguration speech,
President Juan Orlando Hernandez addressed the well know issue of corruption in his country with this statement, “We will create a system that grows healthily, well managed, without corruption, and at a pace that allows for the expansion of the national economy.
For this reason, I have asked Transparency International to support us in the certification of the transparency and efficiency of the new processes” (Transparency International,
2014). This statement demonstrates an acknowledgment by the country’s leaders that corruption is an issue of concern.
Violence and Drugs
Geographic location, poverty, and corruption provide the conditions needed for the drug trade and violence to thrive (Ayuso, 2012; Kolb, 2012). International drug trade comes with organized crime. Transnational organized crime is defined as:
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those self-perpetuating associations of individuals who operate transnationally
for the purpose of obtaining power, influence, monetary and/or commercial gains,
wholly or in part by illegal means, while protecting their activities through a
pattern of corruption and/or violence, or while protecting their illegal activities
through a transnational organizational structure and the exploitation of
transnational commerce or communication mechanisms. (National Security
Council, 2011)
Drug trafficking and organized crime threaten the country’s ability to stabilize its democracy. The transnational crime organizations leveraged the political instability brought about by the coup and the history of corruption and military rule in Honduras.
“A history of military rule and persistent poverty serve as a backdrop to current large scale urban violence, drug trafficking and criminal youth gangs” (World Bank, 2013, p.10). Honduras has the highest homicide rate in the world at 91.6 per 100,000 (UNDP,
2013). This rate is 20 times more than the amount of homicides in the United States.
According to Arce (2012), San Pedro Sula was named the most dangerous city in the world. The mayor of San Pedro Sula, Juan Carols Zuniga explained, "As a local government we don't have the necessary instruments to fight the well-defined and identified violence derived from drug trafficking that overwhelms us" (Arce, 2012, para
7).
Education System
Honduran public schools are in session 10 months of the year, beginning in
February and ending in November. The average number of years of education attained
28 by adults is 4.8 with the compulsory education requirement of 6 years. First grade intake rate is 48% of all students eligible to enroll. The number of primary school age children not enrolled was 79,026 (UNESCO, 2008). The pupil teacher ratio, defined as the number of students per number of teachers available is 32.9:1. However, in the rural areas, this ratio has been observed to be 60:1 (A. Madrid-Avila, personal communication,
May, 13, 2011). In addition to the pupil teacher ratio, classrooms in the rural areas are often multi-grade classrooms. (Ulloa & Magalhães, 2013). There are 207 schools in
Santa Cruz de Yojoa. See Figure 2.3 Schools for Children of the World [SCW], 2001).
Many of the school buildings are in poor condition without electricity, running water or sanitation facilities (Powers, 2005; Secretaría de Educación de Honduras, 2014; Ulloa &
Magalhães, 2013).
Figure 2.3 School Facilities in Santa Cruz de Yojoa.
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Yitzack-Pavon (2008) reported that the Honduran education system has three major challenges that warrant attention, (a) service provision, (b) poor teacher accountability, (c) poor performance as measured by inefficient use of resources and low completion rates. These problems are exacerbated by those in extreme poverty and in rural villages (World Bank, 2002). Gropello and Marshall (2011) suggested that community participation in the form of community schools increases access and quality.
Programa Hondureño de Educación Comunitaria (PROHECO) promoted a decentralized model of education that transferred the responsibilities of education from the ministry of education to the community with increased parental oversight. As a result of this shift of responsibility through the PROHECO model, there was an increase in achievement in science, math and Spanish (Gropello & Marshall, 2011). This increase was attributed to the parental involvement which increased teacher efforts and allowed for a lower student teacher ratio. Gropello and Marshall (2011) reported their main contribution to the field as “both the dynamics of decentralization in an educational setting and the impact these changes have on human capital formation” (p. 176). Altschuler and Corrales (2012) reported that political powers assign the teachers of their choice and replace the board appointed teachers - this undermined the premise of decentralization and limited the local control. Yitzack-Pavon (2008), proposes that this community model has potential to improve education, “properly establishing these reforms with the transparency that comes with more public information will increase checks and balances between citizens, communities, and policy makers for a higher education quality in Honduras” (p.194).
Marshall, Mejía, and Aguilar (2008) examined another decentralized model, Educatodos,
30 a program for grades 7-9 which involved textbooks with taped lessons and an onsite facilitator of the learning process and community based projects to address the need of the middle school students. The process was beneficial to student learning, however, many centers closed due to a lack of materials or facilitators.
Special Education
Current Practices in Special Education in the US
Special education in the US refers to specially designed instruction that meets the needs of students with disabilities (Friend, 2008). These services can be provided in a variety of environments and may not be in a typical classroom. However, there are laws that regulate the details of where special education services are delivered. In the next section, these guiding regulations will be reviewed. In addition to the regulations, there are models of service delivery and current practices used to provide this specially designed instruction for students with disabilities.
Guiding regulations. In the United States, education is guaranteed for all children. As discussed in chapter one, there are state and federal mandates in place to ensure that all students have the opportunity to participate fully in education. For students with disabilities, one of the first guidelines came in the form of Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA). This law provided federal funding to states to assist with and encourage the development of programs for educating disadvantage students to include those with disabilities. This law, passed in 1965 was followed by the Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975, often referred to as Public Law 94-142 or
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This Act provided federal funding
31 incentives and requirements for states to develop policies that would ensure that students with qualifying disabilities receive a special education. These mandates were designed to ensure that all students have opportunities to receive a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). The rights of students with disabilities under this law include: (a) nondiscriminatory evaluation and placement procedures, (b) education in the least restrictive environment, (c) due process, (d) free education, and (e) appropriate education
(IDEA, 2004). The principle of least restrictive environment stipulates that children with disabilities can no longer be excluded. Providing FAPE includes the requirement of considering a student’s least restrictive environment (LRE). “Among the rights available to children with disabilities is the right to be educated with nondisabled children whenever this is appropriate and is the least restrictive environment for the student”
(Carey, 2010, p. 958). The concept of a LRE has been a challenge for teachers, administrators, parents and students. What is an appropriate LRE for one student may not be for another. Special education law requires that we examine each student’s needs to determine the best placement for that student. What this placement is called has gone through several changes from mainstreaming, integration and inclusion (Anderson,
2006). When the special education law was signed in 1975, advocacy for full inclusion in the regular classroom began. Since then, there has been a passionate discourse about two extremes of LRE in special education: full inclusion into the regular classroom and a separate facility. This is referred to as a continuum of placement as mandated by PL 94-
142. “Inclusive education aims to promote all students' learning, attendance and acceptance of diversity without any exceptions” (Angelides, Savva, & Hajisoteriou, 2012,
32 p.76). Regardless of the placement, the aim is the best possible education for each student.
In 2002, further legislation was developed in the form of No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) which was a reauthorization of ESEA. This law was designed to improve educational achievement for all students. As a result of this law, a new commission was established to identify ways to bring a greater level of accountability to special education practices and outcomes.
In 2004, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) was passed. This improvement on IDEA, referred to as IDEA 2004, set in place new requirements which included a distinction of highly qualified teachers in special education, allowing the Individualized Education Program (IEP) team to determine any assessment modifications for students with disabilities, and the use of research based instructional practices. The next section addresses teacher preparation in order to be able to implement the research based strategies.
Teacher Preparation
Teachers have a powerful, long-lasting influence on their students. An effective teacher influences a student’s achievement not only for the current school year but up to three years after having been taught by an effective teacher (Sanders as cited in Tucker &
Stronge, 2005). “Teachers with better professional preparation are also able to provide students with more diverse opportunities to learn” (Strong, 2002, p. 5). The inclusion model of education increases the diversity in the classroom whereby students of differing abilities are educated together. This diverse group of students requires a teacher to
33 design instruction and materials in a way that each student can learn in a meaningful way.
Included in the preparation program for teachers in the United States are strategies and methods to provide them with skills to differentiate instruction. These instructional methods are preceded by an understanding of individual differences that impact children such as learning styles and cognition. One aspect of training involves understanding how to design instruction that allows for multiple levels of entry based on a student’s developmental level and learning style.
Universal design for learning. Increasing diversity in the classroom requires flexibility in the environment and the instruction. Education has borrowed the concept of universal design from architecture. Universal design for learning (UDL) proposes that teachers should design their instruction from the beginning with a diverse group of learners in mind which would allow for a variety of modes for delivery and demonstration of understanding (Friend, 2008). The three principles of UDL are (1) multiple means of representation, (2) multiple means of expression, (3) multiple means of engagement (CAST, 2011). When a teacher approaches teaching and learning with these principles in mind, it allows each student to enter the learning process individually by engaging in and expressing learning in ways that capitalize on their strengths and learning preferences. Embry et al. (2005), recognized that there are challenges associated with this process such as teacher resistance, training, and the lack of a legal requirement. One strategy used to realize this complex process is differentiated instruction.
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Differentiation. The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) passed in 1997 included the requirement that students with disabilities have access to the curriculum.
This legislation encouraged the instructional practice of differentiated instruction. De
Jesus (2012) described differentiation as, “the practice of modifying and adapting, materials, content, student projects and products, and assessment to meet the learning needs of students” (p. 6). The underlying principles of differentiated instruction are: (a) students differ as learners, (b) teachers must study their students to teach them well, (c) effective teachers teach up (Tomlinson, 2009). When compared with traditional models of homogeneous group and instructional delivery and assessment, differentiation requires more preparation time and often more hands on in class instruction. As educators continue to embrace inclusive classrooms with an increasing diversity in ability, language, and cultures, many general education teachers have begun to partner with special education teachers in order to share their resources and expertise.
Co-teaching. When special education services are provided in the general education classroom, teachers with regular education training and those with special education training often collaborate in order to provide the needed educational support for ever increasing diversity of students with disabilities. This collaboration sets the stage for a service delivery model referred to as co-teaching (Friend, Cook, Hurley-
Chamberlain & Shamberger, 2010). The process of co-teaching involves two teachers planning and delivering instruction together. Chapple (2009) identified three central obstacles with the implementation of co-teaching: (a) staff development, (b) teacher disposition, and (c) resources. Friend (2007) identified similar struggles of special
35 educators understanding the general education curriculum and regular education teachers understanding the process of teaching students with disabilities. This model requires a collaborative school culture (Chapple, 2009; Friend, 2007). As a result, when school leaders decide to implement the co-teaching model, it will be important to be intentional with planning, implementing and maintaining the co-teaching model.
The aforementioned guidelines and practices are those common to the system of education in the US. There are other nations around the world that operate by similar principles when educating students with disabilities. However, it is important to remember that the practices in the US may not be those of other nations. To assume that these principles are the sole, guiding principles for special education of all nations would be presumptuous and indicate an imperialistic mindset. These guidelines were stated as a framework and background that is familiar to the researcher. By the same token, educators from around the world have recognized the importance of providing education for all students. The next section will address international guidelines regarding special education.
International Guidelines
The international community has been addressing education for all since the development of the United Nations Convention Against Discrimination in Education in
1960. For international policy documents, see Table 2.1. In 1994, 92 governments and
25 different international organizations came together to form the World Conference on
Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 2014). The purpose of this group was to affirm the pledge of the international community to ensure that all children have access to quality
36 education. Access and quality were key factors supported by the model of inclusive education practices in education by adopting the framework for action on special needs education which provided guidelines for implementation (UNESCO, 2000). This framework provided practical guidelines for administrators to use when implementing a change to more inclusive practices in education such as attendance of the local school, differentiated instruction, teacher collaboration, and parental and community participation in the governance (UNESCO, 2001). In 2012, UNESCO, in partnership with UNICEF, formed a task force on inclusive education. The focus for this task force includes: (a) accessible learning spaces, (b) teacher training for inclusive education, and
(c) collecting data for evidenced based practice and monitoring (UNICEF, Inclusive
Education, 2012).
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TABLE 2.1
International Policy Documents Pertaining to Disability & Education
Year Policy document Content areas
1960 United Nations Convention Against 19 articles Discrimination in Education (Articles 1, 2, 3, 6 on education) 1971 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of 7 articles (Article 2 on Mentally Retarded Persons education) 1975 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of 13 articles: integration, Disabled Persons employment 1981 Sundberg Declaration 16 articles (Articles 1, 4, 6, 7 on education) 1982 United Nations World Programme of Action 3 prevention, rehabilitation, goals: Concerning Disabled Persons equal opportunity
1989 Tallinn Guidelines for Action on Human 9 strategies (Section D on Resources Development education) 1990 Convention on the Rights of the Child 54 articles (Article 23 on (UNICEF) self-reliance, participation, and social integration)
1990 World Declaration on Education for All 10 articles: access, (UNESCO, Jomtien) enablement, environment, partnerships 1993 United Nations Standard Rules on the 22 rules: sectors, supports, Equalization of Opportunities for Persons With access, equal opportunity, Disabilities laws
1994 World Congress on Special Needs Education, 85 articles: access, Salamanca accommodations, quality
1995 World Summit for Social Development 10 commitments, Programme of Action
2000 Education for All (EFA) Frame- work for 6 goals: accountability, Action (UNESCO, Dakar) advocacy, participation
(Peters, 2009, p.100).
Special education has been and continues to be an area of concern around the world and as a result, groups have formed to address the need. One such group, the
International Association of Special Education (IASE), formed in 1985, is an
38 interdisciplinary group of professionals from 48 different countries whose vision it is to
“improve quality of life and service delivery for all individuals with special needs” through promoting awareness, participating in research, and collaborating with other professionals from around the world (IASE Vision section, para. 1, 2014).
State of Special Education in Honduras
Guiding Regulations. According to the Honduran constitution, children are required to be enrolled in school until age 16 and are not permitted to work unless a family’s situation requires them to do so and it does not interfere with their education process. With reference to education for those with disabilities, article 169 of the
Constitution declares, “The State sustain and encourage the education of disabled people” (HR Const. art. 169). The Honduras law for the integration of people with disabilities states that all people with disabilities are afforded access to education
(Ministro de Discapacidad, 2005). Article 19 states that students with disabilities are to receive their education in the regular education system with the required supports and educated in separate resource rooms or institutions only when the supports cannot meet their needs. Article 22 states that students with disabilities should be educated in the school that is closest to their home. Article 18 requires that governing education bodies are in place to ensure compliance with these laws.
The United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution recognizing people with disabilities as “agents and beneficiaries of development, acknowledging the value of their contributions to the general well-being, progress and diversity of a society” (68th session, 68/3, p.3, 2013). This resolution was adopted to ensure accessibility to
39 education, increase social inclusion and improve data collection and analysis for the purpose of improving policy. Although policies and practices of including students in education services are limited in Honduras, it is hoped that this resolution will provide support for advancement in disability services. Honduras has recognized the need to include all students in the education process. In 1991, this right was affirmed in the
National Policies for Special Education of the Ministry of Public Education. Agreement
No. 1662 EP91 (World Bank, 2002). However, the espoused values evident by the legislation are not enacted in practice in the classrooms. Children with disabilities in
Honduras often do not attend school or are not able to access the curriculum and instruction when they are in school due to limited resources and well intentioned teachers who are lacking the skills to provide specialized instruction.
Service Delivery
Honduras is working to provide for the basic education needs of children, however, they have also begun to address the educational needs of children who have disabilities. Special services are provided through centers that offer physical, cognitive and educational rehabilitation services, such as Teletón, that allow students with disabilities access to education. Teletón is a private organization supported by annual nationwide fundraising that offers therapeutic services such as speech therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, special education and psychological services free of charge. There are five centers located at major cities throughout the country:
Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, Copan, Choluteca and Catacamas. Although these services are free of charge, they are only available in the major cities. This is a significant barrier
40 for those in rural areas. It is difficult to access these services from the rural mountain areas such as the remote villages in Santa Cruz de Yojoa. Gabel and Danforth (2008) reported a similar situation in Columbia:
The inclusion of disabled children into public education has been legislated since
1994, under Law 115 (Congreso de la República de Colombia, 1994) that
establishes nondiscrimination on the basis of impairment in any public or private
educational institution, including postsecondary institutions. However, Law 115
has always been applied intermittently, according to a variety of factors including
local school preferences, available resources, and resource allocation decisions.
(p. 226)
Similar to Honduras and Columbia, Costa Rica is a developing nation with many of the same concerns in the area of education. However, they have established special education services for students with disabilities. During the process of implementing inclusion, barriers to inclusion were discovered. Stough (2003) examined the inclusive practices in Costa Rica and identified three main barriers that they encountered when implementing the inclusion of students with disabilities: (a) shortage of specially trained teachers, (b) the need to modify the curriculum of the regular classroom, and (c) the need for best practices models of inclusive schools.
Avramidis and Norwich (2002) indicated the teacher’s attitude as a potential barrier to successful inclusion; “Teachers are more willing to include students with mild disabilities or physical sensory impairments than students with more complex needs. In the case of the more severe learning needs and behavioral difficulties, teachers hold
41 negative attitudes to the implementation of inclusion” (p. 142). In addition, Avramidis and Norwich (2002) suggested that provision of more resources and support in the form of learning support teams, teachers’ attitudes could become more positive. These learning support teams have the potential to shift teachers’ attitudes while simultaneously creating a learning organization (Garvin, 1993).
Summary
In the US, the ultimate goal of education is to produce lifelong learners with the skills and desire to contribute to society. As a result of globalization, what we consider as our society is expanding. Globalization has also underscored the increased diversity in our daily environments. Consequently, we will expect our children to navigate this diverse landscape with deftness in order to succeed in our new world. Accordingly, children are being educated with an increasingly diverse group of learners and have been given a unique opportunity to demonstrate their skills in this area. As a result of local, state, national and international mandates and guidelines, students with disabilities are now being educated together with typically developing students. Although this seems like a natural progression, it has not come without challenges. This chapter highlighted these challenges both in the U.S. and in more underdeveloped nations such as Honduras.
These challenges presented from Honduras include the high level of poverty, teacher training, government structures and corruption, and the geographic location which lends itself to the drug trade and resulting violence. The governing officials in Honduras have linked the urgent goal of education to its potential to decrease poverty, produce a democratic society without violence, and increase employment opportunities (Honduras
42
National Congress, 2010). Honduran education legislation has also indicated a value for equity, access, and efficiency in the education system. In order to address the needs of students with disabilities in a system with these challenges, it is important to identify the perceptions of those experiencing this situation. The next chapter provides a detailed description of how this study will investigate these perceptions.
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CHAPTER III
Methodology
The focus of this qualitative case study was to gain a greater understanding about how children, teachers, parents, community members, government officials, and administrators view and include rural Honduran students with disabilities in the classroom and in the community. This study used an emergent design that consisted of a collective multi-site case study conducted in the rural community of Santa Cruz de
Yojoa, Cortes, Honduras. The study took place over the course of three years. The
Ashland University Human Subjects Review Board (HSRB) reviewed and approved the plan and procedures for this study prior to the initial data collection. As the study progressed, new questions were proposed and approved by the HSRB (see appendix A for HSRB approval forms). Participants’ privacy was protected by removing names of participants and site names where data were collected.
Design Rationale
Understanding how individuals perceive a particular phenomenon requires an open ended discussion that may not be captured fully through alternate methods such as forced choice survey or numerical test score data. Merriam (2009) highlights case study as a “means of investigating complex social units consisting of multiple variables of potential importance to understanding the phenomenon” (p. 50). The social, cultural and contextual complexities of education in rural Honduras have compelled me to conduct a
“real world study of the phenomenon and collect data in the natural setting” (Yin, 2012, p. 5). In addition, the potential cultural component lends itself to an investigatory process
44 and rich description that can be more comprehensive through a qualitative case study methodology.
Research Questions
This study addressed the following research questions:
1. How do the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, community members,
government officials, and administrators of Honduran students with disabilities
impact the education of Honduran children with disabilities?
a. How is the governance of the education process perceived and how does
this impact the education of Honduran students with disabilities?
b. How are the availability of resources perceived and how does this impact
the education of Honduran children with disabilities?
c. How do cultural beliefs impact the education of Honduran children with
disabilities?
Participants
The participants in this study included teachers, administrators, parents, and children in the rural community of Santa Cruz de Yojoa. The teachers were participants in an SCW sponsored professional development seminar, children were from the Santa
Cruz community, administrators were working at a school within the municipio (Engish translation: municipality) and were receiving students from the CIPIE, and parents had children who were receiving services from the CIPIE. More information regarding the participants is provided in table two.
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Data Collection
In preparation for data collection, a participant consent form (see appendix B), interview protocol (see appendix C), and children’s oral explanation protocol (see appendix D) were developed. The consent forms were translated into Spanish by a native
Honduran interpreter and a volunteer North American medical student. Data were collected at three different points in time over the course of three years (July, 2011; July
2013; July, 2014). Table 2.2 presents an overview of the data collection timeline and a description of each phase. Each phase is organized according to the date it was collected and the process used to collect the data. The next columns provide a description of the source of the data and the setting in which the data was collected.
Table 2.2 Data Collection Timeline
Date Procedure Number of Participant profile Setting participants July, 2011 Focus Groups 96 teachers – 2 Teachers from 15 Professional separate sessions different schools in development the northwest area of seminar conducted Santa Cruz de Yojoa at a rural school in a Varied years of regular classroom teaching experience Male and female 8 - community group Nurse, health care Town meeting hall worker, two teachers, In Santa Cruz de 1 principal, 2 stay at Yojoa. home mothers, 1 This group parent of a student continued meeting with a disability to set a strategic All lived or worked plan for the CIPIE in the municipio after our focus Male and female group. Children’s 12 children Children ages 5-9 Public school Drawings Male and female classroom in conjunction with teacher professional development seminar
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July, 2013 Classroom 3 teachers 5-10 years of 3 classrooms in a Observations teaching experience regular education Male and female setting; Multi-grade Spanish class, Math class, Reading class Interviews 1 administrator Training – primary Principal’s office in school (6th grade) + a rural school HS (9th grade) + 3 building years teacher training Experience in special education-5 years Female 1 teacher leader 18 years teaching experience – 15 years at the current school Rural experience Female 1 teacher 3 years of teacher training 16 years teaching experience – rural schools Male Focus Group 3 teachers Grades: 2, 5, 3 Library in a rural Varied years of school building experience and training Female July, 2014 Interviews 2 parents 1. Vocation: nurse; CIPIE conference child no longer room receiving services at CIPIE; attending school; female 2. Vocation: cares for Outdoor field daughter with disability; daughter currently receiving services at CIPIE; female 1 grandparent Grandparent and CIPIE conference widow caring for the room child – mother is not in the home; female 1 government official Vocation: farmer CIPIE conference Serves in the local room government; male 1 community member Vocation: hotel CIPIE conference management; room Board member of the CIPIE; female
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1 local business leader Small family business Table in the local owner; male business shop Focus Group 26 Parents/guardians Parents of children CIPIE conference that were receiving room services at the CIPIE Male and female Children’s 2 children who were 1 boy (age 9) CIPIE therapy room Drawings receiving services at 1 girl (age 13) the CIPIE
Observations.
July 2013. Three classroom observations were conducted in July, 2013 with the assistance of one SCW volunteer and one local interpreter. The director of the CIPIE contacted a local school to share about this project and offer an opportunity to participate in this study. When she received confirmation, she arranged the schedule for our visit.
Each participant signed an informed consent form in Spanish after receiving an oral explanation which was interpreted from English to Spanish by an SCW volunteer interpreter. The principal directed us to the classrooms where we would be observing.
Observers used a field note guide for note taking during observations. Notes were taken on what was seen and heard in one section of the guide and questions or thoughts about what was seen recorded in the other section. The purpose of the observations was two- fold: (a) increase our understanding about how classes are conducted, and (b) notice how students with disabilities were included in instruction. Observations took place during three separate designated class periods as it was convenient for the schedule and the teachers. A math, science, and Spanish class were observed. Each teacher had multiple grades in their single classroom. All observations took place in a single, rural Honduran school building in the Santa Cruz de Yojoa municipio.
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Interviews.
The interview questions were designed to address the underlying reasons behind the perceived resistance of teachers toward the integration of students with disabilities into the typical classroom in Santa Cruz de Yojoa. The interview protocol (see appendix
C) was prepared in advance with open ended questions. This prepared protocol was reviewed by an interdisciplinary group of SCW trip volunteers, interpreter and the director of the CIPIE. The interdisciplinary group included one retired public school superintendent, a pastoral counselor, and a Honduran architect serving as an interpreter.
The initial questions were modified to reflect feedback from the group regarding content, cultural sensitivity, acceptable terminology, and the order of presentation. During this process, questions were discussed in English and Spanish, and translated into both languages (see appendix C). Interviews were transcribed with the assistance of two SCW volunteers.
July 2013. Three teacher interviews were conducted in July, 2013. Participants were given an informed consent form in Spanish and an oral explanation in English which was interpreted into Spanish. The participants acknowledged understanding the study and the process, and signed the consent form. The interviews were conducted at a typical rural Honduran primary school, which included grades 1-6, within the Santa Cruz de Yojoa municipio. School was in session during our interviews. At the school, classes were conducted in two different sessions, one in the morning and one in the afternoon.
The participants were chosen based on their availability. The morning interviews included the principal of the school and a teacher who teaches in the alternate session.
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The final afternoon interview participant was a lead teacher who teaches during the morning session and assists the principal in the afternoon. Each interview was conducted separately. The interviews were conducted in the principal’s office. I led the interviews and was accompanied by a team which included: an audio/video technician, an interpreter, the superintendent from the question review group, and the counselor who served as a note taker during the interview. All participants were given the opportunity to consent or refuse audio and video recording of the interview. Those recordings were used during the transcription process. The interviews were semi structured and lasted approximately 60 minutes each. Pseudonyms have been assigned to participants to maintain confidentiality.
Participants. Three teachers agreed to participate in the interview process. All three teachers were current teachers at the same school.
Maria. Maria was the principal of the school and arranged the teachers and times for interviews on the day of our visit. Her teacher training included primary school (6th grade), high school (9th grade), and three years teacher training. Prior to working in the current building, Maria spent five years working in the special education department of
Teleton.
Juan. Juan had been teaching for sixteen years with the majority of that experience in rural schools in multi-grade classrooms. He received three years of teacher training beyond the compulsory grade 9.
Ana. Ana was teaching first grade at the time of our interview. During the session that she was not teaching, she assisted with administrative duties. She had 18
50 years of teaching experience. The first three years of her teaching experience were in a more rural school as a single teacher to 80 students in grade one through six. The facilities there had no water or electricity. She has been teaching in the current building for the last 15 years.
July 2014. Six additional interviews were conducted and included: two parents of students who have received services at the CIPIE, a grandparent/guardian of a student receiving service at the CIPIE, a local government official, a community member, and a local business leader. Selection of participants was one of convenience based on their availability and willingness to participate. The parents/guardians were selected by the director of the CIPIE based on their availability during the time that the SCW education team was in the municipio. The local government official was selected because of his involvement with the government and our previous connection with him. Community members were selected based on our previously established relationship during visits in previous years. An informed consent was explained in English and interpreted into
Spanish. The informed consent form was provided in Spanish. Each participant acknowledged understanding the study and signed the consent form. The interviews were conducted in the conference room at the CIPIE, a local business, and an outdoor field. The interview protocol was reviewed following the same process that was utilized in July 2013. The interviews were conducted with an interpreter and audio recorded.
These recordings were transcribed by the researcher and two SCW volunteers.
Participants. Silvia. Silvia has a child with a diagnosed disability. Her child has received services at the CIPIE in the past but was not attending on the date of our
51 interview. She did report that her child was attending school. Silvia is a nurse by vocation and works in a local clinic in the municipio. Her parents have lived in the US for ten years. She recently visited her ill father to provide nursing care for him.
Alba. Alba is caring for her granddaughter who has a diagnosed disability and was receiving services from the CIPIE. She cares for her granddaughter because her mother is living in the city to support her other children and a brother. Alba is a widow and explained that she has a house because her late husband worked in construction.
Carmen. Carmen is the mother of a daughter with a disability who was receiving services on the date of our interview. She also has two typically developing children.
Carmen cares for her daughter who requires medical and educational supports.
Miguel. Miguel is a government official in the local municipio and has been active in the government for more than ten years. He is also a farmer by trade. He has two typically developing children who did not have any identified disability.
Isabel. Isabel is a wife and mother of two typically developing children. She has a family member with Down syndrome. She serves on the board of directors for the
CIPIE. She manages a hotel and works in a local shop.
Carlos. Carlos owns a small family business in the town center. He has been operating the business in Santa Cruz for five years. His daughter and niece work with him in the shop.
Focus Groups. A total of five focus groups were conducted and included teachers, parents, and community members of the Santa Cruz de Yojoa community. Each focus group was held on different days and in different locations. Location was based on
52 the convenience of the teachers and the SCW team of volunteers. The community based focus group took place in a central town meeting hall. Two teacher focus groups took place in conjunction with a teachers’ professional development session, the other teacher group took place at the same site of the classroom observations and interviews, and the parent focus group took place at the CIPIE. The focus groups were approximately 60 minutes in length and were held in a location convenient for the participants such as the school library or conference area. Audio and video were not used during the focus groups.
July 2011. Two teacher focus groups were conducted in July, 2011. These two sessions included two groups of local teachers attending an SCW sponsored professional development session on differentiation of instruction. The participants were given an informed consent form in Spanish and an English explanation, which was interpreted into
Spanish. Each participant acknowledged that they understood the study and the process of the focus group, and signed the consent form. Each participant was provided with a written set of the focus questions in Spanish. They were given time to respond in writing individually, followed by discussion with their peers and the facilitator of the discussion.
The written forms were collected. This process took place prior to the professional development seminar.
July 2013. One teacher focus group was conducted in July, 2013. This session consisted of a smaller group of three teachers from a local school in Santa Cruz de Yojoa where observations and interviews occurred. Participants were given consent forms and explanations, as in other focus groups. This focus group was conducted as a group
53 interview with participants providing oral responses. As I was facilitating the discussion, notes were taken by a North American SCW volunteer.
July 2014. One parent focus group was conducted in July, 2014. This focus group included parents of students who were receiving services at the CIPIE at the time.
Children’s Drawings. Two children’s drawing sessions were conducted in conjunction with the teachers’ professional development session and assessments. One session was conducted in July, 2011. The second session was conducted in July, 2014.
Children from the community associated with the participating schools, accompanied by their relative, were given a brief oral explanation of the directions (see Appendix E) and their parents signed the informed consent form which was provided in Spanish. Children were provided paper, crayons, and markers to draw their responses.
July 2011. Children from the community where the professional development seminar was conducted were invited to participate. The school is a community gathering location and there were parents and children walking around the school on that day.
Parents who expressed interest were given an explanation of the study and were offered the opportunity for their child to participate. Twelve children participated in the drawing session. Each parent whose child participated signed the informed consent form for their child. The session was conducted in an open classroom. The drawings were collected as each student finished. Students entered and left the classroom for a span of about two hours. The parents/guardians were not asked to disclose whether or not their child had an identified disability.
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July 2014. The second session was conducted in July, 2014 at the CIPIE as children and parents were waiting to receive services. These children had an identified disability. Two children participated in the drawing session. The same oral explanation and process used in July, 2011 was followed in July, 2014.
Data Analysis
Data were collected from observations, interviews, focus groups and children’s drawings. Analysis of the data will be described in the next sections in detail according to the type of data collected.
Observations and Interviews
Field notes from observations were analyzed wherein themes and points of significance were identified. Transcriptions from interviews were entered into a spreadsheet. The spreadsheet functions allowed for multiple views of data in order to facilitate the identification of categories or themes. This initial open coding process will be the beginning of “making meaning” (Merriam, 2009, p.175). As the interview transcripts and field notes were read, the words, phrases and concepts that were relevant to the research question were noted and organized into categories. Nine codes emerged from the analysis. The next phase of analysis involved axial coding, wherein relationships between codes/categories were identified to increase understanding of how the data are connected (Charmaz, 2006). These relationships provided the relevant information needed in order to provide a collaboratively constructed response to the research questions of this study.
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Focus Groups
Written responses from the individual focus groups were translated to English and entered into a spreadsheet. As the field notes consisting of written responses were analyzed, the words, phrases or concepts that are relevant to the research question were noted and organized into categories. Nine categories emerged. The next phase of analysis involved axial coding to identify relationships.
Children’s Drawings
All 14 children’s drawings from both sessions were reviewed by a small team of four interdisciplinary educational specialists who possess expertise in the areas of child development, classroom instruction, administration, language development, and psychological development. The team used the Looking at Student’s Thinking (LAST) protocol to individually document what they saw in the artwork produced by the children
(Ritchhard, 2005). The LAST protocol was developed to document children’ thinking through observing their drawings. The protocol was modified in that only three parts of the process were utilized for our purpose of analyzing student’s drawings. The first step of this protocol required group members to observe the 14 drawings independently for 15 minutes and take notes on what they saw. This was followed by a time for each member to describe what they saw, speculate about the student’s thinking, and finally ask one another questions about what they saw. Their responses were reviewed and compared to identify categories. Three themes emerged. These themes were presented to the group in an open discussion format. From this discussion, I identified the concepts and ideas expressed through the children’s drawings.
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Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness is founded upon processes and procedures that establish a study’s credibility, confirmability and dependability (Merriam, 2009). Although the final determination of a study’s trustworthiness lies primarily with the reader, the researcher ensures trustworthiness through the use of various tools, such as: thick and rich descriptions, triangulation of the data across multiple sources and member checking throughout the study. A discussion on these trustworthiness components is provided below.
Credibility
Credibility was addressed by allowing for extended time with the community, persistent observation, and member checking. In addition to the extended time spent with the community, educators and CIPIE staff members participated in the process.
Participation involved peer debriefing following data collection. This debriefing provided an opportunity for consideration of alternate perspectives. This study took place over the course of three years which allowed for an extended time in the community to gain a better understanding of the culture and social context. The amount of time spent with the community allowed me to conduct observations in multiple contexts over time. Finally, member checking was done after the first round of interviews was completed. Analysis of initial data was reviewed with the participants to authenticate and verify findings. In the 2014 visit, I met with the initial interview participants to review my analysis of what they shared during their interview. I read to each participant my analysis of the major points that were shared during our interviews
57 and focus groups from the previous visits. I also provided them with an opportunity to add any additional information or offer changes that may have occurred since our last visit. Notes were taken as participants modified and clarified my initial understanding.
Confirmability
Confirmability was addressed through triangulation of the data, member checking, and an advisory team. Triangulation of the data was managed at the level of sources. The data were triangulated by conducting classroom observations, focus groups, individual interviews, and children’s drawings and comparing the findings from these multiple sources. Collecting data from a variety of sources provided an opportunity to test for consistency (Patton, 2002). Collecting and comparing data from multiple sources
“establish converging lines of evidence which will make your findings as robust as possible” (Yin, 2012, p. 13). In addition to triangulation of the multiple sources of data, peer debriefing was conducted following the interviews and observations. I met with the note taker afterward to debrief the interview process through comparing notes and observations and identifying similarities and differences. The advisory team involved university professors who provided guidance throughout the study. This advisory process involved regular meetings with individual professors/researchers establish the investigation process, prepare for HSRB approval, formulate interview and research questions, and review data, findings and analysis.
Dependability
Dependability of the study was addressed through use of protocols that ensured consistency across interviews, focus groups, and children’s drawings. Additionally, an
58 external audit was conducted. Data, categories, and findings were reviewed by a third party. One item was noted as inconsistent between the transcripts and the reporting of findings. The investigator initially reported a finding from one participant using the term
‘disability’ but the actual term in the translated transcript was ‘defect’. The external auditor noted that the difference in terms may impact the meaning. The term was adjusted in the findings to reflect the actual term used in the translated transcript.
Transferability
Thick and rich descriptions of the study’s participants and context provided the reader with the information needed to determine if the findings from this study could be transferred to a different context. Chapter III provided a detailed account of how the study was conducted and a chart is provided with a description of participants and the specific context.
Ethics
As a participant observer and an activist educator, I took precautions to ensure that my data collection and analysis provided the authentic depiction given by the participants. This process involved shared leadership with the members in the community, frequent checks with those advisers outside of the study, and reflective journaling during the process. This reflection allowed me to identify the need to step out of the situation in order to be able to separate my understanding as a North American educator and reconcile what was being shared from the perspective of a Central
American community. This was particularly helpful following an interview that lasted more than an hour or after meeting parents who shared the stories of their children.
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The study was fully explained to each participant and prior to participation along with any associated risks as prescribed in the approved HSRB approval (see appendix A).
To ensure confidentiality, data obtained in the study was stored in a locked cabinet.
Pseudonyms have been used to protect the confidentiality of all participants.
Additionally, I conducted this study under the guidance of several university advisors who assisted with answering questions and addressing concerns during the process.
Summary
This chapter presented the research design, rationale, research questions, participants, data collection methods, data analysis procedures and the how trustworthiness will be addressed. This study used an emergent qualitative multisite case study design. The participants included teachers, administrators, parents, community members, government officials, and students of the local schools in Santa Cruz de Yojoa,
Cortes, Honduras. Data collection involved observations, interviews, focus groups and children’s drawings. The data was analyzed through a multi-step coding process.
Trustworthiness was addressed through rich description and transparency of the process, triangulation and member checking. Lastly, ethical concerns as a participant observer and activist educator were addressed. The next chapter presents the findings that result from this process.
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CHAPTER IV
Findings
As stated in Chapter I, the focus of this study is the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, and administrators of students with disabilities and the challenges they face with equity, access, and efficiency during their journey in education in rural
Honduras. Their perceptions were identified over the course of three years through classroom observations, interviews, focus groups, home visits and children’s drawings with members of the Santa Cruz de Yojoa community, government, and education system. The collected data was analyzed through open and axial coding of field notes and the responses of participants.
Participants included individuals from the following groups: children with and without disabilities, parents of children with disabilities, teachers in a general education environment, educational administrators, community members, and government officials.
This study was situated in a small rural area of Cortes, Honduras, an intimate community.
As a result of the size and rural location, many schools in the area are assigned only a single teacher. Therefore, in order to maintain confidentiality, pseudonyms have been assigned to participants. The names used to represent the participants were randomly selected from an internet database of common Honduran names and have no other known association with the actual participants in this study. Likewise, only relevant information about participants will be disclosed. This chapter is organized by the categories identified during the coding process: (a) culture (b) government (c) poverty and (d)
61 education process. Within each category, findings are organized according to data collection mode and participant group.
Culture
Culture here refers to shared understandings of the people of the country and the smaller community in which the study was conducted, Santa Cruz de Yojoa, Cortes,
Honduras. These shared beliefs and understandings include family, religion and language. Moreover, how language is used in dialogue, who participates freely in conversation and which topics are discussed are defining aspects of culture. Many community members initially shared that cultural beliefs did not have an impact on the education of students with disabilities. As the group began to discuss culture and came to an understanding of culture as the things they believed as a group and a community and how they do things, participants identified cultural factors that they believe may play a role in educating students with disabilities. Cultural aspects that were identified and related to students with disabilities were: violence and drugs, disintegrated family structure, religious belief and superstitions, isolation and social stigma.
Environment of Violence and Drugs
Violence and drugs were reported as a common part of this society. Government officials, community members, administrators, parents and teachers pointed to this as a factor that interferes with the education of students with and without disabilities. Miguel, the local government official, responded: “Drug trafficking is one of the biggest problems our country has. It’s the easiest way of making money without having to work.”
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When further questioned about why it was prevalent here than elsewhere, he responded,
“Because of the geographical location, it always has to pass through here.”
Isabel echoed this sentiment and added that violence and crime come with drug trafficking. She continued and connected crime and violence to a disintegrated family structure which caused children to turn toward delinquency and finally to drug trafficking. “Family situations lead to delinquency. From delinquency they go to drug trafficking.” Maria, an administrator and teacher, confirmed during our member checking session, that young children that are left unattended are exposed to a high level of violence in the media through television and radio, “this is having a negative impact on our culture.” During the parent focus group, parents shared that while the drugs and violence are less common in the rural area than in San Pedro Sula or Tegucigalpa, it impacts their kids because the children see what is happening in the cities when they watch or listen to the news. Participants reported that the culture of violence and drugs, which is so prevalent, impacts the family structure, diminishing the available family support needed to provide for a student with a disability. The connection that participants made between drugs, violence and children with disabilities was two-fold: (a) family structure, and (b) cause of disability; both of which are discussed below.
Disintegrated Family Structure
Government officials, community members, administrators, parents, and teachers agreed that disintegrated family structure was a situation of concern that was having a negative impact on students with disabilities. Miguel attributed part of the cause of disintegrated family structure to the lack of jobs and suffering economy. This typically
63 results in the highest wage earner seeking employment in the US or in Spain in order to send money home for the family. Often, the member of the family with the highest wage earning potential is the father and therefore, the mother remains the parent responsible for managing the family alone. Miguel shared this concern, “Education, jobs, it’s a big disaster. The families are disintegrating. People have to leave their homes to look for jobs elsewhere, parents cannot look after their children.” An additional complicating factor is the location of Honduras in the Northern Triangle which makes it an ideal location for drug trafficking accompanied by increased violence. Miguel shared that many who are living in poverty turn to drug trafficking to make money without having to work hard. This often takes the male family member out of the house. He went on to explain that when this happens, the children live with extended family. Ana, an administrator and educator, confirmed that she too sees that situation and added that when this happens, extended families do not care for the children with disabilities. She also stated that, after school, “they are often left alone or with older siblings and do not have the support they need at home. In most cases, this results in child abuse.” During the member check session, she continued to share that “The lack of family support is impacting how they perform in the classroom.” Two separate community members shared a common perception that fathers are not aware of their children’s needs or abilities, “there is a lack of interest by the fathers” and “the father thinks that the child with special needs does not have rights to be treated equally, and the child is incapable to improving.”
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For children with disabilities, teachers and administrators felt it was important for fathers to be aware in order to provide the additional support needed at home, school and in the community. Teachers reported the father is away or unaware, children with disabilities do not receive the parental support they need at home in order to be successful at school. During a focus group, a teacher shared, “some parents do not support or help these children. The father of the family is not prepared to help the child. The father has a lack of knowledge of the family.” Another teacher agreed and added, “In order to apply these teaching methods adequately, they need to also be enforced in the home and community. These will help the children become functional, useful members of society.
Support from the mother and father at home can help make a lot of difference for these children.” Maria, a school administrator, shared what she believed was best for children in the Latin American culture, “The best environment we have as Latinos is to have the father to work and the mother to be at home to take care of the children.”
Cause of Disability
Community members and teachers expressed a belief that drugs were the cause of disabilities. However, there was a conflicting belief that disabilities are caused genetics and intermarriage among relatives. A community member from a focus group shared that the interrelations of close family members is more common in the rural areas. Isabel, a community member and board member, reported that scientifically they understood what causes Down syndrome but there is still a belief that it is caused by drugs or alcohol,
“scientifically we know what causes downs syndrome, and people sometimes think when someone has a child who has a disability, people think this is caused by drinking or using
65 drugs.” During one teachers’ focus groups and individual interviews, teachers shared that they believe that many of the disabilities are not caused by drugs but by intermarriage among close family members. One teacher stated, “I found several cases of children with special needs are genetic because parents marry between each other.” Another teacher shared his belief that “defects are believed to be hereditary.”
Religious Beliefs and Superstitions
Religious beliefs and superstitions were identified by community members, administrators, parents, and teachers as factors that both positively and negatively impacted the education of students with disabilities. During our classroom observations, we entered the courtyard of the school to find a local Catholic volunteer group leading the school’s opening session. Religion and school were taught together in the public school setting. The lesson in the courtyard on forgiveness and tolerance was carried into the classroom and used as the focus for writing exercises and group discussion. Maria, the administrator, explained that this group is frequently welcomed to do the religious instruction at the beginning of the school day.
During an interview with Isabel, she shared that families do believe that having a child with a disability is a punishment from God, “A family thought that they had done something wrong and it was God’s punishment. The child had cleft palate.” Alba, the grandmother and guardian of a student with a disability, believed that God is the one who takes care of her granddaughter and counts her as lucky, “She is very, very lucky and
God always looks after her because everyone loves her.” She expanded when asked
66 about how she saw children with disabilities in the community, “Those are God things you know and you cannot laugh at anyone because no one is perfect.”
Focus groups with teachers and parents also revealed beliefs about religion and superstitions. Several parents reported that a parent receives a child with a disability from God as a punishment for a sin they have committed against God. One teacher from the focus group expressed her perception, “There are times when you don’t want to address these issues, because some believe they are not natural and are possessed by evil.” During the focus groups of both teachers and parents, a superstition was shared about individuals with cleft palate. One parent explained, “If a pregnant woman is not wearing red lace during a lunar eclipse, her child will be born with a cleft palate.” This superstition was well known although many chuckled when they were sharing it.
Carmen, the mother of a student with a disability who was receiving special services through the CIPIE, shared that her faith in God gives her strength to help her daughter live and be educated. During a public meeting, she shared the story of her daughter’s medical issues that have resulted in the need for special educational supports.
Carmen stated, “The doctor’s reported that she was dead. She lived through that and He
(God) has a purpose for me and for my daughter.” During the parents’ focus group, many parents who had students with disabilities shared stories about their children and how fortunate they felt to have been chosen to be the parent of these children. They quoted the Bible verses that spoke to the belief that God does not favor one over another.
One parent stood up and shared with the group, “They are special, I’m proud and feel like
67 a special mother and he is a challenge. If I had a choice to have him again or not, I would. We would give our entire lives for him.”
Isolated and Silenced by Stigma
Isolation and social stigma were reported across all data sources. During classroom observations, students with disabilities were seated away from other students.
In one of the classrooms, all of the identified students were sitting at the same table, separate from their classmates. Miguel shared that families of students with disabilities do not socialize in the community. “I feel there is no participation in the community.
That’s what I can see. Sometimes even inside their own family. I feel that these people are relegated by society and even by their own families, they basically grow up in the streets.” He continued to elaborate about how children with disabilities are viewed and treated by their families, “Sometimes there are cases that strangers pay more attention to them than their own families, a stranger may take care of them but not their own families.”
The idea of a lack of participation in the community was also shared in an interview with Isabel, a community member and board member, “When someone has a special needs child, they [the community] criticize the family of that child.” Isabel wanted to share that she tries not to discriminate by saying ‘Hi’ when she sees them around town and by speaking with their family members. She further explained that some families “hide them [children with disabilities] away because they [family members] are embarrassed by their disability.”
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Maria, the school administrator, shared that teachers label students with disabilities as “fool, lazy, or burro” when they are not able to perform at the same level as other students. She elaborated with an example, “I talk with the teachers that we can detect and send the child to a specialist of that problem to treat the child. The problem here is that if you say to a child that they need a psychologist, the people here say that the child is crazy. It is a stigma.”
Carmen, a parent of a student with a disability, reported that she too, sees that
“kids with disabilities are treated differently at school and in the community.” She attributed this difference to a lack of understanding, not a lack of caring. She felt that the solution was, “education for the community, the government, and the parents.” Silvia, the parent of a student with a disability, shared the story of a child with a disability in the community who collects bottles and cans and takes them to the store for money. When he does this, people make fun of him and pull his pants down. She insisted, “Yes, there is bullying and discrimination against children with disabilities.” During the parent focus group, parents shared many stories of students who are repeating a grade, often more than once, due to a disability. A mother offered her story, “My son is dyslexic and he goes to school and the teacher doesn’t pay attention to him and he feels isolated. These students are often called names by teacher and bullied by other students.” These parents reported that children with disabilities are not welcomed and are bullied in the school and the community. A parent of a child with a disability shared an example, “If you are on the street and you encounter someone and they don’t have a special needs child, they look at
69 you and it’s rude like you are a bad mom and their behavior is because of their special needs.”
Parents in the focus group reported, “If community members see a child with
Down’s, they say here comes (a derogatory name) and other children hear that and that’s what they learn. There are cases where parents don’t pay attention to their special needs child they are out on the street, other people use them as errand runners and things like that.” Parents shared that their children with disabilities are discriminated against and not allowed in school because their disability is disruptive to the others in the classroom:
My son has a speech problem and I started bringing him here [CIPIE]. I told the
school that I was bringing him to the Center. The teacher said everyone is the
same, I shouldn’t bring him here, he wouldn’t learn anything here and he needed
to be treated like all the other kids. When he leaves here [CIPIE], he has to go
back to school. The teacher wouldn’t let him back in room.
During the teachers’ focus group, teachers reported that children with disabilities are not accepted at home or in the community, “The parents do not accept the child with special needs and the families with these special needs children are not accepted and do not receive support.” When questioned further about this issue, teachers explained that many times, it is the parents who do not accept the children, which results in the community not accepting the child. One teacher reported, “Many parents believe that their child will simply grow out of the disability and this is just the way it is. These parents do not seek assistance for their children.” A teacher felt that the struggle between
70 the parents and the teachers caused difficulty for the children and shared her belief that,
“Children should be able to see each other equally and not feel left out or alienated.”
Juan shared a personal experience of a time when he isolated a student with a disability.
I didn’t take her away from the classroom, I just didn’t give her attention. When I
saw her a couple years later, I didn’t help her with anything. So that has left a
mark on me. Like you know that you have been there, you have that chance to
help, and I abandoned her, I didn’t know. Uh, the sad part is you realize when the
time comes after the fact.
He had difficulty maintaining his composure as he shared this story and expressed multiple times how badly he felt about that situation. He shared that this learning experience was a hard one that makes him think about students with disabilities differently and attempt to provide what they need. A teacher from a focus group expressed her frustration, “The situation is very aggravating for the reason that the families and teachers would be powerless to help these children and are often immersed in this world that is unproductive and in an unpleasant environment.”
Children’s drawings obtained during the study conveyed a sense of isolation in regard to the students with disabilities. In 11 of the 14 drawings, students with disabilities were drawn in a separate location on the page. In seven of the 10 drawings with visible facial expressions, a sad face was drawn to represent the children with disabilities. One student, who receives services at the Center for Inclusive Education
(CIPIE), used circles to represent people and drew students with disabilities in a different
71 color. He explained that, “Red dots are friends and black dots are kids who are different.” He continued to share about a friend of his ‘Julio’ who is like him and lives on the street. He described Julio as “sick, but he is learning now.” Another student receiving services at the CIPIE drew a picture of her house and the CIPIE. She explained her drawing saying, “I have no friends around my house and my brothers bother me because I’m different.” She continued to explain that she does have two friends at the
CIPIE. In Figure 4.1, the student explained her drawing, “Maria was a student with a disability and she was not able to come to school. She is over there and we are here.”
Figure 4.1. Children’s Drawings.
Governance
Governance in this section refers to how individuals perceive the involvement of the government of Honduras as a nation and Santa Cruz de Yojoa as a municipio within the department of Cortes, as it relates to education and students with disabilities.
Governance was identified as a category during the coding process of the interview transcripts and the focus groups. A small group of nine community members participated in a focus group, followed by a planning session to address issues identified during the
72 discussions. Members of this community group included teachers, parents, business leaders, and medical professionals. The focus group was conducted in the center of town in the newly dedicated cultural center in July, 2011. Teacher and parent focus groups, along with interviews from community members and the local government official contributed perceptions in this area. The perceptions identified in this category were: (a) lack of trust due to the high level of corruption within the government, (b) apathy regarding education of students with disabilities, and (c) lack of support.
Matters of Trust
Parents, teachers, local officials, and community members all voiced a lack of trust in the government at the national level with regard to their support of students with disabilities. Miguel spoke on this matter, “There are a lot of people who don’t believe in the government or the system.” This lack of trust was attributed to the centralized government, which contributed to a high level of corruption. Many people are unhappy because this president was doing things for lower class. The people in power and land owners weren’t happy with that.” He went on to talk about the elections results, “If you look at this last election, this election won with 33% of voters.”
Silvia, the mother of a child with a disability, rolled her eyes when I asked about the government and shared about recent events,
You heard the story about a collapse of a mine with 11 trapped in there. They got
2 out and the government position was basically a lost cause…no more help.
How can they say that? Half of government was in Brazil at the World Cup. I
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think everyone is out for themselves and that’s just the government. Imagine
what it’s like for the local people.
She went on to talk about how this impacts students with disabilities, “We know that there are laws and regulations for children with disabilities? If I understand it, the government knows this but, they draft the laws for their own benefit or don’t follow them.” A teacher from a focus group expressed a general sense of disbelief in the government to do anything for the children with disabilities, “Society believes that the government is unable to achieve it.”
Culture of Corruption. Miguel described an environment as, “Power play with economic powers and military power. A lot of the money that is supposed to be sent to this area is not sent here.” There was a strong sense that the centralized nature of the government causes the resources and decisions to stay at the national level and communities are not included in decisions or resource allocation. When asked about the
EFA funding that was given to Honduras, Miguel replied, “In education the funds are
SCW funds. The municipio doesn’t get funds, and not all the teachers get paid. There no funds available.” He continued to explain how this impacts students with disabilities, “It impacts them because funds that can get here and help us. Checks and balances. They do whatever they want over there but not here.”
Community members, Fidel and Isabel shared about corruption. When questioned about his believe regarding the government corruption, Fidel shared, “mostly budget, they said they are going to do certain things and they do nothing.” Isabel shared that “It is the government that allows corruption. It is a cultural thing.” She explained
74 that this is just how things are done but expressed determination about helping students with disabilities, “we must start somewhere.”
Parents shared their perception that the government is receiving money from other nations for education but it does not get used for that. A parent in the focus group shared a recent story about a government official who bought a million dollar home in the
United States and they believe it was bought with the donated money that was supposed to be used for education and those in poverty, “In news, someone bought a million dollar home in the states, if he had not stolen it the money could have been used for the center.”
Another shared that Spain donated wheat but it was used by a private company and not distributed to those in need.
During a focus group discussion, teachers shared that the government receives funding from many NGOs to support education but this funding is not received. During the interviews and focus groups, I noticed that teachers were more hesitant than parents to speak about government corruption. Many teachers did share that they have gone without pay and believe it is because of the corruption in the government. Juan specifically stated that this happened to him twice; when he first started working and then again later in his career, “When I was starting work, I didn’t get paid. For two years it was that way.” I restated what he said to clarify that I heard that correctly and he added,
“But it is not only two years, it was two years in that school and a couple more years in another school.”
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Systemic Apathy
Apathy was noted in all groups as they shared about the disinterest of the government in the area of children with disabilities. Miguel spoke of the apathy in the national government, “On the government side of things, there is not policy to benefit people with disabilities. Maybe the considerations are so small, not considered in state policies. There is no expectation in the sense that there is no policy to say you have to take people with disabilities into consideration.” Similarly, Carlos, the local business owner shared that he did not believe the government would be involved in helping students with disabilities, “they are not interested in them or their education.” He went on to explain that this is evident when you look at buildings, “even if they have parking, they don’t have it for a person with disabilities” because they are not interested in them.
“They are interested in money.”
A parent, who participated in the initial focus group shared, “In Honduras the political and education structure toward children with special needs has never existed but they are working to change this. She continued to explain what would make this change difficult, “There is just little interest from the government to focus on these problems.”
Alba, a grandmother and guardian of a student with disabilities, offered her perspective on the government’s lack of concern for the children and the poor.
The government does not do anything, they are looking out for themselves they
don’t look out for the children. They don’t look out for the children or the sick
people, they look out for money for themselves so they can build houses. They
only help those they are interested in or people that already have money or there
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is like common interest. The new president, he is helping people fix up their
houses and helping people from his own political party, the conservative party.
She was an older frail woman and shared her thoughts during a conversation in the living room of her home, while trying to manage her granddaughter’s behaviors. As she was sharing, she compared the government’s situation with her own situation of poverty.
A teacher from a focus group shared, “The government is missing the part that cares about our country and in this area; it is affecting more children and adolescents every day. The government needs to get together and do a better job of catering to these special children.” Another teacher countered that thought, and offered that the lack of caring was due to a belief that “disabilities were a hereditary problem and that is not something the government can fix.” The discussion continued as another teacher shared that she believes, “students are part of everything in relation to the school, community, the home, but their needs are not accepted as a whole. This is affecting the development of the country.” Another teacher stated that she believed the government is self-serving,
“the political sector should be helping rather working on their personal gains.” Silvia elaborated on this belief as she discussed the espoused value, “what the government is saying yes, it matters, we have written laws” versus their enacted value, “on the other hand we are not going to follow them. They draft the laws for their own benefit.”
Juan, a teacher with 16 years of experience in both rural and urban settings and predominately in multi-grade classrooms, expressed frustration with the government in the difference of attention and materials between rural and urban schools and communities: “Government needs to pay attention to education. Rural areas do not
77 receive fair resources or attention. There is apathy from the government regarding education. This plays against the child.” This is consistent with what other teachers in the focus groups reported. Another teacher stated, “The government does not give attention to children with special needs in the rural areas.”
Lack of Support
The local government official, community members, parents, and teachers all found that a lack of support from the government impacted the education of students with disabilities. The perceived lack of support was in the form of resources, education, and policy enforcement. Miguel shared that he felt there was a lack of policies to provide for people with disabilities, “There is not policy to benefit people with disabilities. Maybe the considerations are so small, not considered in state policies. No expectation in the sense that there is no policy to say you have to take people with disabilities into consideration.” Carlos, a local business man, added that children who have special needs
“Don’t have help in schools and the government doesn’t do anything” to set up programs for children with disabilities. While interviewing Carmen, she shared that the government does not give support to children with disabilities because “they don’t know about them.” Another parent from the focus group shared, “The government must put more emphasis on this or send teachers who are specialized in these programs to help.”
Teachers and parents from focus groups believed that the government did not see education of students with disabilities as a priority and therefore did not offer the necessary support. A teacher from a focus group shared her belief that the lack of support from the government stems from their view of the education of students with disabilities,
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“We believe that the government sees education for students with disabilities as an expense and we see it as an investment.” During a focus group, a teacher shared her belief that the government should take responsibility for educating the general public about students with disabilities, “They are discriminated socially by all people, because the government has not helped to educate the public and provide equal rights to students with special needs.”
Ana had been a teacher for 18 years and was assisting the principal of the school after her session was finished. She explained that her first job as a teacher was a multi- grade classroom with 80 students. She walked for an hour and half to get to her school where there was no water or electricity. That area was, by her report, more rural than her current school. She held that position for three years. She has been in her current position for 15 years and currently teaches one grade at the elementary level in the morning and provides leadership support for the afternoon session. She described the government as clashing with the work the teachers are doing because they want to limit teachers to only teaching one session. She gave a specific example of another teacher who leads a school in the morning and teaches at the university in the afternoon. She explained that, “The government has new rules coming that will not allow us to do two jobs, will lengthen our day but not increase our pay.” She added that” the support we have is because of the parents, the government doesn’t support.” The only support that is provided by the government comes in the form of “Merienda”, translated as afternoon snack. During the follow up conversation a year after the first interview, Ana expressed hope in the local government, but did not see a change in support from the national
79 government. Another teacher shared that although the structure to support children with special needs has not been in place, she believes that they are working on it. “I think that our government is ignorant of the types of resources these students need.”
During a focus group, a teacher shared a conflict between the espoused and enacted values held by the government, “the educational laws state that these children
(children with disabilities) have a right to education but the laws are not followed or enforced.” Teachers expressed that the government should allow in the education budget, funds to train teachers to teach students with disabilities. Teachers responded emphatically that they felt they were lacking support from the government in the area of needed structures, resources and training for teachers. A teacher in the focus group shared her belief that the political structure of the government was an obstacle for children with disabilities, “There is not a political structure from the government that implements educational reform and help to these children. There is no educational or psychological reform that comes to help these children. They are lacking support from the authorities.” Juan expressed his frustration with the lack of government support, “the government needs to pay attention to education. Rural areas don’t receive fair resources or attention.” Teachers, however, were adamant that the government should be providing more support, they were also aware that the country itself experienced a high level of poverty and the government had many challenges as a result of the poverty level.
Education Process
The education process refers to the process by which teachers and students teach and learn from one another, who is included, and in what capacity. General findings
80 were crowded classrooms, affection between students and teachers, respect between students and teachers, many simultaneous yet unrelated conversations during class, and little differentiation of instruction or materials. In addition, I found that students were involved in different ways in different classrooms, teachers used different teaching strategies, and students with disabilities were included in some classes but excluded in others.
Overcrowded classrooms. The physical size of classrooms varied from school to school and sometimes even within a school. When the classroom was too small to accommodate the need, classes were often held outside. On the day of our observation, students were taking their national standardized assessments on the walkway in front of the school as the teacher gave instructions and supervision from the doorway so she could supervise all of her students. (See Figure 4.2)
Figure 4.2. Student Assessments.
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During classroom observations, the class sizes ranged from 36-44 students per classroom, with each classroom having 1 teacher. The high student teacher ratio impacts the amount of attention a teacher can give to students who need additional attention or individualized instruction. In the classroom with the ratio of 44:1, there were 6 students with identified disabilities who needed individual instruction in order to make meaningful progress in school. Ana reported that she had as many as 80 students in a classroom when she was in a more rural school. This made it difficult for her to give the kind of attention to students with disabilities that she felt was necessary. Juan explained that he often stayed after school to work with those students when possible and attempted to provide what they needed. Although he was willing to do this, he expressed that he did not always know how to give them the instruction they needed and felt a lack of support in the process. He expressed his frustration with the situation, “It’s very difficult. I feel trapped in a sinking boat. If I stay in the boat or if I jump, the kids suffer.” During the parent focus group, a mother commented, “It is difficult for teachers. There are too many students, leading to a lack of patience.” Silvia shared her concerns with the overcrowded classrooms and how it impacts the teachers’ manner, “So you know it is kind of difficult with teachers here in the public system because some of them have 40-50 students per grade and that’s a lot of work to deal with. Sometimes they don’t have the patience for that many children.” Parents and teachers shared that lack of patience with the children with special needs put a strain on the relationship between parents and teachers. During the teacher focus group, a teacher shared, “Parents don’t have patience and they punish their kids.” Another teacher shared this punishment kept her from talking with parents
82 about their child’s difficulties at school, “they [parents] punish the children for not succeeding when the teacher goes to the parent.”
Family, student and teacher relationships. Teacher, student and family relationships were visible during classroom observations, home visits, and teacher and parent interviews. In the classroom, teachers demonstrated a concern for their students through physical touch, eye contact during conversations, and visible emotions expressed when talking with and about students. During classroom observations, the physical arrangement of two of the classrooms provided an opportunity for teachers to circulate during a lesson and provide individual support. During this circulation time, teachers shared affectionate touch while answering questions. This touch appeared to offer assurance to the students. In the third classroom, the arrangement of rows and the crowded classroom prohibited this opportunity to circulate and offer individual support.
However, for students who approached the teacher’s desk in the front of the room, this affection and assurance was provided. Students with disabilities often require additional checks for clarification. The teachers recognized the need but were not always able to meet the need. Miguel shared his concern about this need and the role teachers play,
“Teachers are not willing to compromise. I see is a lack of compromise from teachers.
They don’t want to have to work extra. They say to parents to take them to another place.
They are not willing to do this for the child.” Isabel suggested that teachers need to take extra time to relate to and connect with students who have special needs, “the first step, is to make teachers empathize with students who have difficulties. Now, it’s seen as more work that they don’t want to do.” Maria believes the need for this attention and affection
83 is due to the disintegrated family structure, “The child is alone without supervision, the teacher has to be like the mother to get the concentration and attention in the classroom.”
A teacher from our focus group shared that “the truth is that it is more difficult to educate these children. They have to be given more specialized attention. One solution is to work extra hours with the children who have problems.”
After observing all three classrooms, the first difference I noticed was in the seating arrangements. Two classrooms were arranged in groups and the other in rows.
One teacher reported class size as a factor of consideration in the classes we observed.
The classroom arranged in rows had the greatest number of students, 44. That classroom was crowded with only enough space for a small child to maneuver between the desks.
The teacher’s desk was located at the front of the room and he taught from there. The second classroom had 36 students and the third classroom had 36 students. When asked about how the different classroom arrangements were decided, Anna stated “In each table
I have three children. Sometimes I have problems with other teachers who put the chairs and table into different groups and I have to move them back.”
The second factor I noticed was how teachers interacted with students. Teacher engagement looked different in each classroom. In the room arranged in rows, the teacher made eye contact with students when he spoke to them and students reciprocated.
Physical contact was limited to students who went to the teacher’s desk when they asked questions. In the rooms arranged in groups, physical touch and eye contact were abundant between teacher and students and among students. There was one exception; in the third classroom, the teacher did not visit, touch or have conversation with one table of
84 students in the room. I inquired after class and was told those were the students with disabilities and she didn’t know what to do with them.
Lastly, I observed a difference in teaching styles among the teachers in the classrooms. The teachers in the classroom arranged in rows and one classroom of the grouped arrangement followed a teacher directed, banking model of teaching and learning (Freire, 2000) where students listened to teacher lectures, responded to the teacher, and read aloud when directed by the teacher. In one of the classrooms that was arranged in groups, the teacher followed a more collaborative learning model demonstrated through dialogue among students and inquiry among the students and the teacher. I heard students asking one another questions about their assignment, and engaged in conversations around the topic. During small group activities, the teacher walked around the classroom and facilitated the discussion by modeling listening and rephrasing to students as they asked questions and shared their perspectives. During whole class activities, the teacher used the ‘I do, we do, you do’ technique by demonstrating what she wanted students to do first, doing the activity with them and finally providing an opportunity for students to do the activity themselves. There were students with disabilities and they were seated among other students in groups. As we were talking about the differences, Maria explained that, “The problem here in Honduras is that the teacher has freedom to teach and they are looking for the best technical styles and so they are not the same. Because of that, every teacher has a style for teaching. It’s not uniform. Sometimes, the teacher doesn’t know which style to use.”
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There were students in both of these classrooms with identified disabilities who were currently receiving services from the CIPIE. In one of the classrooms, the students with disabilities were seated away from other students. I learned from the teacher that this separation was purposeful because “these students can be disruptive to other students” in the classroom. Later, this teacher asked a student with a disability to stand up during class and she openly shared with us about his disability while the class listened.
This appeared to be acceptable practice as no one said anything or demonstrated any observable body language that would indicate this as being out of the ordinary.
During a focus group, a parent shared her experience with her son and the teacher interaction in his classroom, “My son is dyslexic and he goes to school and the teacher doesn’t pay attention to him and he feels isolated. The teacher does dictation.” Silvia, the mother of a child who is deaf, shared her story of her daughter’s experience in the public school, “When I arrived outside of the school, I saw and heard the teacher of my special needs child yelling at her. I asked the teacher if she knew who I was and what my child’s limitations were. I told her that yelling at my child would do no good because she couldn’t hear or understand her. She apologized and told me that she didn’t know that my child couldn’t hear.” Another parent from a focus group shared her belief that it is a matter of a lack of understanding, “sometimes it’s not that the teacher is bad, they don’t understand and there should be a workshop for teachers and then the teachers can learn and show the other children.” The need for teacher preparation was evident in the data collected from the local official, community members, administrators, parents, and teachers.
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Teacher preparation. Training for teachers was viewed as one of the most critical factors to providing an education for students with disabilities. This area is two- fold: (1) teachers need to receive instruction that includes strategies to meet the needs of students with disabilities, and (2) teachers do not learn from one another. A teacher from a focus group reported that they receive training but it is not the specialized training they feel they need, “We have a teachers’ organization for providing training but it does not give us training on students with disabilities. As a result, children with disabilities are ignored.” The current strategy/intervention for students with disabilities in classrooms where the teacher does not know what to do, is grade repetition. A father in the parent focus group shared that his child has been in the same grade two years because he is having trouble reading. Maria identified areas of need with teacher training as one of the most important, “Training the teacher, sensitivity, make the class more dynamic, remove the stigmas, and use of more dynamic material in the classroom for better presentation in the classroom.” Teachers, administrators, community members, and parents felt that many teachers wanted to help, but did not know how. A teacher from a focus group shared that, “Many times it is hard to tell if a child has trouble learning, therefore, adequate attention may not be given to the problem. I think that’s why training to help and understand these students with special problems better is important.” Ana expressed a desire to learn strategies and felt the training that teachers have now is not sufficient,
“The most important thing is training the teachers with new structures or techniques to work with children, because sometimes we have a special case, like kids with language disabilities, sometimes with Down syndrome, and we don’t have the techniques to work
87 with them. I want to be involved with the process of the learning.” Several teachers in the focus group commented about their lack of preparation to teach students with disabilities,
“I don’t have the adequate preparation to attend to children with special needs”
“The teachers do not have the expertise, they try to help them, but there is not
much they can do in reality”
“Well, in my personal opinion, I wish there was a school to cover all the
requirements and I would want to help my community fill all the expectations that
the children could be served with by a professional staff”
“I am a primary education teacher and I am not able to serve children with special
needs. I have the availability and willingness to help, but sometimes I am unable.
I would like to have a basic knowledge to teach them.”
“I perceive that we serve them but with great difficulty. I need to be more
specialized in this area.”
“Well, in our educational system there are many deficiencies. In order to help
serve the needs of those with special needs, teachers need to be trained in
different methodologies to help serve them best. Methodologies in physical
development, psychology, and intellectual development would be most beneficial
for the teachers to help approach each situation.”
The local government official, community members, administrators, parents, and teachers all expressed in their own words that it was the government’s responsibility to make sure that teachers were trained to teach all students.
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While we were in a classroom observation, I noticed there were teachers using strategies that other teachers could use if they knew them. During a teacher focus group,
I posed the question of teachers learning from each other. It was at this moment that I received a strange stare around the room accompanied by silence. One teacher broke the silence and said, “We can learn from those who have more years teaching.” The group nodded in agreement that they should be able to learn from one another, but the belief that the teacher instructing other teachers must have more years teaching was a barrier.
They acknowledged that this was needed but difficult. Maria reluctantly explained that, teachers are hesitant to learn from other teachers who don’t have more experience teaching than they do:
I don’t want to give bad information. The teachers in the Center are new teachers
and without much teaching experience. It’s difficult for a teacher with lot of
experience to learn from a new teacher. With all the stigmas, you cannot change
the pattern. They would learn better from someone who was more experienced
than they are, a higher level/title than them.
I asked for clarification regarding subject specialty and years teaching. She confirmed that the specialization was not as important as the number of years a teacher has been teaching. She concluded with, “They don’t like to feel inferior with other teachers.”
During an interview with Maria, she shared the preparation process for teachers in
Honduras:
There are lots of differences. The Honduran teachers have a medium level. It’s
not a university like you. I was in the medium level, but I went up because I got
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the title from the university. One teacher is graduated around 17 years old. In the
primary grade, they can be a teacher at 17 years old with 3 years in high school
and 3 years taking teacher preparation program.” She continued to explain that,
“With the new term of the government, they put in place that teachers need to
have a degree. It’s new this year.” Teachers who complete this training in
Honduras do not have the specialized training needed for children with special
needs, “The teachers in Honduras, don’t have quality preparation to work with the
kids with special needs.”
She continued to connect the need for additional preparation for teacher to the social stigma, “In this country, we put labels: Fool, lazy, burro. For the most part, the teachers do that.” She expressed the need for teachers to see students for their unique qualities, “This is part of the training we need with the teachers. They think that all the students have the same abilities and we don’t know what the socioeconomic situation is for each child. We are not prepared for that.”
Limited resources. The local official, community members, administrators, parents, and teachers limited resources as a factor that impacts education for children with disabilities. They named lack of curriculum materials, books, and didactic materials. During an interview with the local government official, he shared that the education administrators look to him for resources, “When they [local schools] are missing a teacher, they ask me. If a class is not working they ask me, and they [the state government] are the ones responsible.” He continued to explain how he handles that,
“We get those funds from the taxes but those funds are not just for teachers, but I also
90 have to think about roads, community centers, health, and other important things. That’s how things work, Cristina.”
A community member, from the initial focus group, shared about why she felt children with disabilities were not being served in schools, “it’s a lack of resources for teachers and parents with special needs children.” Maria an administrator shared about the teachers in her building, “they don’t have teaching materials in the classroom.” Ana also recognized a lack of supplies as an issue, “the supplies, materials are not enough.
Sometimes there is just one math book for all the classes.” Juan had limited supplies for his class on the day we were observing his classroom. A teacher from a focus group shared, “We serve them in the normal way, we do not have the appropriate tools or education they need or specialized people to serve them.” Another teacher from that group who works with children who have language difficulties shared, “Well, we do not have all of the necessary materials or specialized equipment to help them. I work with children with language problems but do what I can do help them with their problems.” In that same focus group, another teacher agreed, “We do not attend to them as we should.
Lack of family interest, lack of funds, and resources all contribute to this. The majority of teachers are not prepared or trained to help these students.” Many joined the discussion with similar statements such as, “the schools do not have the basic resources to help them [students with disabilities].”
Students with disabilities. When asked about children with disabilities and school, Isabel, a community member and board member, shared an example of the conflict she saw between espoused versus enacted values in this area, “There are special
91 education laws in Honduras that you can’t exclude people with disabilities, but we still see that happening.”
Juan disclosed a situation he experienced in his class with a student who had a disability. He shared that it is often easier to ignore the child with a disability than to give her the attention she needs while trying to teach the other students.
In the past, I ignored a student with a disability that I knew needed additional
attention because it was easier for me at the time. When I saw her years later I
realized and remembered that I had not helped her with anything. This has left a
mark on me. I had a chance to help her, but I abandoned her. The sad part is that
I realized this after the fact.
During our interview, he shared the impact that this situation has had on him. In his classroom, the students who were identified as having a disability did not always approach the teacher’s desk for additional help when the opportunity was presented. He now stays after school and offers additional time to the students who are struggling in school. Juan was not the only teacher who struggled with how to help students with disabilities in their classrooms. A teacher from a focus group added, “It is very hard to include them (children with disabilities) in school and even harder to include them in society, so they are excluded.” Ana shared one strategy that was implemented to help students with disabilities as they change grades. Students in grades, one, two, and three keep the same teacher. It helps support the kids who have special learning needs.”
Maria shared, “That’s the goal, support. Sometimes when the teacher changes, they don’t know the group very well. That’s the reason why it’s the same teacher.”
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Silvia, a parent whose child is deaf, disclosed the experience she had when enrolling her daughter in school, “When she was eight they told her not that they couldn’t accept her but that they could not guarantee that she would learn something.” As we continued talking, she recalled the moment that she learned that her daughter had a disability:
They were kind of rude and very straight to the point. I had to knock on a lot of
doors. When I first noticed she had a problem with her hearing was when she was
jumping up and down in her bed she was carrying an aluminum glass of some
kind and it fell from her hand and it made a really strong noise and I turned to
watch her and she hadn’t noticed and I thought, that’s kind of strange. I went
outside and then I threw the glass again to see if she would notice, if she would
get scared and nothing happened, she didn’t even notice. That was when my
husband was working in the private company so he had access to the social
security hospital so I took her there and they started giving me appointments for
hearing tests and for ear, nose, and throat and for all that so I started taking her in.
This was in San Pedro. It was one of the last appointments so I took her in and she
told me she had some sense of hearing ability in one ear and in the other a little
less.
I’ve always believed in God and always had faith I would get a different answer if
I went to a different place. So I went to a public hospital. After that, I wanted to
look for a different diagnosis I took her into the public hospital thinking that I
could get a different answer there, but I didn’t tell them at any moment that she
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had already had the test done. I had an appointment with the ENT doctor, and
they wanted to do the same test over and over and it was an expense I could no
longer cover because I didn’t have the money for it. That’s when I made the
mistake to tell the doctor those test have already been done at social security, and
I am going to show you the results. He was so angry that he grabbed the results
and he scrunched the papers up and he said, “don’t you understand your daughter
is deaf and she won’t be able to speak? I was crying.”
When parents were asked about education and students with disabilities, many reflected back to the moment when they received the news that their children had a disability.
While the focus of the study was on perceptions surrounding education and students with disabilities, parents consistently connected our discussions about education to the moment they learned about their child’s disability. Each parent who shared that moment shared it with details and how they felt in that moment.
Poverty
As stated in chapter two, Honduras is one of the poorest countries in Central
America with 60% of the population living in poverty with an even higher percentage of poverty in the rural areas at 65.4%. It has been estimated that 76% of all children in
Honduras are living in poverty (UNICEF, 2011). Perceptions of poverty that were identified and related to students with disabilities were: (a) students arriving at school hungry, (b) inadequate facilities, (c) overcrowded classrooms, (d) inaccessible services, and (e) limited resources.
Devastating Hunger
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Hunger was reported as a concern for all students. Miguel stated that, “Some families here get one bean and five tortillas. Sometimes, parents feel relief when their children do not come home at night because they have no food to feed them.” Similarly,
Isabel shared “I know people who eat once per day and it’s only beans and tortillas, and sometimes women who are pregnant. Sometimes they have 3,4,5,6 children and are breastfeeding.” The teachers and principal who were interviewed reported that many children come to school without breakfast. Maria explained that when children come to school hungry, they have a difficult time focusing, “they interrupt the teacher or other students and other times they simply fall asleep.” Not all students brought lunch to school. The teacher reported that parents do not have much and cannot always afford to send lunch to school. There was an option to purchase food from a food stand in the school yard. However, if the parents cannot send lunch with the student to school they cannot send money either.
The principal of the school partnered with a local faith based organization to help with the issue of hunger. During one of the school visits, the SCW volunteer team visited the church supported orphanage outside the back gate of the school. The church partners with the school to provide food for the students who cannot afford breakfast or lunch.
They had space to provide breakfast and lunch for 25 students a day. Alba shared that she only has corn and beans to feed her granddaughter but she makes that work for them,
“I brought the girl with me because nobody was caring for her and sometimes it is difficult, yes. At least we have corn and we have beans and we can feed her.”
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School Facilities
The classroom was made of concrete block with light provided through small barred windows. The school did have electricity but it was not working on the morning of our classroom observation. It is common for electricity to be intermittent, particularly in the rural areas. Our observation was in the morning and only minimal natural light was available in the room where we were. The only way to the classroom was up a set of concrete steps. Teachers reported that their schools are not equipped to allow space for wheelchairs in the classroom or ramps to provide access to the classrooms. A few of the facilities that we visited were structures in disrepair with dirt floors and located on an inclined, uneven surfaces. One community member reported, “Our schools and programs are not designed to serve these children.” As Figure 4.3 shows, it is difficult for students with physical disabilities to access the school.
Figure 4.3. Rural School.
Inaccessible Services
Isabel reported that there is a lot of discrimination in their society that can be seen in simple things like access to buildings. Parents and teachers expressed concern with
96 regard to a lack of support services in the rural areas. Although Teleton, a rehabilitation center, does provide special education services and various therapies for students with disabilities, many families are not able to access get to these centers. Teachers reported that “our country doesn’t have the structure in place to provide services for children with disabilities in the rural areas.” Carmen said that CIPIE has helped her child and she moved to find that help for her daughter. She recognized that not everyone can do that.
During a board meeting for the CIPIE, the board members discussed ways to provide funding for families who could not afford to get their children to the CIPIE, which is located within the municipio. A teacher reported, “There’s a lot of poverty.
The majority of these children have no roof and dirt floors. The families cannot take them to where there is help.” While there are services available, the high level of poverty keeps many from accessing them. In order to access services from the rural area, it involved money for transportation, a day away from working, and the difficulty of transporting students with disabilities n the public bus. During one of the SCW volunteer team visits, we arrived at a school to find parents and family members who walked for miles and waited in long lines to have their child served in the assessments and therapies.
Limited Instructional Supplies
During classroom observations, interviews, and focus groups, participants reported that resources are scarce and students share the few available text books and supplies. The teachers reported that parents pay for the materials and not all parents could afford to pay. During classroom observations, many students had pencils and those without borrowed from others, shared a single pencil, or participated only verbally and
97 provided no written responses. Teachers, parents and community members expressed a desire to help but recognized they were limited in what they could do because they did not have the necessary resources. A teacher from the focus group, reported,
It’s a difficult situation for our community because we lack the economic
resources and we cannot attend to these kids the way that they need us to. We do
not have all of the necessary materials or specialized equipment to help them.”
Teachers from the focus groups reported that they do not have books or a curriculum for their students. Those who had curriculum expressed concerns that it was not adapted to use with students with disabilities and the additional tools such as manipulatives and hands on materials were not available. Several teachers shared their concerns:
“We do not have the appropriate tools or education they need or specialized
people to serve them.”
“The resources that we have to teach them are very limited. Technical and
remedial materials would be useful to help them for their remediation.”
“It’s difficult to attend to children like this; we don’t have the materials and
special training to help them. We need to be more aware of this area and provide
more supplies and training in order to help.”
“It’s a problem to which we must give greater importance since there are good
students who unfortunately go to schools that do not have the support of
organizations and also for the lack of teaching materials to solve them.”
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Conceptual Relationships
As I neared the end of the parents’ focus group and the interview with Miguel, I asked them how they thought all of these factors worked together. Each group drew and explained how they perceived these factors were connected. Below are two diagrams of the connections which resulted from their discussions (Figures 4.4 & 4.5). Miguel drew a diagram with arrows connecting the ideas. The parents’ group allowed a leader in the group to draw and revise their representation on a white board as they offered their ideas.
The computerized maps represent the concepts identified by the participants and were assigned a color based on the focus of the research questions: Governance (green);
Resources (blue); Culture (yellow). The size of the concepts were determined based on the amount of impact expressed by the respondents during their conceptual connection discussions.
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Government
Figure 4.4 Government Official Conceptual Map.
Miguel explained that the biggest factor impacting the education of students with disabilities was poverty. Poverty influences how pregnant mothers care for themselves and how they provide nourishment for their children. Children who are not given proper prenatal care may have developmental disabilities as a result. The nutrition of children in poverty affects their education. Children in poverty are often malnourished and arrive at school hungry and unable to learn. Poverty causes some to turn to drug trafficking as a way to survive. Drug trafficking is attractive for those in poverty as it is a quick way to make money with very little work and no need for education. This devalues education.
Poverty also impacts the family structure as families function with one parent in the
100 country and many times no parents, as they seek jobs out of the country. This disintegrated family leaves young children at home alone and, as a result, these young children seek out an alternative family, some of which leads to gang involvement and delinquency. The delinquent youth are prime targets for drug trafficking and used as means of survival.
The centralized government impacts education of students with disability. The centralized nature of the government leads to decisions made about situations that they are neither aware of or care about. This often leads to decisions that are not in the best interest of the students. The centralized government lends itself to corruption because there is a lack of checks and balances and they are not accountable to other systems.
Corruption results in a continued high level of poverty because government money/taxes are not used to support the people of the country.
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Parents
Figure 4.5 Parents’ Conceptual Map.
The parent focus group felt that corruption was the biggest factor and it impacted the education of all students including those with disabilities. They explained that corruption affects everything: health, education, nutrition, poverty, discrimination, and separated families. A parent explained, “They [the government] are the ones in charge of money and when you expect to see something good, and nothing happens.” Corruption makes it hard to trust. They believed that those in power make decisions with which they do not agree. It was during this moment that a parent stood up and began to read a part of
President Hernández’s inauguration speech from a piece of paper she had in her notebook:
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We will create a system that grows healthily, well managed, without corruption
and at a pace that allows for the expansion of the national economy. For this
reason, I have asked Transparency International to support us in the certification
of the transparency and efficiency of the new processes. I am grateful to the
representative of the presidency of Transparency International, Alejandro Salas,
for being here today with us and with whom we will sign a cooperation
agreement.”
She expressed some hope that things would get better for Honduras. They went on to talk about how the factors are connected to one another. Poverty causes malnutrition because children do not have food to eat. Poverty affects discrimination because kids are discriminated against when they have no shoes or clothes. Crime and violence affect our kids because they see what is happening in the cities on television. It becomes common and changes their thinking. Crime and violence are also linked to education. A lack of education leads to unemployment and unemployment leads to crime. Poverty impacts education and education impacts poverty. Disintegrated families are a result of poverty because family members have to take extreme measures to make money for the family.
Summary
The focus of this study was the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, and administrators of students with disabilities and the challenges they face with equity, access, and efficiency during their journey in education in rural Honduras. Data were collected from observations, focus groups interviews and children’s drawings. The four
103 main themes from this data were: (a) culture, (b) government, (c) poverty, and (d) education process.
Cultural perceptions that were identified and related to students with disabilities were: prevalence of violence and drugs, disintegrated family structure, intermarrying of close relatives, religious belief of parental fault, superstitions, and, stigma and bullying.
The prevalence of violence and drugs was perceived to impact students with disabilities because of its impact on the family structure and its connection to poverty. Intermarrying of close relatives was felt to result in genetic defects which had the potential to result in children born with disabilities. The religious belief that children with disabilities were a result of a sin that parents had committed against God resulted in a negative stigma as others criticized the families of children with disabilities. Superstitions such as the cleft palate being caused by the state of the moon and a mother’s attire kept parents from seeking additional care for their children. Negative stigma and bullying toward children with disabilities were evident in the community, within families and at school. As a result, families and their children were excluded.
Governance was identified as a category during coding of the interview transcripts and the focus groups. Governance factors that were identified and related to students with disabilities were, a high level of corruption in the government, a lack of trust in the government, and apathy of the government regarding education and students with disabilities. The high level of corruption in the government created a lack of trust in the government and kept funding for the education of all children from reaching the rural villages. Apathy on the part of the government regarding students with disabilities was
104 perceived as the reason policies are not enforced resulting in a conflict between espoused values and enacted values. A lack of resources and specialized training for teachers was also attributed to apathy of the government.
Perceptions of poverty that were identified and related to students with disabilities were hunger, inadequate facilities, inaccessible schools, and limited resources. Hunger was perceived as a factor that interfered with students’ ability to focus in the classroom and as a factor contributing to the malnutrition of young pregnant mothers resulting in children born with disabilities. Facilities were in disrepair and smaller than what was able to accommodate the number of students in the service area. Many of the facilities were also found to be inaccessible for students with disabilities. For students with disabilities, the building location and structure often presented a barrier to access. In the rural schools, there were few supplies for student learning and teacher instruction. The limited supplies required that students share materials and teachers did not have access to adaptive equipment that materials that allow students with disabilities to have equitable access to the curriculum.
General findings, regarding the education process, were crowded classrooms with a high student to teacher ratio, teachers had freedom to choose classroom arrangement and teaching styles, affectionate touch was frequent in the classroom, little differentiation of instruction or materials, there were few resources or specialized training, and students with disabilities were often isolated from other students in the classroom. Classrooms were crowded, with as many as 44 students to one teacher in a small room. The student- teacher ratio was perceived as the factor that limited the teacher’s ability to provide
105 individual attention that teachers believed students with disabilities needed. The isolation of students with disabilities was linked to teachers’ limited preparation in teaching strategies and parent’s and government’s perceptions of a teacher’s attitudes toward students. The limited differentiation of instruction or materials was linked to teachers’ lack of preparation and limited resources or specialized training. The aforementioned categories of culture, governance, poverty, and the education process were identified by government officials, community members, parents, teachers, and children as key factors that impacted the education of students with disabilities.
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CHAPTER V
Summary and Discussion
This chapter will include a summary of the study and a discussion of the findings.
The summary will consist of an overview of the problem and a review of the purpose statement, research question, methodology and the major findings. The summary will be followed by a discussion of the results. The chapter will conclude with reflections of the research process, implications for actions, and recommendations for further research.
Overview of the Problem
Children with disabilities in the rural areas of Honduras are a marginalized segment of the population and are not always afforded the opportunity to attend school.
The contributing factors of this situation include the condition of the schools, the perceived negative stigma attached to families with disabilities, high student to teacher ratio, and the availability and preparedness of teachers to teach students with disabilities.
These factors, combined with a high level of corruption in the centralized government encompassed in an environment of violence and drug trafficking, create additional obstacles, beyond their disability, for children with disabilities in the rural areas as they traverse their already difficult road in their education journey.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study was to gain a greater understanding about the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, community members, government officials, and administrators of Honduran students with disabilities. The secondary focus was to
107 increase our understanding of how these perceptions impact the education of Honduran students with disabilities. Understanding these perceptions was a critical first step in the process of learning how these perceptions impact the education of students with disabilities.
Research Questions
This study addressed the following research questions:
1. How do the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, and administrators of
Honduran students with disabilities impact the education of Honduran children
with disabilities?
a. How is the governance of the education process perceived and how does
this impact the education of Honduran students with disabilities?
b. How are the availability of resources perceived and how does this impact
the education of Honduran children with disabilities?
c. How do cultural beliefs impact the education of Honduran children with
disabilities?
Review of Methodology
This study used an emergent design that consisted of a collective multi-site case study conducted in the rural community of Santa Cruz de Yojoa, Cortes, Honduras. The study took place over the course of three years. The participants included a local government official, eight community members, one local business owner, one school administrator, 26 parents in a single focus group, interviews with 2 parents and 1 grandparent, 96 teachers in two separate focus groups from 15 different schools, and 12
108 children. The data were collected through classroom observations, focus groups, interviews, and children’s drawings. All participants and parents of child participants signed an HSRB approved informed consent form. An interview protocol was used for individual interviews and a child oral explanation was used for children’s drawings.
Materials were translated by a native Honduran interpreter and a North American SCW volunteer. Analysis was conducted through open and axial coding. The codes were organized into an excel spreadsheet. The children’s drawing were reviewed by a team of educational specialists and SCW volunteers using a modified LAST protocol. Categories were identified and discussed in an open format.
Summary of Findings
A summary of the major findings is presented in this section. This summary includes the highlights, links to the literature, discrepancies, and differences of responses among groups of participants. Findings are organized according to the research question and the three sub-questions. The findings address the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, community members, and administrators of Honduran students with disabilities and how these perceptions impact the education of Honduran children with disabilities.
The three sub questions used for this study related to three areas of perceived impact: (a) cultural beliefs, (b) governance of the education process, and (c) availability of resources.
In addition to the summary provided below, Figure 5.1 presents a visual representation of the findings, from my perspective, as well as how these concepts are interrelated.
Cultural challenges. Cultural aspects that were identified as impacting the education of students with disabilities were: an environment of violence and drugs,
109 disintegrated family structure, religious belief and superstitions, intermarrying of close relatives, isolation and social stigma. The environment of violence and drugs was perceived as an impacting cultural factor because of its effect on families. This environment was impacted by the high level of poverty. The high poverty rate in rural
Honduras was a strong force which contributed to family members seeking to earn money outside of the country or in country through the available drug trafficking work force. This is consistent with what Ayuso (2012) described as the militancy of the marginalized, “In the case of the Northern Triangle, they [foreign criminal enterprises] have found dispossession to exploit, corruption to exacerbate but more than anything they have found a vast labor pool to hire from” ( p. 3). When family members seek employment outside of the country or in connection with drug trafficking groups, it results in disintegrated families leaving extended family members to care for the children in these families. This is consistent with Blanchard et al. (2011) and Sladkova (2007) who found that families sent wage earners abroad leaving extended family members to care for the children left in Honduras. These fractured families had difficulty providing the extra attention and resources needed for students with disabilities. In addition, this often left these students without parental advocates for their education. As a result, students with disabilities were excluded from education and society. This marginalized population has been silenced by stigma and hidden in an environment of violence and fear.
A negative stigma was reported in schools and in the community. This was connected in part to religious and superstitious beliefs. Underlying beliefs about how
110 disabilities happen resulted in criticism of the families and the children. These beliefs created an environment that encouraged families to stay in their homes and prohibit their children from attending school. In addition, there was a belief that children with disabilities could not learn. This belief resulted in an internal stigma within the family that combined with the external stigma to create a powerful force that allowed the condition to continue. Limited knowledge about disabilities and negative attitudes toward children with disabilities and their families were obstacles to inclusion in school and the community.
Governance of the education process. The perceptions identified in this category were: (a) lack of trust due to the high level of corruption within the government,
(b) apathy regarding education of students with disabilities, and (c) lack of support.
Corruption in the centralized government was identified as a factor that kept funding from getting to the rural village schools to be used as initially allocated to educate all students. As a result of the lack in funds, teachers in rural areas often worked without pay. The high level of corruption led to a lack of trust in the government. The lack of trust was also linked to a sense of apathy on the part of the government. Local government, parents, teachers, and community members shared a common perception that the government did not prioritize the education of students with disabilities. Policies created by the government, suggested an espoused value for education for every student, to include students with disabilities. However, the reality reported by the participants, shared in stories from their experiences, was that this value was not enacted in their schools or communities. Therefore, students with disabilities did not receive the
111 education that government policies mandated. This is consistent with Officer and
Shakespeare (2013) who reported that ninety percent of students with disabilities who live in rural areas do not attend school, citing issues of stigma, access, poverty, and attitude. A lack of support in the area of enforcing policy was combined with a belief that the government should be preparing teachers to teach all students but this was not evident in the rural community.
Availability of resources. Availability of resources impacted the education of all students in the rural areas due to the high level of poverty present in these areas.
Many families were struggling to provide the basics for survival such as food and clothing. The local government in the rural areas was also struggling to provide for the many needs of the developing country such as roads and healthcare. There was limited availability of specially designed training for teachers, curriculum materials, books, and didactic materials that could make education more accessible for students with disabilities.
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Figure 5.1 Researcher’s Conceptual Map.
Discussion
In this section, I present answers to the primary research question and sub- questions that guided this study. Each of the sub-questions are addressed first which are then followed by a response to the primary research question. I will conclude
Sub-question one. How is the governance of the education process perceived and how does this impact the education of Honduran students with disabilities? The governance of the education process was perceived as corrupt, inefficient and inequitable.
Perceptions of the governance of the education system were linked to the government of the country. The corrupt nature of the national government impacted how the education system was viewed. The knowledge that there were funds donated and marked for education but those funds were not available in the rural area schools strengthened the perception of systemic corruption. This created an issue of trust between parents, teachers and government officials. Teachers did not trust the government to pay them for
113 their work or provide them with the necessary tools and training. Parents, in turn, did not trust teachers to come to work and dedicate themselves to students with additional needs if they were not going to be paid. Teachers and parents perceived that the government’s apathy toward students with disabilities kept the training and resources from being allocated to the highest need students in the most rural areas. As a result, the lack of trust in the government hindered the critical parent teacher partnership needed to ensure that interventions learned at school could be generalized at home. For children with disabilities, the need for consistency was not maximized as a result of the lack of trust between parents and teachers.
The education system was seen as inefficient, in that, schools were not well managed with overcrowded classrooms, limited resources and many instances of teachers working without receiving payment. There was a perceived inequity in rural schools with regard to students with disabilities. This is consistent with UNICEF (2013) which reported a difference in primary school completion rates among those with and without disabilities in rural areas. Girls with disabilities in rural areas had a 51% primary school completion rate while girls without disabilities had a 61% completion rate in rural areas.
Boys with disabilities in rural had a primary school completion rate of 42% and boys without disabilities had a 53% completion rate. Although the completion rate is poor for both students with and without disabilities, it is clear that those with disabilities are at an extreme disadvantage when they live in rural areas. Participants in this study linked the disadvantage to the government’s lack of knowledge about students with disabilities and
114 official’s motives of self service. This hindered the access to and equity that students with disabilities experienced in the education system in rural areas.
An additional issue was identified among teachers and their view on who could be deemed as a teacher of other teachers. During the member checking session of the teachers’ focus group, our initial understanding was confirmed; Teachers are more willing to learn from those teachers who have more years of experience than from those who may have a specific area of expertise. This is an area where teachers can acknowledge their own voices by allowing each one, regardless of the number of years they have been teaching, to share their expertise. This recognition of expertise can offer an example of the power of each person experiencing their own voice. This has the potential to redefine the social structure which gives voice to those who have always had a voice. Teachers who begin to recognize one another’s voice hold great transformational potential for the education system and the education of all students.
Sub-question two. How are the availability of resources perceived and how does this impact the education of Honduran children with disabilities? Participants perceived that the resources for all students were limited in the rural areas as a result of the high poverty. This is in alignment with World Bank (2013) and UNESCO (2009) reports that identified the disparity of resources between rural and urban areas. The high level of poverty in the country and the overwhelming needs of all citizens is a realization that impacted all students. They also recognized the need for specialized didactic materials and methods for students with disabilities. This perception of limited resources impacted students with disabilities in two ways: (1) Parents and teachers turned to others outside of
115 the system and the country for assistance with students with disabilities. Agencies like
Teleton and the CIPIE provided additional resources for students with disabilities rather than seeking the support of the education system in Honduras, and (2) a sense of discouragement that students with disabilities would not be able to receive the education the government promised them. This despair resulted in children with disabilities kept at home with little advocacy for their education.
Sub-question three. How do cultural beliefs impact the education of Honduran children with disabilities? Cultural beliefs hindered the educational participation of students with disabilities. The religious belief, expressed by participants, assigned blame to families which resulted in a high level of shame allowing the isolation of students with disabilities to continue. There was an alternate religious belief expressed by participants that assigned a special responsibility which provided a strong force for parents to advocate for their children with disabilities in every arena including education. Although Catholicism, as a religion, does not assign blame to God or families when children are born or become disabled, the participants expressed this as their perception of how God, others and the religious community viewed families of children with disabilities. The cultural environment steeped in poverty, drugs and violence impacted the family structure. The disintegrated family was not able to provide the additional support and resources often required to take care of students with disabilities. This limited the amount of family support available to partner with teachers to provide the best possible instructional environment.
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Research question. How do the perceptions of children, teachers, parents, and administrators of Honduran students with disabilities impact the education of Honduran children with disabilities? Perceptions of the government system of education, lack of resources and cultural beliefs have provided both, positive and negative impacts on the education of students with disabilities. Perceptions carry weight and when there is a perception that the situation is overwhelming, it can be difficult to change. Those whose perceptions were that of despair and hopelessness have the potential to limit the possibility of educational opportunities for students with disabilities.
The positive impact resulted from the process of identifying perceptions. As teachers, parents, and community members identified their perceptions, it created a dialogue of discovery. This dialogue brought to the forefront the need to advocate on the behalf of children with disabilities. Without this advocacy, the children with disabilities would remain a hidden part of the society. The perceptions of those who participated in this study revealed a desire to see change in how students with disabilities are educated and a willingness to act on that change.
Reflections
During the eleven years spent entering the society and the most recent three years learning from the community, I have had numerous opportunities to reflect on the process. During the course of this research project, I recognized that my position morphed from a casual volunteer, to a passionate participant. As I began the systematic process of research, I realize that I had taken on the role of an advocate and began leading through instruction and planning. This process of changing roles created internal
117 conflicts. My ultimate desire was to ensure that children with disabilities were able to access education. This North American paradigm of education and equity may have interfered with my ability to hear initially, the voices of the community. As I continued my education and began to learn more about culture, oppression, and how systems operate together, I practiced stepping out of my role as an advocate and into my role as a researcher seeking to learn. I believe the length of this study allowed enough time for me to hear their voices as I learned how to listen. I reflected on a specific interaction that I had with a mother in the rural mountains and connected it to an experience six years later listening to a teacher in the classroom. I initially heard a mother share that her children could not attend school because they were blind and my internal and external reaction was one of disbelief. Six years later, I listened as a teacher spoke about her student with disabilities in front of the class. As I listened to the teacher, I felt disbelief again. Both experiences were outside of what my North American experience and paradigm would suggest is acceptable practice. In the first instance, I hurried to action. In contrast, in the second instance, I observed and asked questions to learn more about the situation.
The most surprising part of this study was two-fold, (1) learning that teachers often worked for years without payment and (2) the lack of payment was linked to the high level of corruption in the government. Although I heard this information during interviews and focus groups, it was a personal experience that helped me realize these.
The experience involved driving through a teacher demonstration that stretched across the main highway as we drove to the capital for a meeting with the national education
118 leaders. This experience brought a new sense of reality and a vivid sense of fear as we watched soldiers in riot gear attempt to clear the street.
One of the most difficult findings was the conflict between parents of students with disabilities and classroom teachers. I have occasionally experienced this situation in
North America, however, I was expecting that the teachers and parents would have been fighting together for the students who had so many challenges beyond their disability. I believe it may have been related to guilt or shame experienced by both the teachers and the parents. I heard parents express that they felt shame because of their child’s disability and teachers expressed a sense of guilt because of their lack of understanding regarding how to teach students with disabilities. It is my hope that these two groups will use their collective voice to partner together to advocate for their children and students with disabilities.
Implications for Action
The level of poverty in conjunction with the rural location create an obstacle for students who come to school with learning challenges and disabilities. Many students are not able to get to the schools where there are teachers trained to meet their needs. This obstacle is steeped in the lack of access and equity (Darling-Hammond, 2007). “No student has equal educational opportunity if schooling is inaccessible as a consequence of transportation” (Thompson, Wood, & Crampton, 2008, p. 301). The students who need the most resources and intervention do not have access to services, adequate nutrition, or qualified teachers. To address these issues, the community members, parents, and staff of the CIPIE will need to continue to engage in policy and enforcement discussions at the
119 local and national level. This step allows them to gain centrality in order to increase their influence (Bouquet & Birknshaw, 2008). Having conversations with those who make decisions is valuable in that it provides a voice to this marginalized population and allows those in Honduras to use their voice to act on the children’s behalf (McClelland, 2007).
Freire (2000) suggested that it is only when the oppressed seek liberation that the oppressed and the oppressor can gain liberation. This study brought groups of teachers, parents, and community members together to discuss their perceptions of the education of students with disabilities. This dialogue provided an environment which allowed the
‘unveiling’ of their reality and now can begin the next step of liberation in committed action as they recreate their own reality (Freire, 2000). During a focus group, the topic of discussion shifted to the future of children with disabilities in rural Honduras. These discussions created a ‘climate of creativity’ where teachers began to think about how they could act on their reality. The teachers shared their beliefs regarding responsibility and ideas for action:
“I think that all are part of the social space, and we have some difficulties in
helping when we all should. We have an obligation to help these students to
reach their potential.”
“Personalize education and prepare the parents to help these children.”
“Collaboration should always be seen as a way of finding the best possible
solution and supporting these groups and their families.”
“My opinion is that we should all work together in order to help these children get
ahead.”
120
“The implementation of toolkits for counteracting the situation as well as the
implementation of special instruments in order to help the children; clearly, as
part of the community they are important and we as part of the same will have to
give motivating support so they can get ahead.”
Areas that they have identified as a focus for action were parent and teacher training, a greater understanding of the government and education system. A teacher from a focus group shared that change will be difficult as they will need to overcome, “Parents without education, government systems, and more understanding about the development of the education systems in our country.” This mirrored the recent report from UNICEF (2013),
“Ignorance about the nature and causes of impairments, invisibility of the children themselves, serious underestimation of their potential and capacities, and other impediments to equal opportunity and treatment all conspire to keep children with disabilities silenced and marginalized” (p.12).
Many teachers in the rural schools of Honduras do not receive the necessary preparation or continued support through professional development to teach students with disabilities. Teacher preparation and support will be an important area of focus for the
CIPIE in order to continue to advocate for equity and access in education for students with disabilities in the rural areas of Honduras. SCW’s partnership with the CIPIE can provide an additional source of support. This partnership and committed involvement will foster continued opportunities for dialogue and access to educators with specialization in pedagogy and disabilities. In addition, SCW can support the CIPIE’s advocacy efforts through extending their influence and access to national discussions
121 with policy makers. In order to improve the sustainability of programs like the CIPIE,
SCW should continue to serve as a facilitator of the process until those who are learning to advocate for themselves have more fully realized the power of their own voices.
Through this realization, Honduran people will be able to free themselves and their oppressors. The Honduran people experiencing the oppression are the ones who hold the power to become champions for the cause and transform education for students with disabilities.
Recommendations for Further Research
This study provided a glimpse into the perceptions, of children with disabilities, of a community in the rural villages in the municipio of Santa Cruz de Yojoa. As mentioned in Chapter IV, the perceptions were related to culture, governance, poverty, and the education process. If, based on the new understanding of their reality, the community decides that change is in order, research in the area of readiness and strategies for change within a rural Central American culture may provide a framework from which to design intervention.
Teacher preparation and parent training were identified as areas of perceived need in order to provide students with disabilities an education in the rural areas. Research regarding the teachers’ current training and proficiency will provide a starting point for professional development for teachers. At the same time, further quantitative research to determine the types of disabilities that are prevalent in the area may serve to provide direction for planning teacher and parent training. Finally, further investigation regarding
122 how children in rural areas are initially diagnosed with disabilities could provide a potential entry point for parent training and education connection.
Although poverty in Honduras seems to be an overwhelming challenge to the availability of resources and the education process, participants in this study have indicated that education and shared leadership are key strategies for moving forward to provide education for the marginalized in rural villages. Questions that may be helpful in guiding future research and interventions include:
How can we establish advocates with and for families of children with disabilities
in the rural areas?
How do we teach families how to advocate for their children?
How do we increase awareness and education of children with disabilities?
A missing piece is a link of services. How can we connect the agencies and
organizations already working in the area to maximize the potential impact?
What is the current preparation of teachers in general education and in special
education?
As teachers realize their voices, how can we encourage them to learn from one
another?
How ready is the community and the education system for the change?
How do we incorporate an education about the change process into the action of
providing services in new ways and educating teachers?
How do we identify the leaders in the community to lead the change?
123
How can we incorporate kids with disabilities in books and advertisements in
order to raise awareness and portray the reality of students with disabilities as part
of the community?
Education for parents, training in instructional strategies for teachers, collaboration among parents, teachers and community members, and advocacy in the political arena are entry points for intervention that have the potential to provide access and equity in education for students with disabilities. These strategies are a step on the journey toward visibility. The ultimate goal is to provide the opportunity for dialogue that gives voice to the children and families with disabilities in the rural areas of Santa
Cruz de Yojoa.
124
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135
APPENDIX A
HUMAN SUBJECTS REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL
139
APPENDIX B
INFORMED CONSENT FORMS
ADMINISTRATION CONSENT FORM Education for Students with Special Needs in Rural Honduras
Dear Administrator: The Department of Education at Ashland University supports the practice of informed consent and protection for human subjects participating in research. The following information is provided for you to decide whether you will allow the students in your school to participate in the present study. Even if you give your consent, you are free to withdraw from this study at any time. This project is designed to investigate how education services for children with special needs are delivered now and how students, teachers and community members view students with special needs. This information will be obtained through a group interview processes. Teachers will respond to attached interview questions in a group format. Children will be asked to write, draw and/or create a collage about how they feel about students with special needs in their community and school. An interview protocol has been developed to gather information from students and teachers about the education of children with special needs. The answers to the interview questions will be compiled and analyzed in order to determine if there are any consistent themes, patterns, or inconsistencies. This information will then be shared with the individuals who participated in the interviews and the board of directors for the Center for Children with Special Needs. Your students will be asked to participate in a group interview process. They will respond with verbal, written or picture responses. Your students’ participation is solicited but strictly voluntary. We assure you that your students’ names and the name of your institution will not be associated with the research findings. The results of this study will be used in a report given to Ashland University in Ashland, Ohio. Results might also be published or used in a dissertation. If you would like additional information concerning this study before or after it is completed, or have any issues or concerns, please contact one of us by phone, mail, or e- mail. Thank you very much for your time. We appreciate your interest and cooperation. There will be approximately 2 schools (50 individuals) participating in this study.
Sincerely,
Name of investigator Name of Faculty Member Graduate Student Christine Croyle Professor Dr. Carla Edlefson Phone No. Phone No. Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Address: Address: 128 Schar College of Ed. City, State, Zip: City, State, Zip:Ashland, Ohio 44805
I have read and understand the information about this study. I give consent for the students of this school to participate in this study. I understand that this consent is voluntary and can be withdrawn without penalty at any time.
______Name of Municipio
______Signature of Director of Education
______Date
PARENTAL CONSENT FORM Education for Students with Special Needs in Rural Honduras Dear Parent: The Department of Education at Ashland University supports the practice of informed consent and protection for human subjects participating in research. The following information is provided for you to decide whether you will allow your child to participate in the present study. Even if you give your permission, your student is free to withdraw from this study at any time with no penalty. This project is designed to investigate how education services for children with special needs are delivered now and how students, teachers and community members view students with special needs. This information will be obtained through a group interview process. Teachers will respond to attached interview questions in a group format. Children will be asked to write, draw and/or create a collage about how they feel about students with special needs in their community and school. Your child will be asked to draw a picture, create a collage, or write their thoughts in response to interview questions. Every student in class will receive paper, writing, drawing, and collage materials. Students will have a choice to draw, write, and create a collage or not to respond at all. All students will be given 30 minutes to complete their responses before placing it in the box provided. The participation of your child is solicited but strictly voluntary. We assure you that the name of your child will not be associated with the research findings. This creative interview activity will allow your child to share their opinions about children with special needs in a non-threatening way. The variety of choices in which to respond allows your child to express their thoughts in a way that is comfortable for them. The results of this study will be used in a report given to Ashland University in Ashland, Ohio. Results might also be published or used in a dissertation. If you would like additional information concerning this study before or after it is completed, or have any issues or concerns, please contact one of us by phone, mail or e- mail. Thank you very much for your time. We appreciate your interest and cooperation.
Sincerely,
Name of investigator Name of Faculty Member Graduate Student Christine Croyle Professor Dr. Carla Edlefson Phone No. Phone No. Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Address: . Addresss: 128 Schar College of Ed. City, State, Zip: City, State, Zip: Ashland, Ohio 44805
******************************************************************************
I have read and understand the information about this study. I give consent for my child to participate in this study. I understand that this consent is voluntary and can be withdrawn without penalty at any time.
______Name of Child
______Signature of Parent
______Date
PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM Education for Students with Special Needs in Rural Honduras
The Department of Education at Ashland University supports the practice of informed consent and protection for human subjects participating in research. The following information is provided for you to decide whether you will participate in the present study. Even if you give your consent, you are free to withdraw from this study at any time. This project is designed to investigate how education services for children with special needs are delivered now and how students, teachers and community members view students with special needs. This information will be obtained through a group interview processes. Teachers will respond to attached interview questions in a group format. Children will be asked to write, draw and/or create a collage about how they feel about students with special needs in their community and school. The answers to the interview questions will be compiled and analyzed in order to determine if there are any consistent themes, patterns, or inconsistencies. This information will then be shared with the individuals who participated in the interviews and the board of directors for the Center for Children with Special Needs. We assure you that your name and the name of your institution will not be associated with the research findings. The results of this study will be used in a report given to Ashland University in Ashland, Ohio. Results might also be published or used in a dissertation. If you would like additional information concerning this study before or after it is completed, or have any issues or concerns, please contact one of us by phone, mail, or e- mail. Thank you very much for your time. We appreciate your interest and cooperation. There will be approximately 2 schools (50 individuals) participating in this study.
Sincerely,
Name of investigator Name of Faculty Member Graduate Student Professor Christine Croyle Dr. Carla Edlefson Phone No. Phone No. Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Address: Address: 128 Schar College of Ed. City, State, Zip: City, State, Zip: Ashland, Ohio 44805
************************************************************************
I have read and understand the information about this study. I agree to participate in this study. I understand that this consent is voluntary and can be withdrawn without penalty at any time.
______Name of School
______Signature of Teacher
Date
146
APPENDIX C
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interview Protocol for Teachers and Administrators Introduction of the situation: I have had the opportunity to participate in many communities in the Santa Cruz area as I volunteered with SCW to build and repair schools. While working on these schools I observed the children and communities as they came together to make education better for their children by participating in the process. I admired that community participation. I also noticed that there were some families and children who were not involved in the process. These families had children with special needs. These children often have a physical, cognitive, or social emotional disability. There seemed to be social concerns around these families. It appeared as though they did not belong and were not being educated. This observation is based on my experience as someone coming from a different viewpoint and cultural experience but with some insights about some possibilities about how things could be different. This is how I’m viewing the situation; it’s important to me for many reasons that this is being viewed as fully as possible. I am so grateful to you for taking this time to give me your insights and perceptions on this.
Questions: 1. Tell me how you see the situation of children with special needs in the community.
2. Tell me how you see children with special needs being served in the education setting.
3. Is there anything in the political or social structure that we’re missing?
4. Are there any cultural beliefs of which we should be aware that could be impacting this situation?
5. What things in this situation make change difficult?
6. We believe the students with special needs are part of the community and the school environment. We see them as learners who learn in different ways and community members who participate in different ways. This is what we’re
envisioning but we’re looking at it from one perspective and we want to get multiple perspectives. How is your perspective different from ours?
149
APPENDIX D
ORAL EXPLANATION FOR CHILDREN
Oral Explanation for Children
We want to tell you about a research study we are doing. A research study is a way to learn information about something. We would like to find out more about school age children who have special needs. You are being asked to join the study because you live in an area where there are children with special needs.
If you agree to join this study, you will be asked to draw, write or make a collage picture about children with special needs.
Your participation will take about 30 minutes.
We may learn something that will help other children with special needs.
You do not have to join this study. It is up to you. You can say okay now, and you can change your mind later. All you have to do is tell us. No one will be mad at you if you change your mind.
Before you say yes to be in this study, we will answer any questions you have.