RURAL LANDSCAPES Our Evolving Countryside

Sir Neil Cossons Chairman of English Heritage

England’s countryside is changing, but the value of our historic rural landscapes to society is beyond dispute.

In November 2006 the UK government This issue of Conservation Bulletin examines ratified the European Landscape Convention why our rural landscapes matter and assesses, (ELC).The convention, which comes into force with views from key partners, the challenges on 1 March 2007 as this issue of Conservation facing them in the future. It looks at research Bulletin is published, requires Parties to protect, designed to illuminate human influences on manage and plan their landscapes. the land and the work that is taking place to This marks an important recognition by protect and enhance its historic dimension.We government of the value of landscape to society, hope it will serve to stimulate discussion within at a time when there is increasing discussion on the heritage sector about the potential of our the future trajectory of England’s countryside. contribution and will illustrate to a wider In July 2006, for example, David Miliband, the audience the value of what we can deliver. incoming Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, wrote to the Prime Minister calling for a ‘serious debate about the use of land in England’ noting that:‘We are always going to have to make trade-offs in a densely populated country, but we need to be sure that the system we have in place is protect- ing the right land for the right reasons.’ It is important that, in conducting this debate on how we protect and consume land, govern- ment recognises that, as well as providing a repository of fundamentally important natural assets, the landscapes of England are an historical and cultural asset of incalculable value.Although geology may set the scene, today’s landscape has been shaped by people living on and off the land and interacting with natural forces over many generations.As Bill Bryson, who is a Commis- sioner of English Heritage, once succinctly put it, our countryside is ‘hand-made’. It is therefore imperative that those who are making choices about the future of the coun- tryside understand that today’s landscape is a legacy of past human choices that need to be understood, respected and responded to if the landscapes of the 21st century are to retain their drama, their diversity and their sense of place. A landscape of incalcula- The historic-environment sector should be a ble value: the Iron Age valued and authoritative stakeholder in this hillforts of Battlesbury discourse – and the ratification of the Land- and Scratchbury stand scape Convention provides a timely opportu- sentinel over the arable chalklands of 21st- nity for reflection on what we have to offer English Heritage.NMR 18636/26 and how we can maximise our influence. © century Wiltshire.

2 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 WHYWHY OUR OUR RURAL RURAL LANDSCAPES LANDSCAPES MATTER MATTER Why our Rural Landscapes Matter

Today’s landscape is the product of human choices and actions. But is this cultural dimension adequately recognised in government policy?

Landscapes of the hand and mind they are perceived: they are the result of the Stephen Trow human hand and mind.At face value, this is fully Head of Rural and Environmental Policy, English recognised by those who make decisions on land Heritage use and landscape policy.Nevertheless, the 2006 historic dimension of landscape is often In October the government launched neglected in the formulation of policy and Natural England, a new agency with responsi- guidance.At best, policymakers seem to regard bility for nature and landscape conservation in the historic environment as a series of features England.A month later it ratified the European within the landscape, rather than recognising it as Landscape Convention and its Heritage White the quintessence of landscape.Why should this be? Paper, setting out a new framework for manag- Part of the problem may be that the real-life ing the historic environment, is imminent complexity of the cultural landscape – with its (Conservation Bulletin 52, and Oliver in this 6 8 kaleidoscopic mixture of built and planted, issue, pp – ).The coincidence of these manipulated and designed, semi-natural and important developments in heritage and land- natural – simply defies the neat departmental scape policy provides an unparalleled opportu- geometry of Whitehall, where DCLG are nity for the heritage sector to reflect on how responsible for spatial planning, Defra for land- effectively its interests are integrated within scape and land-use processes, including agricul- current arrangements for managing and plan- ture and forestry, and the DCMS for the ning the landscape and to consider what role historic environment. But where does this it might play in delivering a new vision for the leave ultimate responsibility for the cultural future of England’s countryside. aspects of the rural landscape? Does Defra’s Landscapes are cultural phenomena, both in inevitable preoccupation with natural resources, terms of the way they are created and the way the scientific-evidence base and the challenge of climate change sit comfortably alongside championship of the aesthetic values of the countryside? Do inter-departmental arrange- ments exist which adequately promote the seamless management of an asset quite so fundamental to our quality of life and our sense of personal and national identity? Are domestic obstacles to a holistic approach to landscape further compounded at the Euro- pean level? The European Union sees the natu- Dispersed settlement on ral environment as a trans-national issue on the border of Devon which it has competence to deliver substantive and Cornwall. Can plan- legislation and has set in place a raft of Euro- ning, agricultural and pean-level designations and powerful directives rural development for nature conservation. In contrast, cultural policy sustain an historic heritage is seen as central to individual nation settlement pattern states’ sense of national identity and as an area which defines the in which the Council of Europe, rather than distinctive character of the Union naturally takes the lead.While this much of the rural reasoning may be impeccable, is its unintended English Heritage.NMR 23700/19

South-West? © result a distortion of domestic policy which

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reinforces, rather than reduces, the impediments to effective integration of the cultural and natural aspects of landscape? If so, can the European Landscape Convention (see Fair- clough in this issue, pp 8–9) help to break down these barriers? English Heritage.NMR 20211/3

Or do the principal challenges lie within the © heritage sector? The need to manage change is a central message in the Convention, which concerns itself with the creation of new land- scapes as well as the conservation of existing valued places.While archaeological evidence demonstrates unequivocally that all landscapes are dynamic rather than static, with change driven both by human and natural forces, how effective has the heritage sector been in trans- lating this message into its conservation prac- tices in the past and how adept will it be in the future? Does the heritage sector have the right tools at its disposal to help it engage effectively with managing change in the countryside? In the past, the sector has tended to focus on the Town and Country Planning system as the principal means of managing change in the landscape. While spatial planning will continue to be an A wind farm at Ovenden Moor,West Yorkshire. Climate change will inevitably important part of the tool-kit, most agriculture impact on today’s countryside. and forestry operations lie outside the detailed controls of the Town and Country Planning Heritage White Paper facilitate further progress system. It may be these drivers which will have in this direction? the greatest impact on the character of the Above all, the heritage sector should reflect UK’s landscapes over the next few decades, on how clearly it communicates its priorities to particularly as the land-based industries respond the key partners who can help it deliver them to global economic pressures and the challenges (see Butterworth, pp 31–3, Hunns, pp 35–7, of climate change (this issue, Butterworth, pp Knight, pp 29–31 and Taylor, pp 33–5, this 31–3 and Riddle, pp 10–12).This being the issue). Our nature conservation colleagues have case, how fit-for-purpose are the heritage made great progress in this area, with Biodiver- sector’s links with the land-based industries? sity Action Plans that can be readily grasped How close are we, for example, to developing and, most importantly, acted upon by a wide robust mechanisms for integrating our interest range of partners.The task for cultural heritage in landscape with those of other environmental managers is arguably more complex, but no less partners? And can our objectives be reconciled compelling if we wish our interests to be fully with the economic realities and pressures for represented in the dialogue on landscape change faced by the land-based industries (this futures. issue, Fursdon, pp 5–6 and Lake, pp 12–14)? Our sector is now presented with a series of Just how radically do we need to re-think opportunities to secure a place in the discourse our approach if we are to play an effective role which will shape the landscape of the 21st in the management of the landscape of the century and beyond. Natural England provides future? Historically, the sector has tended to us with a powerful new partner who can cham- focus on the minutiae of change to individual pion the cause of truly integrated land manage- buildings and sites, rather than engaging with ment; the European Landscape Convention change at the macro-scale. New work on land- offers a mechanism for enhancing the scape characterisation (see Conservation Bulletin co-ordination of different departmental interests 47 and Went and Horne in this issue, pp 22–3) in landscape; and the Heritage White Paper will has provided us with a potentially powerful tool direct us toward a modernised management for delivering area-based management initia- of the cultural heritage, potentially better suited tives, but its deployment in the development of to delivery at the landscape scale. Responsibility new strategies for landscapes management is for success rests squarely with us. still in its infancy.Will implementation of the

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The view from the CLA in 2006 by the CLA (Who Pays for Heritage?, see www.cla.org.uk/heritage) show that many local David Fursdon authorities have no conservation staff, or have President, Country Land and Business Association staff who are demoralised by low pay and lack of status, have little or no experience or train- Each year millions of tourists – both foreign ing, or are overworked. Pre-application advice is and domestic – are drawn to England’s historic therefore often not available and applications landscape, scattered with quaint villages, market can become adversarial rather than collabora- towns, gardens, and ancient monuments. tive. English Heritage initiatives like HELM According to Visit Britain, their visits generate 16 (www.helm.org.uk) have helped, but across £ billion a year, a quarter of the benefit hundreds of local authorities a much-cut delivered by tourism to the UK economy as a English Heritage faces a challenge if it is to whole, but rural landscape and heritage not make a real difference. only contribute on a material or economic level, they also foster national and local identity and a feeling of continuity, through local food ‘Our farm buildings are expensive to as well as building styles, and rambling across maintain, of no economic benefit, and Devon countryside or Lake District hills the planners are very reluctant to provides millions of people with physical and consider any sort of alternative use.’ visual access and enjoyment. A CLA member At the Country Land and Business Associa- tion (CLA; www.cla.org.uk/heritage) we repre- 38 000 • A fundamental and linked problem is sent , members who manage or own conservation philosophy.There are many good more than half of rural England and Wales, and conservation officers who proactively seek significantly more than half of rural heritage. solutions that, while safeguarding what is We see seven key challenges that rural heritage significant about a building, also ensure that it faces today: has an economically viable future. But the CLA • While access to much rural heritage is free, believes that, in practice, too many of those maintaining it is hugely, and increasingly, involved in regulation feel that their job is to expensive. Government willingness to fund it protect the historic environment against through grants is much reduced: allowing for change, so that redundant buildings decay rising construction industry costs, the value of because they cannot be reused. Some seem to English Heritage’s already small grant budget lack an understanding of relative significance, has been reduced by nearly a third in five years. so that controls that would be appropriate for a Heritage must – wherever possible – earn its Grade I building – the top 3 per cent of listed keep if it is not to decay.This requires a buildings – are applied without discrimination heritage consent system that allows change. to a Grade II building in the bottom 3 per • The evidence suggests that the heritage cent; or they do not fully understand the consent system is not working as well as it economic background, demanding that could.A significant problem is conservation 95 redundant agricultural buildings remain in provision in local authorities (which decide agricultural use when they no longer have per cent of listed-building applications).The any agricultural purpose, or loading extra costs surveys carried out by English Heritage and the into an economically marginal conversion so Institute for Historic Building Conservation in 2003 that it has to be abandoned. (Local Authority Conservation Provision) and • The solution is not a weakening of heritage protection; instead it is to make the system as efficient, certain and proportionate as possible. The Heritage Protection Review (HPR) needs to focus on consents as well as designation if it is to tackle these key problems. Fortunately, English Heritage already has the potential solu- tion – the ‘Constructive Conservation’ philoso- Redundant historic farm phy, which is the main item in its 2005–10 buildings may be an Strategic Plan.This is a ‘new philosophy of asset to the landscape, conservation to ensure sensible, consistent deci- but their repair can be a sions’ which seeks to get everyone working significant drain on the together to manage change of the historic envi- resources of their ronment in a pragmatic way. It has great poten-

owners. Gaskell © Peter tial to do good, but it needs to be fleshed out in

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The adaptive re-use of traditional farm buildings

© HFFB Ltd provides important economic and regenera- tion benefits and high- quality conversions conserve the historic character of the land- scape.This renovation of a group of redundant Grade II farm buildings clear and concise English, linked to the current partnership with landowners and other rural in Taunton, Somerset, statutory guidance in Planning Policy Guidance businesses to enable rural communities and provides six office 15/16. English Heritage’s Conservation Principles, businesses to evolve. Regional Development /business suites as an still forthcoming as I write, is supposed to do Agencies still focus on urban rather than rural economically viable this, and much will depend on how well it regeneration, and it is important that Natural farm diversification. achieves this. England champions rural heritage. The scheme was short- • While legal protection of heritage is necessary, Over the coming months and years, rural listed for the Building it is also part of the problem, because it can de- landscape and heritage face significant chal- Conservation category motivate owners. Generations of farmers and lenges. Listed buildings have to be economically of the RICS awards landowners have made sacrifices to look after viable, and we need realism, proportionality in 2005. historic buildings and ancient trees because of and shared endeavour if they are to last; I was pride of ownership; that has certainly been the fortunate to have the opportunity to highlight case on my small family estate in Devon. Love this in a meeting with the Prime Minister late is a stronger motivator than fear, and being told last year.The imminent Heritage White Paper you must do something takes some of the will be just a beginning: much more is needed. incentive away, especially if it carries attendant baggage of application forms, demands for management plans, method statements, full CPRE calls for deeds not words archaeological surveys and accredited consult- Tom Oliver ants, often even for minor work.With little Head of Rural Policy, Campaign to Protect Rural grant funding, the listing of buildings has England become largely negative for owners. Heritage Partnership Agreements – a concept proposed By the end of a weekend on the in the HPR – may be a sensible way of trying Shropshire/Worcestershire border recently, to address this issue. I had slept in the same bedroom as Prince • Traditional farm buildings are particularly at Rupert once did, hovered on the doorstep of risk because agricultural changes are making so the house where Stanley Baldwin was born, many redundant. In many cases, if consent can walked over the world’s first iron bridge, be obtained without excessive cost or delay, travelled along lanes which were so low sunk viable and sympathetic new uses can be found; with many hundreds of years’ use that there recent new English Heritage policy and guid- was often no view and walked through an ance on this will help. But some need an injec- elaborately carved 900-year-old church door- tion of capital to make this possible, and other way into a field where I could clearly see where features – especially stone walls – make an houses had once been that were last occupied equally vital contribution to rural landscape but 650 years ago.The pub down the road has been have only marginal financial benefit.The good standing since before my most distant traceable news is that agri-environment schemes and ancestors and the line of sweet-chestnut trees rural development funding have in recent years that sheltered the place where I stayed was rescued many of these (see Hunns pp 35‒7); the planted after the Battle of Waterloo in bad news is that the funding for these schemes commemoration of that great and bloody is under threat. It is vital that built heritage event. remains a priority for these schemes: maximis- If I had entertained the thought that I was ing the number of plant species is good, but going to get away from it all, I would have been loses much of its point if walls and barns are wildly misguided.The upheavals of plague, civil collapsing all around the plants. war, the industrial revolution and international • Rural heritage cannot be maintained in conflict, the development of the role of Prime isolation: the strength of the rural economy is Minister, the ancient significance of religion crucial, and government must work in close and the transcendent influence of farmers,

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builders, architects and engineers over countless are constantly at work to weaken or destroy the years, all these were inescapable from dawn relevance and interest of our historic surround- until night for 48 hours. ings unnecessarily: ignorant neglect and deliber- But of course that was exactly what I did ate destruction. want out of my weekend.The evidence of what Meanwhile, the extent to which historic my species, what my fellow citizens, what their features have survived and continue to be organisations and activities have been up to understood and appreciated is down to two these last thousand years is about as captivating, other processes: the dedication of individuals moving, puzzling and amusing as you can and communities and the power of govern- imagine. My quality of life was seriously ment, local or national, to prevent destruction boosted for two days by observing and thinking and dereliction and encourage good care. It is about all the ways the landscapes around me not through luck, by and large, that we have the had been influenced by people who had been wealth and complexity of historic landscapes there before me, whose own quality of life had that remain, and it has often been through clearly varied from the palatial to the desperate. deliberate action that much of historic value has These were people who had lived lives of every been lost. possible kind, some of whom had died old and We are the architects of the survival of our happy, others stricken by incurable disease after own historic surroundings just as much as those a life of miserable poverty. who fashioned and managed and built them in It is patently clear that historic rural land- the first place. If we give up on the obligations, scapes are intensely human.They are certainly as individuals, as communities or as supporters not the mute and meaningless leftovers of irrel- of government actions and structures in the evant dead people. Few would argue that we common interest, what we have now will are better off without the evidence of how we steadily be lost with little possibility of recall. have got to where we are now, especially on the The sooner those who chafe at rules and poli- brink of another, this time carbon neutral, cies which protect historic landscapes get this industrial revolution and an escalation of world clear in their heads, the better.There is precious cultural influences. But the places, features and little excuse in this country to plead ignorance buildings that make up our historic environ- of the virtues and advantages that accrue from ment are interspersed by other places and conserving the outward signs of our history. features, where the presence of the past, as it The remarkable and inspiring project to map was elegantly described by Penelope Lively, has the historic landscape character of England by been eroded or obliterated.The attrition of the English Heritage (see Conservation Bulletin 47 years is inescapable and of course if nothing and Went and Horne in this issue, pp 22‒3 ) ever changed, the layers of history would not be provides anyone who cares to look with all the there to admire and protect. But two processes evidence they need that our history surrounds us in the landscape. The Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) is profoundly concerned that initiatives derived from the Heritage Protection Review need far greater and more realistic funding if they are to help stem the attrition and encour- age good practice. In overall terms, the sums When Abraham Darby needed to ensure that English Heritage and constructed his revolu- local authorities can integrate heritage controls tionary iron bridge in and guidance successfully are very small.Yet 1771–81 the Industrial without this money, we face a damaging and Revolution had only just depressing retreat from the quality of gover- begun to transform the nance and decision-making needed to safeguard traditional countryside our rich inheritance.Why is it that the govern- of post-medieval Shrop- ment has so far failed to see the merit in the shire. On the eve of a DCMS Select Committee report that although new carbon-neutral protecting the historic environment is very revolution, it is a potent good value, we do need to actually pay for it? reminder of the The Historic Environment Record, for exam- centuries of human ple, is an essential source of accurate informa- endeavour locked tion that is needed to guide wise development within our historic rural decisions. But if the resources to collect,

landscapes. Hesketh-RobertsMike copyright.NMR © Crown tabulate and maintain this information are

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not available, the facts will not be available its potential is seen to be. How far or quickly either. Pre-application consultation on planning this potential will be achieved depends of applications is a wise and democratic idea, course on its implementation. Its ideas need to but people need to be employed by local be adopted by all government departments, and authorities to do this work. CPRE works to be recognised at the highest level. It could closely with local authority officers expert in even form part of a national constitution: how the historic environment wherever it can, but citizens see their landscapes defines the nation. often these officers are working under great ‘Florence’, as befits a new member of the pressure, with only modest support and in a Council of Europe’s family of heritage conven- significant number of local authorities there is tions, offers a revitalised approach to heritage. It no one employed in this role. is the first convention dedicated to the whole There is an overwhelming consensus that the landscape, rather than to components of the historic environment brings riches to society environment. Its starting-points are that land- of every kind: cultural, social, environmental scape is everywhere, and that it is natural and and economic. Our report Recharging the Power cultural heritage entwined. It insists that all of Place, published jointly with the National areas, whether special or ordinary, beautiful or Trust and Heritage Link in 2004, contributed degraded, need to be treated as landscape.The to building that consensus. But, depressingly, it ‘poor’ landscapes, not the best, might indeed be seems far-fetched indeed that government the ones that most need investment and should identify the protection and enhance- management to improve people’s quality of life. ment of the historic environment as meriting The convention is important to English funding as part of a Housing and Planning Heritage and the wider historic environment Delivery Grant.The embedded energy and sector for many reasons. Its concept of land- quality of construction of buildings that have scape promises to be central to our work, literally stood the test of time appears still to which is why we have already been participat- mean little to the Treasury. Far greater encour- ing in the conferences and workshops organised agement could be given to the farming by the Council of Europe to start implement- community to see historic landscapes and ing the convention. It firmly underwrites monuments as part of their asset base, rather national policy as set out in Power of Place and than as a hindrance to freedom of land manage- Force for our Future. It allows us to engage ment.And the taxpayer needs to make a fair people’s interest in heritage on a much larger contribution to the long-term survival of scale than hitherto, and in terms of future historic landscapes, in view of their national development it enables us to build a bridge benefits. from past to future. It is an effective way to Our rural landscapes, made up as they are integrate our cultural interests with those of of towns, villages, scattered settlements and other agencies such as Natural England and the open countryside, are the closest thing we will Environment Agency. ever experience to a time machine.They are The word ‘landscape’ may conjure up ideas the source of much of our culture – art, drama, about Nature and rural scenes, but the conven- poetry and language. From earth everyone has tion encourages us to see it as much more come and to earth everyone will return. In the important than that, as a democratically shared mean time, it makes sense to understand and common heritage.We each take different things celebrate that ancient historical fact. from it, depending on who we are, on our gender, ethnicity or religion, on how old we are and what our lives are like, yet at the same time Made in England: landscape, culture we all share landscape perhaps more than and identity anything else. Landscape is very squarely about people: people who over very long periods of Graham Fairclough time have created the physical patterns of the Head of Characterisation, English Heritage land, who today ‘create’ landscape through their Having written about the European Landscape perceptions, and for whom landscape is an Convention (the ‘Florence Convention’; economic or social resource, people who are www.coe.int/t/e/Cultural_Co-operation/Envi- part of landscape, not simply external impacts ronment/Landscape/) in several issues of on it.The European Landscape Convention is Conservation Bulletin, it is gratifying to write the first heritage convention that relates to about it again as it comes into force in the UK where people live and work, how they accom- on 1 March 2007. It is already active in 25 other modate themselves to their surroundings and European countries, a speed of progress since how they interact psychologically and emotion- publication in 2000 that testifies to how great ally with their environment or habitat. It is

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concerned not only with places of scenic but to create ‘good’ future landscapes for beauty or ornamental parks, but with landscapes everyone.We need a wide debate about what everywhere, with how people perceive all land, ‘good’ landscape might be. For the historic urban and peri-urban as well as rural, and environment sector (and we might not share indeed water or seascapes. In summary, an ‘ordi- other sectors’ views on this) a ‘good’ landscape nary’ area of landscape is as much part of our is surely one in which history and culture, iden- heritage as any palace or church. tity and memories, can be read and enjoyed, But the traditional concern of heritage to but this is not the same as attempting to keep protect and keep the fabric of the past cannot landscape unchanged, or recreating the past. be applied to landscape. Conventional heritage This issue of Conservation Bulletin shows protection can only keep the very best because many examples of how the historic environ- we know we cannot keep everything.The ment sector is already contributing to imple- convention, on the other hand, invites us to mentation of the convention: well-established recognise that human history and, more impor- methods for understanding landscape, with a tant, people’s memories and identity, exists not broad range of applications such as English only in the small proportion of the building Heritage’s programme of historic landscape stock that is listed but everywhere in the land- characterisation and urban characterisation scape, especially where people actually live and (see, for example, Conservation Bulletin 47), work. Put simply, all landscape is heritage. How regional characterisations that begin to chart do we respond to this challenge? the contribution to landscape of our rich legacy Landscape is our most complex human arte- of farm buildings (see the HELM website at fact, but it is not finished. It will continue to www.helm.org.uk) and a broad explanation of change and evolve whatever actions we take or landscape history at regional scale as seen in do not take.We can, however, plan its future the recent English Heritage books (see Rowley, evolution, which is why the convention is pp 20‒1). Implementing the European Land- explicitly forward-looking, and also why it is an scape Convention will be a cornerstone for enabling instrument rather than a prescriptive practical working relationships with the newly one. It advises us to manage landscape in active formed Natural England, and we have already ways that include change and creation so that it helped the Highways Agency to write practical continues to live. It suggests three ways of doing guidance on how to take Historic Landscape this – protection, management and planning – character into account in the design of new but it is management (ensuring upkeep, keeping roads, probably the first official document to up appropriate processes for a living landscape) use the convention as its starting-point. and planning (mitigating necessary change, All this is only a start, however, given enhancing landscape, creating new landscape) the wide horizons thrown open by the which have the greatest applicability, especially convention. Landscape’s role in social and through spatial planning and agricultural policy. individual well-being, and its major contribu- The challenge posed by the convention is tion to economic prosperity and quality of life, not simply to protect our inherited landscapes gives it an importance that cannot be ignored.

‘ “Landscape” means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors’ (from the European Landscape Convention, Article 1, Definitions). Now awaiting a new post- Cold War future as an immigration centre, the redundant RAF Coltishall was itself superimposed on to a traditional Norfolk English Heritage.NMR 24369/11

farming landscape. ©

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 9 RURAL LANDSCAPES Challenges for the countryside

Our fast-changing society is making new demands on England’s valued traditional landscapes and buildings.

A turning-point for the uplands? layers of landscape evolution are writ large in the ancient walls, vernacular buildings and David Riddle earthworks of the open countryside.As Land Use Director,The National Trust conservationists we can seek to protect the The National Trust looks after some 150,000 artefacts of this cultural history, but the extent hectares of land in upland areas including some to which we, or anyone, can protect the ways of of the finest landscapes in the UK, from the life currently associated with them is another mountains of Mourne to Snowdonia and the question. Lake District. It is tempting to imagine that As a result of Common Agricultural Policy these magnificent areas have always been as we reform, agricultural support payments (the see them now – and to think that the farming Single Payment Scheme) can now be claimed that takes place upon them has been unchanged without having to farm.This has exposed the for centuries. But the uplands have always stark reality that livestock farming on its own is changed, not only in the distant past with the simply not profitable in many parts of the clearance of wildwood and establishment of uplands. Research carried out by the National settled farming, quarrying and mining, but Trust across 60 of its tenanted hill farms has significantly throughout the last century with showed that the majority will face severe falls in major changes in agricultural technology in income and that some will see their support response to the national priority for food payments halved over the next five years. production. From a purely economic point of view it is The uplands are valued for different things hard to understand why livestock businesses are by different people and they are among our continuing in the uplands, but we must not most highly designated areas. Centuries of underestimate the passion to farm that is deeply interaction between man and nature in this rooted in families and individuals whose lives rugged environment have produced landscapes are on the land. In the short term many farmers of unparalleled quality and interest.The will use their Single Payment Scheme funding

The uplands provide some of our most spectacular landscapes, which provide spiritual refreshment as well as vital environmental

© National Trust Photo LibraryTrust © National services.

10 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 CHALLENGES FOR THE COUNTRYSIDE

The embryonic River a growing problem with climate change Kinder in the High Peak. predicted to increase the frequency and severity The harvesting and of extreme weather events. In the uplands, protection of freshwater however, the widespread introduction of moor- is a vital public service land drainage combined with the canalisation that the uplands provide © David Riddle,© David Trust National of many rivers has hastened the passage of for the nation as a freshwater through catchments, starving whole. groundwater, impacting on archaeological deposits in wetlands, increasing the risk of flash flooding and aggravating diffuse pollution.We have to re-learn the techniques of using land to absorb, control and manage floodwater – a valuable service upland land managers can provide for the nation as a whole. CO2 emissions and carbon storage are rightly high on the political agenda and we are all encouraged to do our bit to reduce our environmental footprint.The peat soils of the UK, most of which are found in upland areas, to prop up struggling cattle and sheep enter- lock up more carbon than all the woodlands of prises even though the money does not have to Britain and France added together, so protect- be used for agriculture. But this is not a long- ing peat from desiccation and erosion now term solution, especially as all subsidies and takes on a new urgency in addition to its vital grants come under increasing pressure. role in protecting evidence of the past. Recent To some, the potential loss of grazing animals research suggests that bracken rhizomes also conjures up fears of unmanaged wasteland and store significant amounts of carbon, which is impenetrable scrub; to others the prospect of released when the plant is eradicated.This, more natural tree growth on higher ground, together with the potential prohibition of the lightly grazed by feral sheep and wild deer, is use of Asulox for its control, may force us to welcome. Either way the conservation of many re-think how we approach this over-successful habitats and cultural landscapes that we value native of lower upland slopes and its impact will depend upon the grazing of livestock at on archaeology, grazing and biodiversity. appropriate levels – it is in our interests to The contribution that open space and ensure that this can happen. outdoor exercise can make to people’s health The Trust has long recognised the need to and well-being is also becoming more widely broaden the base of farm incomes and has recognised.The accessible and challenging supported a wide range of diversification nature of upland landscapes provides huge schemes on its let farms. Many have related to opportunities for active recreation in inspiring produce marketing, such as the establishment of scenery.This not only has a big part to play in mail-order boxed-meat services or the creation combating major health problems such as of farm shops.The Trust has just launched the obesity and heart disease but also meets a ‘Fine Farm Produce Award’, which allows very real need for spiritual refreshment and successful tenants to use the famous oak-leaf connection with history as a counterbalance logo to market selected quality products that to modern urban lifestyles. meet high environmental and animal welfare The post-Second World War imperatives for standards. Other initiatives have encouraged food and timber production have now gone farmers to take advantage of the tourism poten- and we have the chance to decide what land- tial of the wonderful landscapes they manage scapes we want for the future and how they through providing camping, bed-and-breakfast need to be managed.As the economic drivers or self-catering accommodation. of production give way to the environmental Declines in wild flowers, bird populations drivers of resource protection and environmen- and natural tree growth in the uplands are tal services, the delivery of public benefit, in the familiar problems but other environmental widest sense, will become the justification for issues are now coming to the fore. Concerns future funding. about water resources have been heightened by There are, however, no mechanisms to pay recent winter shortages in the South-East and for carbon storage, production of clean water or water is increasingly being recognised as a flood control. Land managers will have to precious asset that needs to be valued and care- develop new skills to meet the expectations of fully managed. Conversely flooding is set to be customers and deliver increasing environmental

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 11 RURAL LANDSCAPES

standards.The government, through key bodies buildings and their settings. such as Natural England and the Environment Limited understanding of historic farmsteads Agency, will need to find new ways to encour- in their broader context was identified as the age and reward land management that delivers greatest obstacle to targeting particular features public benefit through care of natural resources and areas for grant aid and to developing local- and supporting ecosystem services. plan policies that give priority to historic farm- Ultimately the economic, cultural and envi- steads.This is significant, as national planning ronmental well-being of the uplands depends policy has moved from advocating restraint on upon the natural resources of soil, air and water. development in rural areas to the advancement Unless we can find ways to support the land of the principles of sustainable development, management required for their protection we based on sound understanding of the environ- stand to lose the capacity to care for our most mental, social and economic characteristics of prized landscapes whatever we choose to use an area. them for. Methods for mapping landscape character have developed in response to this need, includ- ing the Joint Character Areas which are used to Historic farmsteads target funding for the natural and historic envi- ronment under the Agri-Environment Jeremy Lake Schemes, and English Heritage’s Historic Land- Characterisation Team,English Heritage scape Characterisation programme.The need David Pickles for the built environment to be part of this Senior Architect, English Heritage process, and for local character and context to England’s historic farmsteads and their buildings inform high-quality design, has recently been vary enormously in scale and character, but reinforced by DCLG’s Guidance on Changes to until recently it has been difficult to fully the Development Control System, effective from appreciate them as an integral part of the pres- August 2006, and related guidance by CABE. ent landscape. English agriculture has been This research has highlighted the need for marked by a steady enlargement of farm size strategies for re-use to be informed by regional from at least the 15th century, and by the 1930s and local differences in patterns of settlement, it had the lowest percentage of the working redundancy, dereliction and conversion, and in population in agriculture in Europe (Fairclough farmstead and building character.This forms 2002, 8–9).This process accelerated from the 1950s and, as a consequence of the restructur- ing of the farming industry, has rendered more traditional forms of building redundant for agricultural purposes. Global pressures on farming – which now contributes less than 1 per cent to Gross Domestic National Product – will only increase in the next few years, particularly in upland areas.The maintenance of the great majority of farms will in future depend on finding new roles for them outside agriculture, but – despite a general appreciation of the landscape and historic value of farmstead buildings – there are considerable differences of opinion on how best to secure a sustainable future. A major aspect of farm- Research commissioned by English Heritage building conversion is and the Countryside Agency (Gaskell and Clark how to incorporate 2005; Gaskell and Owen 2005) has established daylight and functions that an overwhelming majority of applications that require subdivision. for residential use have been approved. Indeed, This is particularly diffi- strong policies designed to resist new develop- cult if a building is signifi- ment in the wider countryside have resulted in cant for its open interior, pressure to convert the existing building stock. impressive proportions By 2004, more than 30 per cent of listed farm and long sight-lines, as at buildings had been converted, mostly to residen- this Grade II* medieval tial use (Gaskell and Clark 2005). Some of these barn now in use as car

conversions have been highly damaging to © Jonathan Moore/architecture plb museum.

12 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 CHALLENGES FOR THE COUNTRYSIDE

Drebley in Wharfedale. Upland landscapes are poised for considerable English Heritage

change. Drebley has a © mix of cruck-framed and formerly heather- thatched barns, and large 19th-century combination barns, which have widely differ- ing capacities for change. The Bolton Abbey Estate is developing methods for evaluating what buildings in the southern Dales need to be retained, adapted or salvaged for their materials.

one of the key recommendations in English character statements are being prepared as a Heritage’s and the Countryside Agency’s joint core part of a web-based product that will policy on farm buildings, Living Buildings in a inform the identification of key farmstead and Living Landscape: Finding a Future for Traditional building types in their landscape and national Farm Buildings.This document includes a context.As well as assisting the targeting region-by-region analysis of the drivers for process, these will inform the pilot develop- change as well as illustrated summaries on the ment of character-based local-plan policies historical development and landscape context of and help owners, land managers and local farmstead buildings. authorities to align an understanding of historic The policy is supported by much larger farmsteads and landscapes with their sensitivity Preliminary Regional Character Documents, to change. consultative documents which represent an This work has been informed by a pilot initial attempt to understand the farmsteads of project in Hampshire (Lake and Edwards 2006), each region in their national and landscape Sussex and the High Weald Area of Outstanding context.To supplement this policy work, Natural Beauty, which has demonstrated English Heritage’s Conservation Department through GIS mapping that the dating and has produced detailed guidance on the adaptive distribution of farmsteads in the landscape, and re-use of farm buildings (The Conversion of the rates of survival of different types of Traditional Farm Buildings:A Guide to Good Prac- steading and building, are closely related to tice).This guidance is intended to help individu- patterns of landscape character and type. For als and local authorities make better-informed example, the highest densities of historic decisions about the future use of farm buildings farmsteads and pre-17th-century buildings and their capacity for change. High standards in are concentrated within landscapes defined by design and implementation are promoted dispersed farmsteads and hamlets and ancient where conversion is considered patterns of fields and boundaries, such as in as a viable and appropriate option, and an the High Weald of Sussex and Kent. assessment framework is included to help It is studies like this that will help us under- inform pre-application discussion and subse- stand the capacity of distinct farmstead types quent decision-making. and their landscapes to absorb change.This is This assessment framework is now being important because recent work has shown that developed in consultation with land managers, the adaptation of the existing rural building planners and other key partners in North York- stock – and especially in areas characterised by shire and the South-East region. Image-based dispersed farmsteads and hamlets – is account-

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ing for as much housing growth as in urban A modest former areas (Bibby 2006).This new understanding, Baptist chapel in Ickling- combined with evolving life–work patterns, ham, Suffolk, hardly will challenge some existing assumptions and recognisable after the must inform an open debate about the future ‘improving’ additions of a shape of our rural landscapes and communities. tarmac drive, mass-

© Richard Halsey, English Heritage produced joinery and a big plastic cover for the REFERENCES Bibby, P 2006. Land Use Change at the Urban Rural Fringe gas cylinder. and in the Wider Countryside. Report for the Countryside Agency, University of Sheffield Fairclough, G 2002.‘Europe’s Landscape:Archaeology, Sustainability and Agriculture’, in Fairclough, G and Rippon, S (eds), Europe’s Cultural Landscape:Archaeologists and the Management of Change, Europae Archaeologiae Consilium, 1–12 (Brussels, 2002) 2005 Gaskell, P and Clark, M . Historic Farm Buildings Photo this activity is a conscious outworking of their System: Data Analysis. Research report for English Heritage, University of Gloucestershire (Cheltenham) faith. Residents in the places studied valued the Gaskell, P and Owen, S 2005. Historic Farm Buildings: contribution of people of faith, acknowledging Constructing the Evidence Base. University of Gloucester- that without it community life would be the shire, English Heritage and the Countryside Agency poorer. Policy-makers in all levels of govern- (Cheltenham) ment and the voluntary and community sector Lake, Jeremy and Edwards, Bob 2006.‘New Approaches to Historic Farmsteads’, Landscape Character Network News 22 need to recognise and acknowledge this (Spring) (can be viewed at: contribution.This equally applies to churches www.landscapecharacter.org.uk) themselves, and the challenge for all is to learn Further sources of information more about this contribution and to work Lake, J and Edwards, B,‘Farmsteads and Landscape: collaboratively together. Towards an Integrated View’, Landscapes 7.1 (2006), 1–36 Seeds in Holy Ground – A Workbook for Rural Living Buildings in a Living Landscape: Finding a Future for Churches (2005) is a resource designed to enable Traditional Farm Buildings; The Conversion of Traditional Farm small rural congregations to engage with these Buildings: A Guide to Good Practice and the Preliminary issues, giving good examples of existing Regional Character Documents can be viewed at projects. Both it and the Defra report are www.helm.org.uk/farmbuildings available from the Arthur Rank Centre at www.arthurrankcentre.org.uk or by email from Rural places of worship [email protected]. The 2005 Heritage Counts report by English Dr Jill Hopkinson Heritage (www.heritagecounts.org.uk) high- National Rural Officer, Church of England lighted the ‘particularly high concentration of Richard Halsey listed parish churches in the countryside’ and Places of Worship Strategy Manager, English Trevor Cooper has pointed out that eight rural Heritage dioceses ‘look after a quarter of parish church For rural people, the presence of a church of buildings with hardly more than one tenth any denomination provides a local rooted-ness (11%) of the population’ (Cooper 2004).The that extends beyond the congregation to the picture is less easy to assess for the other whole community.This stems not only from denominations.The 2005 English Church the presence of a building, often seen as a Census found that although church-going over- special sacred place, but also from people’s need all is still declining (at a slower rate than in the to involve their faith at crucial stages of life.The 1990s) there is real evidence of growth in some annual cycle of prayer and celebration are areas and denominations. considered to contribute to a sense of belong- The Church of England’s Building Faith in ing and well-being. our Future project These findings come from a recent research (www.cofe.anglican.org/about/builtheritage/ report supported by Defra, Faith in Rural buildingfaith/index.html) continues to Communities: Contributions of Social Capital to gather examples of parish churches housing Community Vibrancy. People who attend church ‘community’ uses, and a debate in the General regularly make a significant contribution to Synod in February 2006 demonstrated the community vibrancy, most importantly through strength of support for keeping rural churches their voluntary roles in village life, both formal open by widening their use beyond regular and informal, and through their engagement worship.As ‘secular’ uses are much less accept- with church-based activity. For many people able or physically possible to accommodate

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The interior of the Grade created –for instance, with regional rural organ- II* church at Wentworth, isations. Initially, these officers will need to Cambridgeshire, recently establish which congregations and listed build- repaired with the aid of ings require active support from their denomi- English Heritage and nations and outside bodies to achieve a Heritage Lottery Fund sustainable future.They can then advise and grants. Since 1992, the © Richard Halsey, English Heritage guide the projects, possibly in partnership with nave has also been used others looking for premises or by getting a as a hall, with folding major repair and re-ordering programme under screens to join up the way. New partnerships and a degree of open two spaces.Toilets, thinking will be needed if these focal historic storage and kitchen are buildings are to re-establish their value to their at the back. community and so survive for future genera- tions to use.

REFERENCE Cooper,T 2004.‘How do we keep our parish churches?’. The Ecclesiological Society 2004

Affordable rural housing and the historic environment Stephen Trow within non-Anglican churches and chapels (so Head of Rural and Environmental Policy, English adjacent halls are used instead), this route will Heritage not necessarily ensure the conservation of these The population is rising proportionately faster places of worship.With less historic attachment in England’s countryside than in its towns and to their places of worship, non-Anglican cities.As surveys consistently demonstrate that a congregations are more likely to share one majority of people wish to live in the country- place of worship or to adapt a hall for both side, this trend looks set to continue.This pres- purposes and sell the surplus buildings. sure, together with planning constraints The initiative and sustainable success of alter- intended to protect the countryside from inap- native uses within active places of worship propriate development, has resulted in signifi- usually owes much to individual effort at cant rises in house prices in most rural areas. congregational level. Effective partnerships with The corresponding shortage of affordable hous- others also often come about through personal ing makes it difficult for those on lower contact, rather than through any co-ordination incomes, including the young, to enter the within the denomination or with a regional housing market. Recent research suggests that authority. Local and regional planners could 45 per cent of prospective newly forming better understand the needs of the congrega- households in rural areas could not afford to set tions and match them up with their sustainable up home in the rural ward where they community targets if there was greater denomi- currently live. national participation in Local Strategic Part- Last year, in response to this, a government nerships. If the denominations themselves could commission on affordable rural housing, chaired establish a coherent overview of the role of their buildings within their own mission strate- gies, then long-term management of listed places of worship could be much improved. English Heritage actively encourages strategic overviews in two ways in Solution 2 of the Inspired! campaign (www.english- heritage.org.uk/inspired!). First, we have part- Trow, English Heritage © Stephen Right: In Corfe, Dorset, funded diocese-wide studies of churches so as careful design and use of to establish their architectural quality and local materials ensure consequently, the scope for acceptable alter- that new affordable- ation. Second, we are also offering to part-fund housing units are in and train ‘historic building support officers’. keeping with the historic Their exact function will vary according to character of the village. local needs and any partnerships that might be

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 15 RURAL LANDSCAPES

The White Hart Yard scheme, developed by the Eden Housing Asso- ciation in a derelict Grade II-listed stables

© Eden Housing Association © Eden Housing within a Conservation Area, provides 12 much- needed affordable rented homes in Penrith, Cumbria.

by Elinor Goodman, made a series of recom- Corporation to local scheme providers. mendations designed to increase the supply of During 2007, following consultation with a low-cost-housing schemes. From a heritage wide range of stakeholders, English Heritage perspective, the provision of affordable housing will publish guidance on delivering sympathetic is also important in terms of rural areas.We affordable housing developments in historic endorse the argument that communities tend rural settlements.We will also explore in more only to be truly sustainable if they include a mix detail the contribution historic buildings could of people of different ages and backgrounds and make to enhancing supply.While some historic serve the needs of those on lower as well as buildings are unlikely to be suited to re-use for higher incomes. More pertinently,the provision affordable housing projects, either in terms of of affordable housing is important in terms of their market value or the need to retain their sustaining the fabric of historic communities and character, others may offer more scope and we the character of the landscape. Research by are keen to identify examples of good practice. CPRE and the National Farmers’ Union has highlighted an increasing lack of locally available The challenges facing rural World craftsmen in rural areas.While new training Heritage Sites initiatives may begin to address these skills short- ages, affordable housing will also be required for Christopher Young people engaged in craft and land-management Head of World Heritage and International Policy, activity if they are to live and work locally. English Heritage Full implementation of the recommendations World Heritage Sites are places of outstanding of the commission would cause a significant universal value to all humanity, selected by the rise in the numbers of affordable-housing intergovernmental World Heritage Committee schemes brought forward in historic small under the terms of the 1972 UNESCO World towns and villages.The commission has, for Heritage Convention.The UK has 27 World example, proposed that 11,000 new units of Heritage Sites of which 17 are English. By join- affordable housing should be provided per year ing the World Heritage Convention, govern- in settlements below 10,000 population. ments undertake to identify, conserve, present English Heritage does not believe the and transmit to future generations heritage of historic character of these places should outstanding and universal value. It is up to each normally be an impediment to providing this state party to decide how it is going to do this. housing, but we consider it essential that high The convention is unique among interna- standards of design and implementation are tional conservation treaties in dealing with both adopted to avoid erosion of sense-of place and natural and cultural heritage.The definition of local diversity.We therefore welcome the cultural heritage in Article 1 of the convention commission’s recommendation that the need defines sites as the ‘works of man or the for good design in sensitive locations be recog- combined works of man and nature’ so that the nised in the allocations made by the Housing idea of human influence on the environment

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The Jurassic Coast Hadrian’s Wall and its buffer zone, Blenheim World Heritage Site, Palace and its park, Studley Royal Park (includ- including the medieval ing Fountains Abbey), and the Jurassic Coast, the

St Catherine’s Chapel. © English Heritage only natural World Heritage Site in England. Inscribed as a natural The UK system for protection and manage- site, the Coast also has ment of World Heritage Sites does not add to very strong cultural existing statutory controls but does require values. production of a non-statutory Management Plan on behalf of all the key stakeholders.These plans should ensure an appropriate balance between conservation, access, sustainable use of the resource, and the interests of the local community.To be effective, it is also essential that the process of producing them should develop the consensus needed for their success- ful implementation. Experience shows that a joint and holistic approach to managing the was present from the outset. In fact it took rural areas included in World Heritage Sites some time for the committee, its advisory depends on the vision, aims and policies set out bodies, ICOMOS for culture and IUCN for in the Management Plan, underpinned by the nature, and its secretariat, to work out an habits of joint working that were developed approach to the identification and management during its preparation.The objectives relate not of sites representing ‘the combined works of just to the outstanding universal value of each man and nature’. site but to the full range of natural, cultural and The breakthrough came only in 1992 with social values that it represents. the recognition of cultural landscapes as a cate- This has stimulated public agencies, gory of cultural World Heritage Site. In World landowners and others with interests in such Heritage terms, cultural landscapes ‘are illustra- sites to work together.A notable example has tive of the evolution of human society and been the use of agri-environmental funds (see settlement over time, under the influence of the Hunns in this issue, pp 35–7) in the Stonehenge physical constraints and/or opportunities and Avebury World Heritage Site to encourage presented by their natural environment and of landowners to revert arable land to pasture, successive social, economic and cultural forces, thereby improving the setting of parts of the both external and internal’. site and protecting archaeological sites. It has This definition matches well with the holistic also been possible to use agri-environmental approach to landscape developed in the UK over funding to achieve various wider objectives the last two decades. However, of the 17 English within the site, for example enabling the Royal World Heritage Sites, only the Cornish Mining Society for the Protection of Birds to establish a Landscape (in fact both rural and urban) is reserve for breeding stone curlews and to use formally recognised as a cultural landscape. volunteers to clear scrub off the Normanton None the less there are a number of other Down group of barrows. Coupled with the English sites that are sufficiently extensive and reintroduction of grazing by sheep, this has sufficiently rural in character to require a greatly improved the visibility and appearance landscape-scale approach to their management. of the barrows.The scheme has thus met a These include Stonehenge and Avebury, number of objective relating to both cultural and natural objectives. Elsewhere it has been possible to improve access, as at the West Kennet Long Barrow near Avebury where agri- environmental funds have enabled the creation of a broad access strip to the barrow as well as increasing the area of pasture around it. The high profile of World Heritage Sites and A volunteer helps to their requirement for Management Plans has clear scrub from the been an important catalyst in developing Normanton Down approaches to the holistic management of such group of Bronze Age places.The process provides valuable insights barrows in the Stone- and lessons that can be transferred to other henge World Heritage special areas with multiple values and uses.

Site. © RSPB

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 17 RURAL LANDSCAPES

Minerals extraction and the historic The legacy environment Mineral extraction in the past has created a widespread and, in some areas, fundamental Jon Humble social, economic and environmental legacy. Its Senior Rural and Environmental Policy Adviser physical remains therefore form a significant (Minerals), English Heritage part of today’s historic environment. Each Chris Wood generation has placed its own values on this Acting Head, Building and Conservation Research legacy with attitudes changing radically over Team,English Heritage time and continuing to change. Historic remains initially perceived as derelict structures From the stone in Stonehenge to the iron in and land may eventually become highly valued, Ironbridge, the extraction of minerals in prehis- particularly as the pool of surviving examples tory through to the modern era is a story of declines over time – requiring difficult, prag- remarkable human endeavour and ingenuity, in matic choices on what is conserved for future sometimes extreme and hazardous environ- generations. ments. Nevertheless, the scale and technical In recent years our understanding of historic proficiency of the modern extractive industries mining and quarrying sites and landscapes has means that they can have profound effects – developed rapidly, as part of the growing inter- both positive and negative – on what we value est in industrial archaeology.The contribution most about the historic environment.These of voluntary sector special-interest groups has effects can occur in terrestrial, subterranean and been an important factor in this development. marine contexts. Frequently these groups have developed as a Government mineral planning policy empha- response to community associations with the sises the importance of ensuring that extraction extractive industries that have developed over is carried out according to the principles of many generations, and which have become sustainable development, both in terms of imbued with a strong sense of local identity minerals supply and by adopting an integrated and heritage. approach to the consideration of social, English Heritage and its voluntary sector economic and environmental factors (Minerals partners believe that concerted endeavour is Policy Statement 1 (MPS1), DCLG 2006). required to raise general awareness of the Recently developed English Heritage policy extent, significance and cultural value of former on mineral extraction and the historic environ- mining and quarrying remains if the legacy of ment reflects these aims under three headings: the extractive industries is to be safeguarded, • the historic significance of mining and quar- rying sites and landscapes Impacts and mitigation • the impacts on the historic environment that can be caused by mineral extraction together Survey and excavation have revolutionised our with advice on appropriate mitigation measures understanding of the past as a result of the • the need for, and supply of natural stone and minerals industry’s compliance with the require- ments of Planning Policy Guidance notes 15 and other materials required to conserve the 16 historic environment and maintain local .The environmental costs, however, can be distinctiveness. considerable. In addition to the destructive

The mineral legacy: mine engine-house at Botallack, Cornwall. In 2006 the Cornwall and West Devon mining industry was inscribed as a World Heritage

© Jon Humble, English Heritage Site.

18 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 CHALLENGES FOR THE COUNTRYSIDE

A geologist tests the Natural building and roofing stone suitability of stone for 1 historic building repairs. Government policy (set out in MPS and its annexes) has now recognised the importance of supplies of stone for conserving historic build- ings and for maintaining local distinctiveness

© Jon Humble, English Heritage during new build. Re-opening old quarries, however, has become increasingly contentious and many applications have been subject to strong objections. Using authentic sources of stone is nevertheless essential if local character is to be maintained and individual buildings are to be repaired effectively. Planning authorities are now charged with safeguarding important sources of stone that could be used for these purposes.The problem is that too often little is known about the stone used on historic and vernacular buildings – or where it came from. English Heritage has begun a major national study to draw together the very considerable amount of fieldwork and archival work that has already been done – but currently this mostly resides in ad hoc collec- tions or as undocumented specialist knowledge. Although a primary aim is to protect important sources for the benefit of the historic impacts within the footprint of minerals environment, there are other tangible benefits extraction, the surface disposal of mineral waste to rural areas in these highly sustainable opera- can preclude appreciation of historic sites. tions.Winning the material is still very much a Inappropriate restoration of former sites can hand-crafted operation that involves minimal also disfigure the historic character of the land- traffic movements. Local farmers have found scape and compromise the setting of ancient this form of small-scale quarrying an effective monuments. Noise, dust and the vibration form of diversification that also results in local caused by the regular passage of minerals-related employment. heavy traffic can similarly damage the fabric of Winning stone is essential but there is no historic buildings and reduce opportunities for intention of needlessly destroying old quarry their enjoyment and appreciation. sites that are now recognised for their archaeo- Nevertheless, more effective approaches to logical, geological or wildlife interests.The aim mitigation are being developed, both for terres- will be to find new sites where closely match- trial and marine-dredged extraction (see Cole 40 ing stone can be won with the least damage. in this issue, p. ). Dialogue between heritage Failing that, mitigation measures will be professionals, mineral planners and the minerals expected to minimise harm and conflict if there industry is needed to ensure mitigation meets are competing interests on the site in question. sector standards, as well as the test of ‘reason- It is something of a paradox that English ableness’ required by the planning process. Heritage might seek to protect old quarry It is particularly important for these sectors to workings as an industrial legacy, but at the same continue to develop strategic approaches to time want to exploit such reserves for much understanding the significance and distribution needed stone. But this is the stuff of conserva- of historic sites and landscapes in order to tion.Accommodating all competing interests in ensure effective protection for the most signifi- mineral extraction, its aftermath and old quarry cant sites and to limit the cost of compliance sites may often be contentious.Those with a for the industry.Areas actively under discussion particular interest in the historic environment include: approaches to the pre-determination will need to articulate the full significance of evaluation of land proposed for extraction; the asset. Having this information ready before measures to ensure that the numerous ‘old detailed consideration begins will be a necessity minerals permissions’ (granted between 1948 1982 if the site or resource is to be effectively and ) comply with modern requirements conserved or used. for safeguarding the historic environment and mitigation; and the appropriate restoration, end use and aftercare of former extraction sites.

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 19 RURAL LANDSCAPES The Weight of Evidence

If we want to care for England’s rural landscapes we have first to understand their historic origins and changing condition.

England’s Landscape: a review incredibly photogenic it is natural that it should dominate all the volumes, but major conurba- Trevor Rowley tions such as Liverpool and Southampton are Just over 50 years ago W G Hoskins wrote The dealt with perfunctorily.The topography of a Making of the English Landscape (1955). It was a number of ancient county towns, such as modest book of only 240 pages with mono- Shrewsbury,Warwick and Gloucester, not to chrome photographs and plans, but one which mention the absence of a whole layer of advocated a fresh approach to England’s history, provincial market towns, is hardly covered at all. using the landscape as a primary source, and Similarly, the second half of the 20th one which was to have a profound impact on century’s own contribution,‘exurbia’, defined local and regional studies. Since that date by Neil Cossons in his introduction as ‘that hundreds of books incorporating a landscape mixed-use land between city and country that theme have been published, including an owes nothing to either’, is understandably but incomplete county series by Hodder and unfortunately almost completely neglected.The Stoughton, edited by Hoskins himself.The new absence of a common template for the series English Heritage series*, however, is by far the also leads to omissions.Although each volume most ambitious, and the most successful.The follows a general chronological framework, series was the brainchild of Sir Neil Cossons authors – or author/editors in some case – and its publication is a personal triumph repre- have been given the freedom to explore their senting one of his most significant achievements own region in their own way. In the case of as chairman of English Heritage. Tom Williamson’s excellent East Anglia, for Over the past half-century, historians, archae- example, the licence to develop his ideas on the ologists and geographers have investigated relationship between landscape, settlement and different aspects of the English landscape, using soils, has led to a strong integrated volume. increasingly sophisticated analytical techniques, Other volumes are more loosely structured such as geophysics and aerial reconnaissance. and adopt a more thematic approach; the chap- Our knowledge of landscapes from the ter headings for Angus Winchester’s The North Neolithic to the 20th century has expanded West are typical of this:‘Moving through the greatly.The synthesis of all this work forms the Landscape’,‘Expansion of Power’,‘Places of basis of the new English Heritage regional Prayer’ and ‘Industrial Heritage. Roger Kain’s series, from Stonehenge to Sellafield. The South West rather loses its way towards the The division of the country into eight end, concentrating on definitions of landscape regions is a sensible one, but as always regional- and heritage; interesting material but out of ism in England tends to fall apart in the centre. place here. Hence there are anomalies such as the The books are all beautifully produced Derbyshire Pennines appearing in The West and the high quality of illustrations is common Midlands and the Upper Thames Valley in The to all the volumes – many of the photographs, East Midlands.There is also some territorial most of which are in colour, were taken duplication, for example, Dorset appears in The especially for this series.The breathtaking West and in The South East. The absence of a aerial views of former and extant field regional tradition of historical writing in some systems above Grassington in Wharfedale exem- cases leads to an element of serendipity in the plify this high standard of photography (The choice of areas/topics to be covered.The most North East, 140–1).There is also a good mix of serious omission resulting from this is the treat- site, building and landscape photographs in ment of urban areas.The rural landscape makes most of the volumes.The editors also make up over three-quarters of England and as it is generous use of old photographs, estate maps,

20 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 THE WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE

technical diagrams and reconstructions. through the Countryside Character Initiative. The use of all-colour plans is a particularly The process of characterising and grading attractive feature of the series. Many familiar historic landscapes undoubtedly is of impor- maps of planned towns and deserted villages tance in development control, but the problem have been reproduced in colour giving them is that all too often the process is given priority freshness and a new life.An exception to this is over content.There is no substitute for inte- the use of Geological Survey solid geology grated academic analysis for understanding maps, which have had to be over-reduced, historic landscapes and ultimately such evalua- giving rise to ugly black smudges in areas of tions must form the basis of long-term conser- geological complexity. vation policies.To use Hoskins’s phrase, the Most of the themes explored are familiar English landscape is a ‘palimpsest’, that is a ones, each region playing to its own strengths. document on which each generation has erased Hoskins would have been surprised at the a little and added a little.These books clearly extensive coverage of the prehistoric landscapes, show that it is not a series of single footprints, it both surviving and erased. He would have been is a delicate and complicated matrix incorporat- equally surprised by the treatment of the period ing the physical evidence of cultural activity from the Romans to the Normans, which is over the centuries. given considerable coverage in The West The English Landscape series contains much Midlands, but only touched upon in The North of interest and value to the specialist but the East.This remains the most interesting and books are not definitive. Despite this they enigmatic of eras when the framework of the provide a sound basis for taking English land- medieval and modern landscape developed. scape research forward into the 21st century. If Della Hooke uses place-names and territorial properly promoted they will also introduce the boundaries to track the expansion of agricul- non-specialist to the joys of landscape history. ture and settlement in The West Midlands while The illustrations themselves demonstrate what a Williamson relies upon soils and settlement for beautiful and richly varied landscape survives in the same job in East Anglia.A combination of England today, what a wealth of historic build- the two approaches should yield impressive ings and monuments there are, and how vulner- results. able these are to the global economic Happily little space is given to the account- juggernaut.The publication of the series comes ancy approach of landscape evaluation, which at an important time, coinciding as it does with has become a buzz phrase in recent years ratification of the European Landscape Convention. It should remind policy-makers that landscape is much more than nature conservation, it is a unique cultural legacy, to be handled with great care.The texts are refresh- ingly jargon-free and will inform the lay reader of the ideas, approaches and concerns of the landscape historian today.The major drawback to the widespread dissemination of the series is the cost: £35 each is a reasonable price for such beautiful volumes but it will deter the casual reader from acquiring even one book in the series. It is to be hoped that the series will soon appear in paperback, a move that would imme- diately broaden its accessibility. Building on Hoskins’s foundations the England’s Landscape series is a potentially powerful and timely affir- mation of the irreplaceable cultural composi- tion of the English landscape.

* The eight volumes that comprise England’s Land- scape are published by Collins in association with English Heritage. For full details, see Conservation

© English Heritage Bulletin 53, 43–4

The eight regional studies that make up England’s Land- scape explain how it came to be the way it is, and why it helps us experience that most neglected of emotions – a sense of place. Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 21 RURAL LANDSCAPES

Mapping the landscape scale. HLC uses existing maps, aerial photo- graphs and other sources to explain the stages Dave Went that have led to the present appearance of the Characterisation Team,English Heritage landscape, and describe why one area differs Pete Horne from another. It is comprehensive in outlook. Head of Aerial Survey and Investigation Every part of the landscape is considered and Historic Landscape Characterisation (HLC) and mapped, irrespective of whether it has remained the National Mapping Programme (NMP) are much the same for centuries on end, or complementary programmes. Each has its own changed beyond all recognition in recent years. aims, timetable and uses, but they can be used Static or dynamic, landscape is a material together to support strategic planning and record of choices made by people in the past other research. and must be studied in its entirety.The gener- alised picture provided by HLC is mainly Characterisation concerned with visible features at a broad land- scape scale – field boundaries, patterns of Over the last decade ‘characterisation’ has woodland and rural settlement, commons, park- become a many splendoured thing; the tech- land – all elements which appear on modern niques developed for use in rural areas have and historic editions of the Ordnance Survey been adapted to urban and metropolitan maps and can be interpreted with reference to contexts, and even individual sites.The projects a range of local historical sources, as well as help us convey our understanding of the non-specialist vertical aerial photography. historic environment in better ways and have delivered real benefits in many areas such as The National Mapping Programme informing Local Development Frameworks and Regional Spatial Strategies (see Conservation The NMP is a linked series of projects that Bulletin 47,Winter 2004–5). aims to enhance our understanding of the At the heart of all this work, the original historic environment, and like HLC, has devel- programme of HLC has continued steadily to oped and broadened in scope over many years grow.Working with partners in local authori- (see Conservation Bulletin 39, 2000).The ties, National Parks and Areas of Outstanding approach is more detailed than that of HLC. Natural Beauty, we have now covered some- NMP uses the careful analysis of tens of thou- thing like 80 per cent of England at the county sands of historic and specialist photographs to

Characterisation at a local level undertaken by Atkins Heritage to inform plans for future changes at the Scampton RAF base in Lincolnshire – the former home of the ‘Dambusters’ and a key part of the UK’s Cold

© Atkins Heritage War defence strategy.

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tion with detailed interpretation of 5,000 aerial photographs to produce mapped layers of archaeological information.The methodology proved dramatically effective; in the 400 sq kms covered by the Winkleigh NMP transects, 1,678 individual sites were recorded. Of these 80 per cent were previously unrecorded and they included 149 new prehistoric or Roman enclo- sures and 18 possible new Bronze Age barrows – a very significant addition to our knowledge of the pre-medieval landscape. Results were not uniform across the area and a significant relationship between density of sites and some of the HLC landscape types was identified. Medieval-derived fields cover much of the landscape and although NMP discovered sites across the whole range of types the greatest density was in the areas classified as Barton Newton St Cyres, Devon: combining the evidence of maps Fields.The correlation between HLC and and aerial photography. Historic Landscape Character NMP opens up new avenues for targeted areas: blue = Barton Field, grey-green = medieval enclo- research, such as the question of whether this is sure based on strip fields. National Mapping Programme a genuine reflection of more intense pre- site distribution: red = prehistoric and Roman sites, green medieval land-use on the better soils, or solely = medieval or later sites. because the underlying soils and current land- Source: Historic Environment Service, Cornwall County Council use benefit the identification of archaeological sites; vital points for well-informed resource management.The NMP results suggest that a identify, map and record archaeological sites and project covering the whole area would increase landscapes, the vast majority of which do not the total number of recorded sites on the appear on any Ordnance Survey mapping. 34 Devon Historic Environment Record by Some per cent of the country has benefited between 40 and 50 per cent Clearly, to assess from an NMP project and the aim is to 40 2010 the full potential of the archaeological resource complete per cent by . More than half for a specific area, NMP methodology can of the sites mapped by NMP have not been provide a very effective first stage to the neces- recorded before and so the impact on our sary work.The results also suggest that HLC understanding of the development of the land- can be used to guide where NMP or other scape is often dramatic and greatly enhances techniques will most valuably be employed and both the quality and quantity of data made also provide a framework for the analysis of available through the National Monuments these records. Record and Local Authority Historic Environ- HLC and NMP are not stand-alone ment Records. resources, but an integrated part of the historic environment record.They are both spatially NMP and HLC: a case study in North defined and so can be integrated easily with Devon other similarly constructed datasets such as the A recent project in North Devon has started to National Monuments Record and the suite of look at how the HLC and NMP can be used local authority Historic Environment Records. together as a predictive tool to aid the manage- NMP ensures that we have an up-to-date view ment of the heritage landscapes of a rural area of the detail of the archaeological resource, in the light of the potential development of a while the ‘high-level’ view of the landscape in biomass energy power station at Winkleigh.The HLC provides an historically informed land- project was undertaken by the Historic Envi- scape context for the distribution and survival ronment Service of Cornwall County Council, of archaeological sites and monuments from all with previous experience of both HLC and periods. NMP,and was designed to look at a representa- tive 10 per cent of the landscape using transects that encompassed a wide variety of landscape types that had already been classified by HLC. The project team used evidence gleaned from existing NMR and HER records in conjunc-

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Understanding the rural landscape and multidisciplinary approach to the study of through archaeological survey landscape. In most cases, English Heritage’s integrated Peter Topping fieldwork has been undertaken in partnership Head of Archaeological Survey and Investigation, with key stakeholders such as the National English Heritage Parks,AONBs, Heritage Coasts, MoD Estates, The countryside is an important resource. It English Nature, the Environment Agency and not only feeds us and provides an environment local authorities.The resulting multidisciplinary for exploration, enjoyment and education, but research has fulfilled joint agreements and been locked into its hedgerows and walls, field used effectively to underpin management and patterns, old buildings and earthworks, lies the interpretation. history of where we have come from. If we The following provides a flavour of the range look carefully, we can discover the ebb and flow of fieldwork undertaken by AS&I.Among of settlements – the remains of prehistoric and AONBs, fieldwork recently focused upon the medieval farms lying beyond the limits of Malvern Hills, studied in conjunction with modern ploughing, testimony to warmer colleagues from the county archaeological serv- climates and perhaps pressure on land. From ices.The published results emphasised the role the geological evidence of retreating glaciers, of these iconic hills as border territory and a we know climate change is not new, nor is place of spiritual significance, but also addressed resource depletion as witnessed by the decline key conservation concerns. Fieldwork in the of the UK’s coal and iron industries. Such Quantock Hills AONB has systematically stud- episodes have all left their marks upon the ied the archaeology and historic buildings of historic environment. the designated area, recording many new English Heritage’s Archaeological Survey and discoveries and complementing surveys of the Investigation Team (AS&I) have a long-standing natural environment; here, the historic environ- commitment to provide definitive analytical ment was also promoted through guided walks, fieldwork in rural and protected landscapes (see lectures and new interpretation boards at map, p 34).The specialism of landscape archae- Scheduled Monuments. ology is non-invasive, rapid and comparatively During 2006 two new multidisciplinary inexpensive; it seeks to develop an understand- projects began. First, English Heritage, in part- ing of historic landscapes through detailed nership with the Mendip Hills AONB and observation and research. Our work draws in others, embarked upon a three-year study of colleagues from Architectural Investigation, this historic environment.As landscape-based Aerial Survey and others, to create a holistic research, it will provide context to the

Holwell Castle, Parracombe, Exmoor.The medieval strip lynchets and the village layout focus upon the earthworks of the motte-and-bailey castle, which were recorded as part

© English Heritage.NMR of the Exmoor project.

24 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 THE WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE

Occasionally, emergency fieldwork is required. In 2003 on Fylingdales Moor in the North Yorks Moors National Park, a heathland wildfire exposed a fragile multi-period land- scape; archaeological fieldwork and aerial survey was used to inform subsequent remedial works and conservation strategies undertaken by the Park, English Nature and others. Visitor presentation is often interlinked with management concerns, as can be seen with the

Yvonne Luke © Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority Dales National Park Yorkshire © Luke Yvonne hillfort trails laid out in the Northumberland National Park, which made good use of English Heritage fieldwork and anticipated the Coun- tryside and Rights of Way Act 2000. Similarly, in partnership with various authorities, English Heritage has produced a series of heritage Miles Johnson (upslope), Countryside Archaeological Adviser for the broadsheets designed to encourage people to Yorkshire Dales National Park, receiving training in analytical survey on a explore the Howardian Hills AONB. complex prehistoric settlement at Deepdale. Developing or harnessing local interest in the historic environment is a core facet of English archaeological sites and historic buildings and Heritage’s strategy.At Boltby, in the North address conservation concerns. Secondly, an Yorks Moors National Park,AS&I worked with investigation has begun of the lead-mining residents to produce a Millennium history of landscape in Scordale, within the Warcop Train- their village. Similarly, local volunteers are ing Area and North Pennines AONB. Here, studying the long barrows of the South Dorset English Heritage is working with Defence Ridgeway as part of a project focusing on the Estates and Durham University, the British ancient routeway. Fieldwork continues within Geological Survey and others to explore the the Sussex Downs AONB, engaging with, and interaction between the historic and natural capacity-building within, local archaeological environments and the impacts of flash-floods groups. Survey training has been provided at a and severe erosion upon the archaeology. number of locations and other investigations, National Parks are also a major study area. including excavation, have been undertaken For example, on Exmoor the Park commis- alongside outreach activities.As part of this, a sioned English Heritage to undertake a base- broadsheet has been produced detailing the line survey, which recorded archaeology from landscape development of Arundel. English the prehistoric to the 20th century.The project Heritage also has a strong commitment to publication The Field Archaeology of Exmoor training fellow professionals to help skill the by Hazel Riley and Rob Wilson-North (2001) sector. In the Yorkshire Dales National Park, helped to raise the profile of the historic envi- AS&I is currently training the Park Authority’s ronment in protected landscapes nationally Archaeological Countryside Officer at and led to recent initiatives on Exmoor Langstrothdale. including excavations of ironworking sites, The great value of landscape archaeology is prehistoric enclosures and a survey of historic its ability to provide a rapid holistic understand- farm buildings. ing of the historic environment through multi- In the Lake District research into the disciplinary research, which can be used to Cumbrian gunpowder and Furness iron indus- inform management and interpretation, under- tries, alongside surveys of mining and quarrying pinning best practice.Where preservation is landscapes, have all addressed conservation impossible, as with the alum works eroding issues and increased understanding of how from the North Yorkshire sea cliffs, such investi- industry has physically shaped Lakeland. Simi- gations can record sites that cannot be saved. larly, by responding to sectoral needs,AS&I has Inevitably, the challenges facing this discipline recorded a substantial body of data on Dart- are shared with the heritage sector: a finite moor’s past, improving management strategies resource faced with an increasing call upon its and tackling themes such as extractive indus- time.As the impacts of climate change and tries, rabbit warrening and medieval agriculture. development pressures grow, the big challenge English Heritage has also pursued its own will be to provide enough information to research agenda here through ongoing studies inform the decision-makers from the relatively of the military ranges and peripheral metal small number of professionals working within mines, both for pressing management needs. landscape archaeology.

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 25 RURAL LANDSCAPES

Scheduled Monuments at risk – referred to as the ‘principal vulnerability’. Vince Holyoak The first of the studies – completed in the East Midlands in 2003 – showed that 527 (35 per Senior Rural and Environmental Policy Adviser, cent) of the region’s 1,493 monuments were at English Heritage risk from damage, decay or loss.The main agen- In 1998 English Heritage published the Monu- cies putting monuments at risk were arable ments at Risk study, which showed that on aver- agriculture, development, the recreational use of age one archaeological site had been destroyed the landscape and natural processes. Subsequent every day since 1945.These included Scheduled studies across the remaining regions have iden- Monuments – historic sites designated as being tified similar factors, but also underlined the of national importance – as well as undesig- variability in extent and degree of risk. nated archaeological sites.As the Monuments The data generated by the Scheduled Monu- at Risk study demonstrated, although protected ments at Risk initiative is still undergoing by law from deliberate damage, Scheduled analysis, but will be ground-breaking in several Monuments can be subject to a wide range of ways.This is the first time that information on processes that adversely affect their condition. scheduled monument condition has been These include animal burrowing, scrub and collected in a systematic rather than piecemeal tree growth or general decay, all of which can way, and for this reason it will provide a robust be prevented or at least reduced by regular baseline for monitoring future change. It will maintenance. also help English Heritage’s regional teams to This problem is exacerbated because the target their own resources, and at the same owners of Scheduled Monuments do not have a time allow them to raise awareness amongst legal obligation to maintain them in a positive partner organisations about the issues affecting condition in the way that applies to their near- monuments and the ways in which they may est natural-environment equivalent, Sites of be able unlock resources to help with their Special Scientific Interest. Effective manage- management. ment is therefore largely reliant upon good will As an example, the East Midlands survey and personal interest, although for rural monu- showed that the greatest concentration of high- ments the new Defra agri-environment scheme risk monuments was in the protected landscape may offer more powerful practical incentives. of the Lincolnshire Wolds Area of Outstanding In certain cases English Heritage may be able Natural Beauty, which has allowed the problem to fund a management agreement, but with to be formally addressed in the AONB’s five- resources limited it is important that they year management plan.The results of the are used in the most effective ways possible. Scheduled Monuments at Risk programme Since 2001 English Heritage has been will also feed in to English Heritage’s wider engaged in a rapid assessment of all 19,500 Historic Environment at Risk initiative – a Scheduled Monuments.The project has evalu- commitment to provide the Department for ated the condition, amenity value and setting Culture, Media and Sport with a means of of Scheduled Monuments in each region of measuring how well English Heritage and England, the extent to which they are at risk other government bodies are caring for the and identified the key causes of loss and decay historic environment.

The Scheduled Monuments at Risk initiative will provide a base- line for measuring future change. This Martello tower on the East Coast is facing the combined threats of erosion, engineering works to mitigate the loss of the beach and physical isolation. Future management action will need to take prioritised account

of these different kinds of risk. © English Heritage.NMR 21836/1

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Conservation of Scheduled cultivated and the presence or absence of earth- Monuments in cultivation works or buffer deposits – layers between the plough zone and the archaeological features Fachtna McAvoy beneath.This means that in some circumstances Archaeologist, English Heritage a monument undergoing cultivation will not Vince Holyoak suffer damage, while in others the level of Senior Rural and Environmental Policy Adviser, damage can be significantly lowered by using English Heritage practices such as direct drilling or non-inver- In 2003, concerned by the continuing loss and sion tillage rather than conventional ploughing. degradation of Scheduled Monuments by culti- Recognising the need for a range of vation, English Heritage launched the Ripping responses rather than a ‘one size fits all’ Up History campaign.To the archaeological approach to this problem, English Heritage and community this was not a new story and the Defra jointly commissioned the Conservation aim was instead to raise awareness beyond the of Scheduled Monuments in Cultivation historic-environment sector.The campaign was (COSMIC) project to develop and test a risk well received, generating support from parlia- assessment and mitigation model for archaeo- mentarians and a guarded yet positive response logical sites under arable. from farming organisations, who none the less Between 2003 and 2005 COSMIC used data highlighted the need for better cross-sectoral generated by the earlier Scheduled Monuments dialogue.As a result the government agreed to at Risk pilot project to review a sample of review the protection afforded to such sites monuments under cultivation in the East under its Heritage Protection Review, and Midlands counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, positive recommendations are expected to Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire and Notting- appear in the new Heritage White Paper. hamshire.A total of 77 Scheduled Monuments It would be a mistake, however, to assume and 39 unscheduled monuments was assessed, that all sites under cultivation are being actively covering a range of variables that included destroyed or that the only means of preventing topography, soil type and cultivation regimes. damage is to return all monuments to grassland. Three desk-top risk-assessment models were In reality the story is more complicated.While tested on each of the monuments and the many sites will be undergoing degradation as postulated level of risk was evaluated against a result of the physical movement of tillage the actual damage using a series of trial pits at implements through the soil, soil erosion or each monument.This led to the development efforts by the farmer to prevent compaction, of a fourth model, based on the best attributes the amount of damage will depend on a range of two of the originals, which proved to be of other factors.These include the location of very accurate when compared against the the monument, the soil type, the crop being real risk.

The surviving fragments of these once-extensive prehistoric field systems across the Lambourn Downs, here visible as soil marks, illustrate the extent to which post- war arable agriculture has dramatically altered

the English landscape. © English Heritage.NMR 21035/20

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 27 RURAL LANDSCAPES

Carrying out non-inversion tillage on a simulated archaeo- logical earthwork at Cranfield University’s Silsoe test site. © Oxford Archaeology © Oxford

The project revealed that 42 per cent of the turn be a valuable tool for identifying the evaluated monuments were at serious risk from correct management prescriptions for monu- cultivation, with scheduled sites generally being ments entering Defra’s Environmental Steward- at slightly higher risk (81 per cent at moderate, ship Scheme. However, there are not the high or serious risk) than non-scheduled sites resources to enter all such monuments into the (78 per cent at moderate, high or serious risk). scheme, nor is it likely that all farmers will wish The variables that led to sites being most at to do so. In a follow-on project English Heritage risk were identified, as was the geographical and Defra have therefore commissioned Oxford spread of high-risk sites. For each site the Archaeology and Cranfield University’s Soil project devised a series of management and Science department to undertake a five-year mitigation options that could reduce the risk research programme to identify how active culti- from cultivation and these were tested against vation can be adapted to minimise the impact farmer reactions. upon archaeological sites.The project will One key finding was that the risk to all specifically review and make recommendations archaeological sites was compounded by the about the effectiveness of minimal and shallow lack of awareness amongst farmers of the cultivation techniques and other soil-manage- damage they can do to sites.The majority ment practices in preserving the archaeological assume that the past removal of above-ground resource.The research will examine differing earthworks had robbed monuments of all soils, topography and arable regimes and will also significance and that no important buried develop cost-effective methods for monitoring archaeological deposits still exist. Even for the effectiveness of the recommended options. scheduled sites 49 per cent of farmers said that This will be achieved in part through work in the relevance of the archaeology had never Cranfield’s laboratories and soil bin, but will also been explained to them and 37 per cent did not include field operations carried out on a series of think that their sites were nationally important. specially constructed earthworks and sub-surface The COSMIC project identified a series of archaeological ‘sites’. priority site-types for future management It is hoped that the resulting recommenda- action.These included monuments with surviv- tions will highlight as many opportunities for ing earthworks or vulnerable archaeology (such multiple benefits as possible.As an example, if as burials or mosaics) and monuments under cultivation practices could be designed to root and tuber crops (such as potatoes or sugar reduce soil compaction, this would also reduce beet), which affected 27 per cent of the sched- the need for subsoiling, saving the farmer time uled sites assessed, 8 per cent more than non- and fuel costs and reducing water run-off. scheduled sites. Monuments in fields which are A single action could therefore bring positive particularly vulnerable to soil movement (such outcomes for the historic environment, for as those on moderate or steep slopes), on light farm businesses and for resource protection. soils or subject to root or tuber-crop harvesting However, as the earlier COSMIC project has were also more likely to be in the serious or highlighted, the key to successful outcomes high-risk categories. for archaeological sites under cultivation is The successful completion of the pilot an effective working relationship with the project will help English Heritage and Defra to farming sector – which will thus remain a determine the most appropriate and cost- priority for English Heritage and Defra over effective approach to reducing risk on a the coming years. monument-by-monument basis.This will in

28 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 MANAGING CHANGETHE IN WEIGHT THE COUNTRYSIDE OF EVIDENCE Managing Change in the Countryside

Maintaining the character of England’s rural landscapes is going to depend on shared vision, creative solutions and strong partnerships.

Regional Development Agencies and much to rural areas as non-rural areas.This is rural heritage appropriate – even within the South-East, often considered suburban and congested, where 80 Belinda Knight per cent of the land mass, a third of the business Head of Rural Heritage and Tourism, South-East base and a quarter of the population are rural. England Development Agency In summary, the act’s five purposes comprise: Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) – • furthering economic development and what use are they for rural heritage? Sometimes regeneration they are perceived as working with urban areas, • promoting business efficiency, investment business, and large-scale regeneration projects, and competition with little concern for rural heritage.That is • promoting employment not necessarily true – RDAs’ framework means • enhancing skills for employment that, where competing resource priorities allow, • contributing to sustainable development they contribute a useful role as influencers and where applicable. deliverers. From this statutory foundation, each RDA and its regional partners produce a Regional What can RDAs do? The structural Economic Strategy (RES), revised at intervals. framework These reflect the different priorities of very diverse regions.An RDA’s own contribution to RDAs are bounded by a strategic framework the achievement of the region-wide RES is set within which all their activities must be set. out in its Corporate or Business plans, while Their purposes are formulated in the Regional 1998 government-set Public Service Agreement Development Agencies Act , which specifi- (PSA) targets measure achievement. cally instructs that the five purposes apply as Funding is, of course, key. RDAs receive their money from government, mostly as a ‘single pot’ for them to determine their own priorities within the statutory rules and regionally agreed RES priorities.This welcome freedom ensures that diverse regional needs can be addressed in different ways. It is, however, an open secret that RDAs receive vastly different allocations, both in absolute and in per-head-of-population terms.These two factors – regional diversity, and varied funding – result in the variety of RDA approaches to rural heritage. The North-West RDA activities are of two broad types – Development Agency influencing, and delivery.Working with regional and One North East are partners as a catalyst is a highly effective contri- two of the key players bution to the regional economy, even when behind Hadrian’s Wall funding is limited.These two approaches are Heritage Ltd, a partner- examined below. ship company set up to promote the economic, RDAs as influencer social and cultural regeneration of the Most RDAs participate in their region’s

World Heritage Site. © English Heritage Photo Library Historic Environment Forum, where they

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RDAs as delivery bodies Yonsea Farm, near Ashford, Kent.The RDA rural heritage delivery projects encompass Traditional Buildings a huge range of project type, not just for the 2006 Preservation Trust and built heritage.The transfer in October of Centre for Rare Breeds existing England Rural Development have combined forces Photograph SEEDA supplied by Programme (ERDP) projects, and the aspects of to give new life to this the delivery of the new scheme that will important Georgian replace it, to RDAs will increase available deliv- farmstead, with the aid ery funding, some of which can be directed of funding from the towards heritage projects.The amount is South-East England unknown at the time of writing, but the Development Agency. demand is expected to outstrip resources. Work to promote landscape heritage includes countryside education grants for work with schools – for example SEEDA gave money for Hampshire Country Learning to research school farm-visit issues.Another landscape heritage project worked with the region’s protected landscapes on climate change, involv- ing key partners in the UK Climate Impacts Programme, the South-East Climate Change represent economic development in its widest Partnership, and others. sense. RDAs also have relationships with their Rural local distinctiveness and horticultural Protected Landscapes. In the South-East, for heritage projects can be supported through local example, 40 per cent (source: Office of food group initiatives. Some RDAs have National Statistics) of the land has a Protected supported a single region-wide food group, with Landscape designation, and we are fortunate to work on training, marketing and product devel- have a close relationship with the nine AONBs opment for producers of quality local foods. and one National Park that fall principally Rural housing heritage is discussed elsewhere within the region (the South Downs is in this bulletin (see Trow, pp 15–16), but an proposed, designated but not yet confirmed, as example of RDAs’ delivery role is the North- another National Park).These are key guardians West Development Agency’s housing-market- of the rural landscape heritage.Another key renewal work with heritage and craft skills. landscape heritage partner is Natural England. Turning to the built heritage, and looking Sustainable tourism, both for the built and first at the small scale, some RDAs support landscape heritage, is often a major economic schemes which use redundant buildings, for activity for rural areas.Tourism organisations example the SEEDA-funded project at Yonsea have changed significantly in recent years, and Farm, Kent, to convert an 18th-century Listed in some areas former tourist boards have been granary into office accommodation for rural- absorbed into RDAs. Irrespective of organisa- based organisations. tional structure, RDAs work closely with At the special and spectacular end of the tourism functions, as well as bodies such as the scale,Yorkshire Forward contributed £1.5 National Trust, English Heritage and Historic million towards the first phase of restoration at Houses Association, and some practical delivery the Grade I-Listed gardens and parkland at examples are discussed below. Wentworth Castle and Stainborough Park near A less obvious, but important, relationship is Barnsley, which featured on BBC’s Restoration with the Climate Change Partnerships. Climate programme.This support complemented that change is the single most important factor of Heritage Lottery Fund, English Heritage, the affecting the future of rural heritage. For exam- Learning and Skills Council, and others. New ple, the South-East England Development facilities for visitors and the local community Agency’s (SEEDA) rural team participates in the will be created, including educational services. Tourism Sub-group which aims to ensure that The first phase should be complete by the end both public and private sectors of the visitor of 2007. economy consider climate change in their plan- Another example is the joint project by One ning and operations, to ‘climate proof’ their North East and the North-West Development business and policy decision-making.This sub- Agency at Hadrian’s Wall.They have created a group also has cross-regional links with its new organisation, Hadrian’s Wall Heritage South-West counterpart. Limited, to manage, maintain and preserve this

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World Heritage Site.This partnership aims to created through peat extraction in the medieval realise economic, social and cultural regenera- period, through the stone-axe factories of the tion of the site and its surrounding communi- Lake District to the valleys of the Yorkshire ties, through sustainable tourism, management Dales, with their thousands of kilometres of and conservation activities. drystone walls enclosing botanically rich mead- ows and pastures, punctuated by stone field- Conclusion barns and overlying the remains of earlier phases of land use. From protected landscapes to local food, and National Parks cover 10,506 sq km, about 8 from redundant building grants to honeypot per cent of the landscape of England and tourist sites, rural heritage has many facets. administratively form a unique part of the local RDAs’ statutory and regionally agreed priorities government system (see map p 33). National often coincide with rural heritage aims.There Park Authorities (NPAs) have many of the are inevitable constraints of competing priori- powers of local authorities but their members ties for RDA staff time and funding, but within are appointed: either by constituent local these parameters RDAs can be enthusiastic authorities or the Secretary of State.The NPAs supporters and partners for rural heritage. are charged with the difficult task of conserving Working both as influencers and delivery and enhancing the natural beauty, wildlife and bodies, RDAs collaborate with partners to cultural heritage of their areas while promoting enhance the economic and social opportunities opportunities for understanding and enjoyment for rural heritage. of the special qualities of those areas. Unlike many national parks elsewhere in the world the A sort of national property – UK National Parks are not wilderness areas. not ours but ours to enjoy Approximately 207,000 people live within the nine English parks, and most land within them David Butterworth is privately owned although the amount varies Chief Executive,Yorkshire Dales National Park from 96 per cent in the Yorkshire Dales to Authority 52.5 per cent in the New Forest. Many of the most dramatic cultural landscapes The 1945 Dower report, which set the scene in England can be seen in our National Parks. for the National Park legislation of 1949, recog- These landscapes, of national and international nised that ‘the landscape was the joint product importance, range from the Broads, largely of nature and human use of many generations; © R White,YDNPA © R

Riddings Farm, Reeth, Swaledale.The Yorkshire Dales is still a working agricultural landscape. Hay meadows and pastures, bounded by drystone walls and punctuated by field barns, are evidence for the pastoral farming of the last five centuries. They overlie the earthwork remains of medieval arable fields and prehistoric and Romano-British settlements. Of the 1,442 traditional farm buildings in Swaledale and Arkengarthdale, 1,044 are field barns.

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 31 RURAL LANDSCAPES © English Heritage

The Hound Tor Premier Archaeological Landscape contains one of the largest deserted medieval settlements on Dartmoor as well as evidence for prehistoric farming.The ideal management requires the maintenance of a very short (50–100mm) grass sward. Bracken and gorse are encroaching: the bracken needs to be removed and the spread of gorse controlled. it cannot be preserved in anything like its in the late 1940s after five years of wartime present aspect unless that human use is kept activity and agricultural development, or a going’. romanticised version of the landscape of the The 1949 Act, and the reports which agricultural depression of the 1930s – but preceded it, failed to recognise the pressures living, working landscapes that are in a that would arise in the following half-century. constant state of change. These included the increase in private-car The NPAs’ principal funding comes from ownership, and increased mechanisation and central government (£43 million in 2006/7) intensification of agriculture, with its parallel but this is small in comparison with the sums reductions in the numbers employed in work- available to other bodies dealing with the coun- ing the land and in the economic viability and tryside, particularly Natural England and its consequent decline of rural services.These predecessors, the Rural Development Service trends continue today and are accentuated by and English Nature.This has meant that the other factors such as the need for more sustain- NPAs have become primarily enabling organi- able energy supplies; variations in temperature sations, dealing with change through persuasion and rainfall patterns and their effects on agri- and advice, rather than directly intervening in culture, biodiversity and the sustainability of the landscape. Partnership working is enshrined rock and soil surfaces; enhanced animal-welfare within the management plans produced by each standards which reduce the suitability of tradi- NPA: management plans for the National Park tional farm buildings for animal husbandry; and rather than just the Authority. Since 1997 all a general decline in agricultural viability.While NPAs have employed small teams of specialists agriculture remains the major land use in to carry out the tasks of conservation and inter- National Parks, leisure pursuits such as grouse pretation.These interdisciplinary teams are one shooting are increasingly impacting on land- of their strengths.Another is an ability to utilise scape management in some, and tourism is now the love people have for National Park land- the major economic sector in all. Dealing with scapes by recruiting volunteers.Volunteer activi- these issues while having regard for the social ties range from practical tasks such as footpath and economic well-being of local communities maintenance to monitoring the condition of and trying to maintain the special qualities of listed buildings. their areas is the challenge facing the National The NPAs seek to be exemplars of, and Park Authorities.The parks are not museums, laboratories for, good landscape management. preserving the landscape as it was – either For example, the pilot Integrated Rural

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Development project in the Peak District led to AONBs: managing landscapes of Farm Conservation Schemes being established complex value in many National Parks.These pioneered the creation of Whole Farm Plans, informed by Mike Taylor assessment (or survey) of historical and botani- Chief Executive, National Association of Areas of cal assets – something now rolled out nation- Outstanding Natural Beauty wide with Higher Level Environmental Around 15 per cent of England’s land area lies Stewardship (see Hunns this issue, pp 35–7). within 36 Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty Another example, the Barns and Walls Conser- (AONBs), with comparable areas in Wales and vation Scheme in the Yorkshire Dales, required Northern Ireland.These designated areas are the designation of the largest Conservation Area among the most beautiful landscapes in in the country and incorporated a ‘use and England, but none are wilderness. Instead they condition’ survey so that particularly important are a record of human activity over many barns could be targeted for repair.This restora- millennia. In some AONBs, such as West tion work is mainly carried out by local Penwith, Cornwall, or the North Wessex contractors, and thus indirectly supports the Downs, the prehistoric origins of the landscape wider local community (see Tunnicliffe this are still a significant element of landscape char- issue, pp 37–8). acter. In others, medieval landscapes survive The National Parks have an unparalleled intact, such as Braunton Great Field in North archaeological resource, including 22 per cent Devon, and many more AONBs include exten- of England’s Scheduled Monuments.The slight sive enclosure landscapes or the results of 17th remains of many archaeological landscapes are and 18th-century landscape design, the Howar- best seen in areas of close-cropped vegetation. dian Hills being a prime example. Elsewhere The removal of grazing pressure due to the the remains of industrial activity and abandon- culling of livestock as a result of the foot-and- ment are a dominant theme, as in Cornwall and mouth outbreak of 2001, accentuated by stock the North Pennines. Modern activity has influ- reductions negotiated for biodiversity reasons, enced the landscapes of all AONBs to a greater had a dramatic impact on the visibility of some or lesser degree, with an unusual example landscapes while changes in agri-environment provided by parts of Cannock Chase, as a result support mean that proposals for ‘rewilding’ have of its role in two world wars, as a prisoner of emerged.These demand careful scrutiny to war camp, displaced persons settlement and ensure that pressures for biodiversity do not army training ground! harm the evidence of thousands of years of The history of AONB landscapes is, there- cultural activity.To address this, the Moorland fore, a reflection of the historical and cultural Futures project in Dartmoor brought together changes that have taken place in the British statutory agencies and hill-farmers to develop a Isles since the start of human history.While this vision of the moor in 2030.This process identi- fied 14 Premier Archaeological Landscapes where the management of archaeology should take precedence over nature conservation inter- ests and may offer a template for other areas. Details of this and other innovative approaches adopted by the National Parks, many of which have attracted external funding, particularly from lottery and European sources, are detailed in A Landscape Legacy (available at www.english-heritage.org.uk/finestlandscapes), a book designed to inspire best practice in historic environment management.

England’s 9 National Parks and 36 AONBs are designed to conserve the country’s finest natural and cultural landscapes.The map also shows the distribution of archaeological survey projects carried out by English Heritage in these designated landscapes (see pp 24–5). © Phil Sinton, English Heritage

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The Quantock Hills AONB: a view of East Quantoxhead, Somerset © Hazel Riley,© Hazel English Heritage

was not – and still is not – the primary purpose natural beauty of the AONB when carrying out of a designation based on aesthetic criteria, it their duties. can be no accident that heritage and cultural The introduction of these new arrangements considerations feature highly in the aesthetic has led to greater recognition of the potential of judgements required for designation. AONBs to contribute to a wide range of public AONBs are complex landscapes that inte- interests.The preparation of management plans, grate a wide range of attributes, both physical through broadly based partnerships of local, and spiritual. In addition to their legacy of regional and national bodies, provides an ideal important geological, wildlife and historic sites mechanism for integrating the work of all those and features, all AONBs have a strong ‘sense of with an interest in the long-term future of place’ that evokes powerful emotions in people these precious landscapes and the communities who live in them and visit them.This ‘sense of that live in, work in and enjoy them.The first place’ owes much to the AONBs’ cultural round of management plans, produced between heritage, both through the physical remains of 2000 and 2004, all contain policies and their historic landscapes and settlements or a programmes that will protect and enhance the rich artistic heritage, such as Wordsworth in the historic environment in AONBs.The inevitably Wye Valley or A E Houseman in the Shropshire wide variation in the level of detail and Hills. commitment to deliver the action needed to Following the 1949 Wildlife and Countryside achieve these objectives reflects both financial Act, government’s main focus for almost the constraints and the recent origin of the newer next 50 years was on designation.Attempts to partnerships. stimulate more commitment from government Among the most positive measures in the and local authorities to the positive role the CROW Act was the requirement for all public AONBs could play in delivering recreational, bodies to consider the interests of AONBs wildlife, heritage and educational policies met when developing their own policies.This has with limited success. In the 1990s, however, led to the formalisation of the developing rela- there was a noticeable change in the attitude tionships between AONBs and a range of of a wide range of organisations, stimulated by public bodies, including heritage agencies. In pressure from the Countryside Commission December 2004, the Chairman of the National and by the increasing political profile of the Association for AONBs signed a joint accord dramatic changes in landscape quality wrought with the Chief Executives of English Heritage by post-war land-management policies. and CADW,which committed all three organi- In 2000 the Countryside and Rights of Way sations to closer working, building on the good (CROW) Act for England and Wales confirmed work that had already been achieved with the that National Parks and AONB landscapes have first generation of management plans.This the same status. In addition, Part IV of the Act closer co-operation between AONB teams and introduced some important provisions that colleagues working in the heritage agencies is included: exemplified by Outstanding Beauty: Outstanding • the creation of conservation boards for Heritage (available at www.english- selected AONBs by means of an order by the heritage.org.uk/finestlandscapes), which high- Secretary of State lights the range of joint initiatives already • requiring the preparation and publication of a bearing fruit across England and Wales. Management Plan for every AONB, and its AONB management plans have to be periodic review, and reviewed every five years, with most coming • placing a duty on public bodies to have regard up for review over the next three years.This to the need to conserve and enhance the provides an excellent opportunity for even

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better integration of the historic and cultural Recreation division of the Countryside Agency. objectives for AONB management with the As the government’s statutory adviser on the landscape, wildlife and geology as well as the natural environment, Natural England is social and economic interests of the local responsible for conserving and enhancing the communities. It will also be an opportunity to value and beauty of England’s natural environ- bring together a range of public organisations ment and promoting access, recreation and to help deliver the government’s policies to public well-being for the benefit of today’s and make access and understanding of our rural future generations. heritage available to a wider audience through A key ‘purpose’ of Natural England is that of the Defra Diversity Action Plan due out in ‘conserving and enhancing the landscape’, 2007. By working closely together in a true which ‘includes, but goes wider than, conserv- partnership, the delivery of the AONB manage- ing the natural beauty of the landscape. It could ment plans will provide an exemplar mecha- for example cover conserving field boundaries nism for all those with an interest in the future (such as hedgerows and drystone walls), and of our most treasured landscapes to reach those monuments, buildings and sub-surface archaeo- sections of the population who currently do logical features which contribute to the land- not feel that the countryside is for them.This is scape’ (NERC Act 2006; Explanatory Notes to an important step towards securing the broadly the NERC Act, 2006, Para 63).As such, Natural based and active public support essential if England can conserve and enhance the English AONBs – and their heritage – are to gain the landscape for aesthetic, cultural and historic long-term political support required to ensure purposes as well as those carried out for habitat future generations enjoy the same pleasure, protection purposes. stimulation and fun as today’s users. Natural England’s strategic objectives, published in 2006, also emphasise the delivery of integrated environmental objectives and Stewardship of the past: farming the outcomes by making specific reference to the rural historic environment conserving and enhancing of landscape, cultural heritage and other features of the built and Victoria Hunns natural environment. Senior Historic Environment Specialist, Natural An important mechanism for this is through England the administration and delivery of Defra’s agri- The role of Natural England environment schemes, which form part of the wider England Rural Development Programme On 2 October 2006, Natural England, a new (ERDP).These schemes, which reward land body charged with the conservation of the managers for undertaking good environmental natural environment, was created. Natural practice on their farm holdings, are one of the England brings together three organisations: principal sources of funding for the rural Defra’s Rural Development Service, English historic environment. In Heritage Counts 2005 Nature and the Landscape,Access and Defra reported that, over a five-year period, © Ruth Garner, Natural England

Known from parish records to have been blown down in 1667–78 and rebuilt in 1702, this building was found to be a typical Sussex timber- framed barn underneath the external accretions. Using only the building’s archaeological evidence, the HLS grant-aided works reinstated the thatched roof and wattle-and-daub infill.The restoration won a Sussex Heritage Award and the barn is now used to shelter participants attending wild-flower seed-harvesting demonstrations on the estate.

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Piercebridge Roman fort and a modern organic farm in the Tees Valley.This 112-ha organic © Blaise Vyner © Blaise holding has an HLS agreement that includes measures to remove the vicus (the civilian settlement outside the fort) from cultivation, clear scrub to prevent root damage and repair an eroded section of the ramparts.

more than £90 million had been spent on clearly recognise the potential for the scheme ‘historic environment features’.This included delivering benefits to the rural historic environ- restoring some 7 million metres of traditional ment and the wider cultural landscape: 96 400 boundaries, more than , ha of parklands, • wildlife conservation 2 800 in excess of , historic farm buildings and • protection of the historic environment 132 200 the protection of , ha of archaeological • maintenance and enhancement of landscape features, through measures such as scrub quality and character control. • promotion of public access and understanding • natural resource protection. Environmental Stewardship In addition it has two secondary objectives: 2005 In March a new agri-environment • flood management scheme,‘Environmental Stewardship’ (ES, • genetic conservation. http://www.defra.gov.uk/erdp/schemes/es/def ault.htm), was launched in England, replacing Applicants to both the ELS and HLS choose the ‘classic’ agri-environment schemes – Coun- ‘options’, which have clearly defined ‘prescrip- tryside Stewardship (CSS) and the Environ- tions’ identifying the work or actions that a mentally Sensitive Areas (ESA).This marked a land manager needs to take.These are linked significant shift in emphasis. Instead of offering to ‘indicators of success’ that are specific, grants only as incentives to farmers to change measurable outcomes. farming practices to safeguard and manage The new scheme contains a much broader environmental features, the new scheme suite of options specifically designed to protect rewards farmers for undertaking good environ- the historic environment.These include mental practices. It operates on two levels – a protecting archaeological sites in grassland, ‘broad and shallow’ entry-level scheme (ELS) taking archaeological sites out of cultivation or available to all farmers, achieving a basic level of restricting cultivation depth and maintaining environmental management; and a competitive, weatherproof traditional farm buildings. Capital higher-level scheme (HLS), for those delivering items available in HLS also enable the restora- more demanding environmental enhancements. tion of designed landscapes and non-domestic HLS is ‘targeted’ at key features and areas that historic buildings and structures. Importantly, have been identified as priorities through many of the options are designed to benefit national, regional and local consultation with more than one environmental interest. For stakeholders – including historic-environment example, options for the maintenance or partners. restoration of hedgerows or boundary walls will ES is designed to provide an integrated, help protect and conserve the historic environ- ‘multiple-benefit’ approach to land manage- ment, landscape character and biodiversity. ment and has five primary objectives that

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Raising awareness among land managers Weatherproof Traditional Farm Buildings’ option, newly available in June 2006, has already The mechanisms in place for delivering the proved to be a success with 276 agreements scheme increase awareness and understanding of now including one or more buildings and a the historic environment within the farming total ground-floor area of more than 136,500 community. For the first time, land managers square metres being maintained. are made aware of known historic environment sites on their holding and are required, through The future scheme conditions, to protect these sites throughout the life of the agreement regardless Many historic sites are already benefiting from of whether they choose an option to manage the ‘classic’ agri-environment schemes but many that feature.The information provided includes more lie on holdings within schemes, without regionally as well as nationally important and being actively managed.This demonstrates the designated historic features. potential for better, more joined-up, heritage The more competitive HLS requires appli- management if these agreements come into cants to provide an audit of all environmental Environmental Stewardship. In 2005, more than features on their holding – including historic 40 per cent of all Registered Parks and environment features such as archaeological Gardens, 37 per cent of Scheduled Monuments, monuments, non-domestic historic buildings 34 per cent of all World Heritage Sites, and 28 and designed landscapes – in a ‘Farm Environ- per cent of Registered Battlefields fell wholly ment Plan’ (FEP).The FEP holds data on every or partially within existing agreement land.The land parcel on the holding, including informa- importance of agri-environment schemes to the tion on land use, the condition of identified ongoing protection of the rural historic envi- features and recommendations for their ronment cannot be overstated – a fact which is management. Local authority historic environ- expected to be recognised in the forthcoming ment professionals are formally consulted as Heritage White Paper. part of the FEP process and play a critical part in providing information and advice on manag- ing relevant aspects of the historic environment on a holding. Natural England also has a team Building value in the landscape of in-house Regional Historic Environment Advisers who help ensure that agreements offer Sarah Tunnicliffe the greatest value for money for all environ- Rural and Environmental Policy Adviser, English mental interests and overcome potential Heritage conflicts in any proposed management. Traditional farm buildings are a major contribu- Collecting this information is useful for tor to the distinctive local character of rural several reasons – it enables both applicants and landscapes and can be an important economic Natural England advisers to monitor the condi- asset for farm businesses. Maintenance and repair tion of features and to ensure that any options of these historic buildings not only sustains the chosen do not damage historic features. It also appearance of landscapes, but can also deliver leads to the discovery of new features, which is important benefits to local economies. proving particularly important in relation to Over the last two years English Heritage and unlisted historic buildings, and allows correc- Defra, in partnership with the Lake District and tion of errors in HER data. Yorkshire Dales National Park Authorities, have Successes commissioned research to evaluate the social, economic and public benefits of publicly The government’s objective is to get 60 per funded repairs to traditional farm buildings in cent of all agricultural land into the entry-level both National Parks. scheme by the end of 2007, and so far uptake The Lake District project focused on the has been good with. More than one year from period 1998 to 2004, during which time Defra’s the launch of ES, we are starting to see historic- grant-aid to owners of traditional farm build- environment benefits. By the 1 February ings through the Environmentally Sensitive 2007, a total of 3,316 ELS and HLS agreements Area (ESA) Scheme was more than £6.2 included ‘historic environment’ options, cover- million.The project sought to rigorously define ing an area of more than 56,450 ha and com- the additional benefits delivered by this repair mitting over £11.5 million to HLS work over programme alongside the important heritage 10 years.The most popular option is currently conservation dividends that were the primary for managing ‘Archaeological Features on objective of the work.These additional benefits Grassland’; however the ‘Maintenance of included the creation of employment, inputs to

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Field barn at Healaugh, Swaledale, during repairs under an Environmentally Sensitive Area © Robert White,YDNPA © Robert Conservation Plan.

the local economy, gains to farm businesses and the Lake District, this is because several benefi- landscape enhancement from the perspective of ciary market towns lie outside the National residents and visitors, as well as the develop- Park boundary.When the analysis was extended ment of an important skill base in traditional- to the wider local area (which encompasses a building repair techniques. 5-mile buffer zone containing a number of The study demonstrated that between 25 and market towns) the results are substantial – the 30 full-time equivalent jobs had been created in number of full-time equivalent jobs created by the local economy, at least half of which were the works rises to 74 and between £7.08 and generated through direct employment on tradi- £9.12 m in investment into the wider economy tional farm building projects.Allowing for is stimulated specifically by work to this unique direct, indirect and induced effects, the scheme built heritage. resulted in a total injection of £8.5 million into Copies of the full socio-economic reports are the local economy; every £1 of public expendi- available at www.helm.org.uk ture on farm-building repair under the scheme was calculated to result in a total output within the ESA of £2.49. Beating the Bounds: communities Following the Lake District research, work and landscape began in 2006 on a project to examine the Jane Golding socio-economic benefits of repairs to historic Outreach Officer, National Monuments Record, farm buildings and boundary walls in the York- English Heritage shire Dales National Park between 1998 and 2004.The research applied the same methodol- By working with communities, the National ogy as the Lake District study but considered a Monuments Record (NMR) aims to help variety of funding programmes, including the people use archive sources to learn from and ESA, and the National Park Authority’s own enjoy the historic environment. Recent projects Farm Conservation Scheme and Barns and in Swindon and Lancaster have enabled local Walls Conservation Scheme. Once again, the residents to explore the history and develop- study demonstrated the delivery of important ment of their communities in response to urban collateral benefits alongside core conservation growth from the late-Victorian period onwards. objectives. During the study period, public Now the NMR has transferred the focus of its investment in conservation work totalled outreach work to a rural setting; Beating the £6.1m, as a result of which more than 515 Bounds examines the landscape development of buildings and 190 km of dry-stone walling were several adjoining parishes within the Vale of restored and 95 per cent of the repaired build- White Horse, Oxfordshire, from the late Bronze ings put back to productive use.This investment Age to the present day. generated over £7m in the local economy, The project is run in partnership with the £1.65 and £1.92 for every £1 of grant Vale and Downland Museum, a thriving provided, and up to 37 full-time equivalent community museum in the historic market jobs.Although these figures seem lower than in town of Wantage, Oxfordshire.The town

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Using resources from the National Monuments Record at the Vale and Downland Museum,

Wantage, Oxfordshire © English Heritage.NMR

developed as a spring-line settlement at the foot together in small groups, they investigate areas of the Berkshire downs and its parish boundary of the parish boundary using the resources of extends over some 9.5 km, from the downs in the NMR and locally held material. Examples the south to the clay vale in the north. Narrow of investigations include: the identification in elongated strip parishes are a common feature the landscape of a disputed mill-site, recorded in this part of the Vale of White Horse and a in 1086; querying the accepted line of a Roman triple land-use enabled settlements to be self- road; and researching how a failed settlement supporting: clay in the vale for meadowland; a came to be divided between two adjoining shelf of rich, loamy greensand for arable crops; parishes. Recent changes in landscape are also and chalk downlands providing grazing for noted.A comparison of 1940s air photographs, sheep. held by the NMR, with the landscape today, The traditional relationship that enabled illustrates a significant loss of ridge and furrow communities to be virtually self-sufficient and other archaeological evidence due to within their immediate rural landscape – not just modern agricultural practices. economically but to meet their spiritual and Beating the Bounds is helping communities social welfare too – has altered dramatically.This in the Vale of White Horse to engage with their project is examining current concepts of ‘parish, local rural landscape intellectually and physi- landscape and community’ through helping local cally. Here, landscape history is not delivered by people explore the meaning of boundaries and experts but is drawn together by local people the significance and value of the land units they through a process of investigation and reap- define, both in the past and today. praisal, enabling them to value and share the The first phase of the project is engaging meaning and significance of their rural cultural groups with existing connections to the Vale and natural heritage. and Downland Museum in order to establish the project and its methodology. Future work, involving filming with a local youth group to capture current views on parish and commu- Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund nity, will aim to widen participation to those Sarah Cole sectors of the community not currently repre- Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund Adviser, sented.Through this project the NMR is English Heritage trialling the use of an on-line tool-kit that will enable community groups to combine images, Aggregates extraction (such as sand, gravel and text, sound and film in a digital story of their crushed rock) represents the most common investigation. type of quarrying in the England, the UK The project makes use of both fieldwork and consuming some 240 million tonnes annually. It documentary research and helps participants is inevitable that this will impact on the historic explore a wide range of evidence.Working environment.

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In 2002 the Aggregates Levy Sustainability The Aggregates Levy Fund (ALSF) was introduced by Defra to Sustainability Fund provide resources to address the environmental (ALSF) has given priority costs of this extraction; English Heritage was to scientific investigation appointed as one of the lead distribution bodies of the archaeological of the fund. Run by a small team connected to © University of Birmingham landscapes that lie the Historic Environment Enabling hidden within areas of Programme, the English Heritage ALSF has to the English countryside date distributed over £19 million to more than proposed for gravel 200 projects nationally. extraction. In this image, All projects address one or other of two objec- intensity data from a tives: promoting environmentally friendly terrestrial laser scan extraction and addressing the environmental reveals a prehistoric ring impacts of past aggregates extraction.Addition- ditch buried beneath ally, projects address English Heritage’s own key Port Meadow in priorities, focusing on the following areas: Oxford. • developing the capacity to manage aggregate extraction landscapes in the future • delivering to public and professional audiences project undertaken by Liverpool University and the full benefits of knowledge gained through Oxford Archaeology North. Building on earlier past work in advance of aggregates extraction research that identified the paucity of historic • reducing the physical impacts of current environment information for the area in relation extraction where these lie beyond current plan- to its known aggregate production history,the ning controls and the normal obligations placed Ribble Valley project has attempted to address on minerals operators this gap in knowledge.After collating existing • addressing the effects of old mineral planning archaeological and palaeoenvironmental data permissions and setting it against geological data and current • promoting understanding of the conservation aggregates permission, further multiple lines of issues arising from the impacts of aggregates evidence were addressed.These included remote extraction on the historic environment. sensing, field survey and absolute dating (includ- One of the most important elements of the ing radiocarbon and optically stimulated lumi- English Heritage ALSF over the past four years nescence).The results of these investigations will has been the need for good baseline information be collated in a GIS with an accompanying about the archaeological and historic landscapes report setting out a framework for understand- in which the extraction takes place.A number of ing the archaeology in the area, thus giving projects have used the opportunity to explore valuable data for future management and the effectiveness of scientific and technological minerals planning. techniques in the field. One example is the Across the country a number of similar ‘Aggregate Extraction in the Ribble Valley’ projects have been undertaken to ‘Assess the © University of Birmingham

Exploring the effectiveness of archaeological remote-sensing techniques. Dr Chris Carey, University of Exeter, collecting in-situ soil-moisture readings using a Detla T Devices Theta Probe.

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Finds processing session for adults with learning difficulties. The session involved working with a previously unprocessed collection of artefacts from an archaeological site within one of

the most intensively quarried County Council Worcestershire © areas of Worcestershire.

Archaeological Resource’ within the aggregate- and moisture levels.This information can then producing areas of a county.The first such proj- be used to identify areas of preferential organic ect was undertaken in Gloucestershire by the preservation within regions affected by County Council and has since been repeated in aggregate extraction and provide information other aggregates-producing counties such as related to wider issues of catchment manage- Co Durham,Warwickshire and Worcestershire, ment (eg the impacts of changing hydrological with more planned for the future. conditions).A generic good-practice guidance Aimed at establishing a coherent evidence- document is being produced from the project, base and thus improving the local Historic to ensure knowledge transfer. Environment Record, these projects all incor- The understanding and involvement of the porate a rigorous desk-based assessment of public in the archaeology and history of existing data collated into a GIS environment aggregates-producing areas is a central tenet to improve future decision-making. In some of the ALSF.Many projects have thus been counties there was an opportunity to enhance designed with outreach and education at the record by carrying out aerial photography their core. mapping (thus helping to accelerate the Following on from their Resource Assess- National Mapping Programme, see Went and ment project Worcestershire County Council Horne, this issue pp 22–3), allowing the have been involving the local community, identification, interpretation and recording of particularly those normally excluded from all probable and possible archaeological features archaeological activities, with their ‘Unlocking that are visible as cropmarks, soilmarks, parch- the Past’ project.Through workshops for adults marks and earthworks.The data collected by with learning difficulties the project has aimed these assessments have also been a valuable tool to raise awareness of the important contribu- in the production of Local Minerals Plans. tions archaeological discoveries made during Outreach follow-ups have ensured that the aggregate extraction have made to our under- public, as well as curators, have the chance to standing of the past. benefit equally. For the future the aim is to continue to build Through the ALSF English Heritage has on the developments and technological been in a position to fund a number of projects advances already made. Many projects, such as that attempt to assess, refine and develop differ- the Resource Assessments and those with an ent methods of prospection and investigation, in outreach focus, have potential to be rolled out order to increase predictive accuracy, and thus in different areas of the country, and new proj- minimise risk to industry and the historic envi- ects will hopefully be taken forward. ronment. One good example is the ‘Airborne At the time of writing the ALSF has been LiDAR Backscattered Laser Intensity Prediction extended for a further year and is now due to of Organic Preservation’ project undertaken by end in March 2008. For more information Birmingham University.This investigated the regarding the fund and the projects already potential of backscattered laser intensity data funded, please visit www.english-heritage. from airborne laser altimetry to remotely deter- org.uk/alsf mine soil properties, including organic content

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 41 News from English Heritage

Government response to Culture, Civic Trust and Council for British Archaeology Media and Sport Select Committee http://www.historymatters.org.uk). Over four inquiry months: • more than 1.1 million people showed their The government published its response to the support by taking a badge or making an online committee’s report in October declaration (www.culture.gov.uk/reference_library/ • more than 1 million people took part in the publications). It welcomed the committee’s Heritage Open Days in September ‘wide-ranging’ examination of the historic • 46,000 people contributed a blog of what they environment, and those conclusions and recom- did on one single day – 17 October – which will mendations that detailed the positive contribu- be recorded for posterity at the British Library tion of the historic environment to wider • nearly 10,000 people completed a postcard government objectives. outlining why history matters to them. On the whole, however, the response chal- lenged the committee’s findings and many of Science and Heritage inquiry its recommendations. In particular, it states that any decisions on future funding for English Last summer, the House of Lords Select Heritage will not be taken before the 2007 Committee on Science and Technology set up Comprehensive Spending Review is complete, an Inquiry into Science and Heritage, chaired by and that the government’s priorities for the Lord Broers.The committee’s report, published historic environment remain those set out in in November 2006, drew attention to the value A Force for Our Future (2001). It also says that of the cultural heritage, and to this country’s the historic environment ‘continues to feature high reputation in heritage conservation, but prominently’ in DCMS priorities, and that the warned that this standing is now under threat, department will maintain work with partners that the sector is undervalued and fragmented across government to promote its ‘intrinsic and and that we face a real risk of irreversible losses. instrumental’ values. Their central recommendation was that the DCMS should match its commitment to access Heritage Counts 2006 to the cultural heritage, which results in more wear and tear, with a commitment to effective The fifth annual survey of the state of England’s conservation based on sound science. Subsidiary historic environment was published on 15 recommendations include a call for those in the November (www.heritagecounts.org.uk). heritage sector – museums, universities, The report identifies the principal trends and libraries, English Heritage and other organisa- challenges facing the historic environment, with 2006 tions – to work together to develop a broad- a particular focus in on the role that based strategy for heritage science.To view the communities play by valuing and engaging in report see www.publications.parliament.uk and England’s heritage. It draws on new evidence follow the links. about the people who visit historic sites and how the sector is trying to widen participation, Your Place or Mine? Engaging New especially from under-represented groups. It looks at the vital role played by 400,000 volun- Audiences with the Heritage teers and how voluntary groups act to save the Manchester Town Hall was packed on 2 and 3 heritage that communities really care about.A November 2006 for this conference run jointly suite of regional reports provides further detail by English Heritage and The National Trust. on the state of the historic environment in each A wide range of people, from community of the nine government office regions. groups and development workers to archaeolo- gists and curators, discussed how to broaden History Matters – Pass it On audiences for our shared heritages. 350 80 The campaign History Matters – Pass it On was The delegates heard more than speak- launched in July 2006 by a partnership of ers addressing some of the big questions about heritage organisations including the National the nature of heritage, such as whose story are Trust, English Heritage, Heritage Lottery Fund, we telling? And do we need to redefine Historic Houses Association,Heritage Link, the ‘heritage’? Practical workshops for delegates to

42 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 The author and English tion of British Industry, British Property Feder- Heritage Commissioner ation, Housebuilders’ Federation and supermar- Bill Bryson addresses ket chains, but criticised by the environment the launch of the 2006 © English Heritage NGOs.The Royal Town Planning Institute saw History Matters pluses and minuses.Among the suggestions that campaign. Other were generally welcomed were those relating to celebrity supporters resourcing and training for planning authorities, included Stephen Fry, a national infrastructure commission set in a Bob Geldof, Bettany framework of public involvement and a recom- Hughes, Sebastian mendation to review greenbelt boundaries. Faulks,Tony Benn, More controversially it has proposed introduc- Derek Jacobi and Tony ing a ‘presumption to develop’ and removing Robinson. the burden of demonstrating ‘need’ in support of applications. English Heritage submitted a response to the final report in the New Year.

Guidance on tall buildings A review of the document originally issued in March 2003 is now entering its final stages. Though the existing document had withstood examination at public inquiry, there are many sections that required rewriting to take account of changes to government policy and guidance. There was unanimity between English Heritage and CABE on where rewriting was needed and what additional text was needed to cover issues not previously included.A joint ‘master- class’ was held in January 2006 to explain to local-authority chief executives and council leaders the benefits of having a tall building share experiences ranged from engaging young strategy and policies, rather than being reactive. people with heritage to involving communities The new guidance, issued for consultation, will in re-interpreting historic properties. be available shortly. Reports from and responses to the confer- ence can be found at http://www.english- Building conservation masterclasses heritage.org.uk/yourplaceormine, along with a podcast discussion in which Simon Thurley, West Dean College, English Heritage and The Chief Executive of English Heritage, follows up Weald and Downland Open Air Museum are some of the issues raised.An evaluation of the collaborating to offer the following intensive conference will be published in the coming courses combining lectures, demonstrations and months, while further in-depth articles on key practical exercises: conference themes will appear in the Summer • Conservation and Repair of Masonry Ruins, 8 11 2007 2007 edition of Conservation Bulletin. – May • The Historic Interior: Commissioning and 14 16 2007 Barker review of land-use planning: Managing, – May final report • Conservation and Repair of Plasters and Renders, 29 May–1 June 2007 The government has for some time been • The Ecological Management of Historic concerned that the planning system might have Buildings and Sites, 11–14 June 2007 an adverse impact on economic growth and in • Cleaning Masonry Buildings, 18–21 June 2007 December 2005 the Chancellor and Deputy Non-residential fee: £410 (except The Prime Minister commissioned Kate Barker Historic Interior: £275); fully inclusive residen- to undertake an independent review of the tial from £530 (except the Historic Interior: land-use planning system in England. from £355). The final report and recommendations of the For further information contact Liz Campbell, Barker review were published on 5 December West Dean College, Chichester,West Sussex, 2006 (www.communities. gov.uk/index. PO18 0QZ; tel: 01243 818219/811301; e-mail: asp?id=1504875) and received a mixed recep- [email protected]. tion.They were welcomed by the Confedera-

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 43 The National Monuments Record News and events

The National Monuments Record (NMR) ViewFinder is the public archive of English Heritage. It ViewFinder (www.english-heritage.org.uk/ 7 includes more than million archive items viewfinder) is an online picture resource draw- (photographs, drawings, reports and digital data) ing on the NMR’s national photographic relating to England’s historic environment.The collections. It contains more than 45,000 following information gives details of web images, with a programme to add more each resources, new collections (catalogues are avail- year.The following important collections of able online and in the NMR search room in historic photographs have recently been added Swindon) and outreach programmes. to ViewFinder. Contact the NMR at: NMR Enquiry & Research Services, Harold Wingham National Monuments Record, Kemble Drive, Former Squadron Leader Harold Wingham was Swindon SN22GZ an important practitioner of aerial photography, tel: 01793 414600; fax 01793 414606 primarily for archaeology, though he also email: [email protected] photographed architectural, industrial and land- web: www.english-heritage.org.uk/nmr scape subjects.This collection of more than 1,800 negatives covers the South-West of Online resources from the NMR England for the period 1951–63. Images of England An Iron Age hillfort Images of England (www.imagesofengland. and medieval ring- org.uk) is a ‘point in time’ online image library work on the Here- recording England’s listed buildings. It is one of fordshire Beacon, the largest, free, image libraries on the internet 280 000 Malvern Hills, and contains more than , images from Herefordshire monuments and bridges, churches and grave- (photographed in stones to windmills and canal locks. August 1958). The project is due for completion by the end HAW 9389/28 of 2007, when more than 300,000 images will be available.Volunteer photographers have carried out the work, and have recently been able to complete photography on the listed buildings owned by the National Trust.

For further information please contact Wingham © English Heritage.A H NMR Julie Swann, tel: 01793 414420; email: [email protected]. Cold War project As a result of the ‘peace dividend’ following the end of the Cold War, many previously secret military sites were decommissioned and either demolished or left derelict. In response, the Royal Commission on the Historic Monu- ments of England and English Heritage under- took a survey of defence installations built in England between 1946 and 1989 (and published as P S Barnwell,W D Cocroft and R J C Thomas (eds), Cold War: Building for Nuclear Left: Church of St 1946 1989 Confrontation – (English Heritage, Thomas à Becket, Fair- 2003 1 600 )). Some , images of these restricted field, Kent: a Grade I sites, created as part of this survey, are now church in an isolated available online. position in the Romney

© DerrickABBP,ARPS Chiverrell Marshes.

44 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 A Bloodhound Mark II documents contained in the Calendar of Patent surface-to-air guided Rolls for the period 1250–1450.The shipwrecks weapon at RAF were mainly mentioned in the Patent Rolls as Neatishead, Norfolk. disputes over the rights to the resulting goods AA98/05754 washed ashore. Cases between local landowners and aggrieved merchants petitioning the king could sometimes take up to 20 years to resolve! In addition some changes to the mechanics of PastScape have been made, including improved place-name-search functionality and changes to allow more source material to be displayed. For further information please contact © Crown copyright.NMR © Crown Robin Page, tel: 01793 414617; email: Rupert Potter Collection [email protected] 200 This small collection of some items gains NMR cataloguing its interest from the fact that Rupert Potter (1832–1914) was the father of Beatrix.Although Stowe Estate sales particulars it does not contain family pictures, connections Recently accessioned auction sales particulars include the family home at 2 Bolton Gardens, for the sale of the Stowe Estate, Bucking- Kensington, and the Potters’ holiday home in hamshire, in 1921 demonstrate the changes to Cumbria.The bulk of the collection records the rural economy in the aftermath of the events in Greater London which are of interest First World War.This acquisition complements in their own right, such as scaffolding being the NMR’s extensive holdings of estate sales erected in Trafalgar Square for the coronation particulars. of George V in 1911. The particulars include the sale of the free- For further information please contact: hold of the house and estate, comprising 24 Andrew Sargent, tel: 01793 414740; farms and smallholdings, the village of Dadford, email: [email protected] the hamlet of Chackmore and residential and commercial buildings in Buckingham.The 59 PastScape half-tone photographic plates taken by R and PastScape (www.english- heritage.org.uk/pastscape) H Chapman of Buckingham illustrate details of is the online version of the national database of the sale of the contents of the main house, plus monuments curated by the NMR, accessible to the garden temples, statues, garden statuary, the public. It is far from being a static resource buildings and temples.As well as photographs, and over the autumn months well in excess of the sales particulars include plans of the main 7,000 records have been worked on, of which house and grounds, Dadford village, Chackmore some 1,400 are newly created records. village and estate buildings in Buckingham. Work on medieval shipwreck sites noted in For further information contact Helen the last issue of Conservation Bulletin has been Shalders, tel: 01793 414749; email: continuing apace and has so far nearly doubled [email protected] the number of records (233 at the time of writ- ing).This research has been based on legal Album: Northumberland House An important set of photographs and plans of Northumberland House,Westminster, (demol- ished 1874) was purchased in August 2006 by the NMR (AQ/06/014).The 1875 folio was compiled by the Metropolitan Board of Works to document the last-remaining private palace between The Strand and the River Thames, which was removed to create Northumberland Avenue.This key record of Victorian London contains 11 photographs by William Strudwick A porter guards the and 5 plans showing alternative routes for the Strand entrance to new road. Northumberland For further information contact Ian Leith, House, photographed tel: 01793 414730; email: ian.leith@english-

in 1874. AL2027/04 permissionReproduced by of English Heritage.NMR heritage.org.uk

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 45 Legal Developments Understanding guardianship

Many of the wonderful properties which maintenance including archaeological investiga- English Heritage visitors and members enjoy tion and the power to remove any part of the are not actually owned by either the govern- monument to another place to preserve it. ment or English Heritage but are in their There is also a responsibility to provide public guardianship.At some time in the past the access and visitor facilities. Under the 1979 Act, actual owner has asked the relevant government a guardianship agreement can only be made by department to become the guardian of the the person who owns absolutely the monument property and take over responsibility for its in question or has a leasehold interest with not maintenance and management. English less than 45 years remaining. Heritage now manages these properties on The powers in the Act are subject to any behalf of DCMS and approximately two-thirds terms set out in the guardianship deed, (260) of all the properties in its care are in although in practice this has usually done little guardianship. Generally, guardianship agree- more than constitute the relevant body as ments have been used at the request of the guardian and provide for access and/or rights owner to ensure the continued preservation of of way to the monument for maintenance the most important examples of our heritage and/or the public.Very few guardianship deeds where the owner was unable or disinclined to contain any greater detail. Guardianship is used commit the resources necessary to preserve the rarely nowadays and only one property property.The government agreed to accept (Wigmore Castle in Hereford and Worcester) responsibility for management and maintenance has been taken into guardianship in the last and in return acquired certain rights over the 10 years. property. It is not thought that the current review Guardianship was first introduced by the of heritage protection legislation is likely to Ancient Monuments Act 1882 and has been have any implications for the concept of developed and refined by subsequent legisla- guardianship. tion.The basic principle is that by accepting For many years, guardianship took effect in guardianship a guardian takes on full responsi- perpetuity, similar to the National Trust’s power bility for the repair and maintenance of an to hold land inalienably.The intention was to ancient monument and gains extensive rights of give assurance to the owner placing a monu- ‘control and management’; these, however, fall ment into guardianship that the future of their short of outright ownership of the property. property was secure.The 1979 Act introduced The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological for the first time the possibility of rescinding Act 1979 is the legislation governing guardian- guardianship in certain closely specified ship today and s12–15 contain the main provi- circumstances, although no guardianship has sions. Under s12 the Secretary of State, English been terminated to date. In view of the Heritage and local authorities all have the historical nature of some guardianships it may power to become guardians of ‘ancient monu- even be difficult to identify the current freehold ments’.The organisation concerned takes on owner of some monuments let alone consider responsibility for maintaining the monument returning responsibility for the monument to and also acquires control and management of them, and English Heritage will therefore the monument, but the freehold ownership is continue to safeguard these properties for not disturbed by guardianship arrangements. public enjoyment and education. Once the monument has been taken into Ceri Pemberton guardianship the guardian is under a statutory Head of Legal Department duty to maintain the property and has very wide powers to exercise ‘control and manage- ment’ and to do everything necessary for its

46 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007 New Publications

Jewish Heritage in England: Canterbury.This guide will undoubtedly appeal An Architectural Guide both to the specialist and the tourist alike. by Sharman Kadish PRICE £16.99 + P&P (offer: £14.99 + free delivery*) 2006 350 ISBN: 10 – 1 905624 28 X (13 – 978 1905624 28 7) The year marked the th anniversary PRODUCT CODE 51169 of the resettlement of the Jewish community in Paperback, 240 pages England. For the first time, Jewish Heritage in England celebrates in full colour the undiscov- More London Peculiars ered heritage of Anglo-Jewry – the oldest by Peter Ashley non-Christian minority in Britain. In this second volume, writer and photographer Peter Ashley digs just a little bit deeper into the patina of London’s past, revealing the rich patterns that make this the most exciting capital city on earth. His camera discovers a city’s occupations that have, quite literally,disappeared, but that never- theless leave tantalising evidence of their exis- tence.The truly odd is explored and puzzled over – wartime ambulance stretchers recycled as council flat railings, King Lud hiding in Fleet Street, a colourful Wild West icon presenting the pipe of peace to pedestrians in St James. He gets to grips with the suburban miasma, from the largest collection of post-war pre-fabricated houses in Britain to the leonine remnants that celebrate empire in Metroland Wembley. This is an essential book for all those who enjoy living in London, visiting London and who, in any case, love London. PRICE £14.99 + P&P (offer: £12.99 + free delivery*) ISBN: 10 – 1 85074 999 X (13 – 978 1 85074 999 8) PRODUCT CODE 51183 Paperback, 120 pages

The guide covers more than 300 sites, organ- ised on a region-by-region basis. Each section highlights major Jewish landmarks, ranging from Britain’s oldest synagogue, Bevis Marks in the City of London, through the Georgian gems of the West Country to the splendid High Victorian ‘cathedral synagogues’ of Birming- ham, Brighton and Liverpool. Relics of Anglo- Jewry’s medieval past are explored in York, Lincoln and Norwich and curious oddities are not to be missed, including a 19th-century private penthouse synagogue in Brighton and an Egyptian-style Mikveh (ritual bath) in

Issue 54: Spring 2007 | Conservation bulletin | 47 Stonehenge: The Story so Far Quantocks’ landscape after a dedicated Publications may be by Julian Richards programme of archaeological fieldwork, ordered from English air-photograph transcription and architectural Heritage Postal Sales, Stonehenge is not only the ultimate symbol of investigation by English Heritage. It describes prehistoric achievement but also one of the c/o Gillards,Trident the results in a readable book including full Works, March Lane, past’s most enduring mysteries. In this book, colour illustrations and line drawings Julian Richards – archaeologist, broadcaster and Temple Cloud, throughout, plus a series of lively reconstruc- 39 5 Stonehenge fanatic – takes a very personal look Bristol BS AZ; tion paintings by the artist Jane Brayne. 01761 452 966 at his favourite ancient monument. tel: ; PRICE £19.95 + P&P (offer: £17.95 + free delivery*) 01761 453 408 The first section outlines the history of fax: ; ISBN: 10 – 1 905624 29 8 (13 – 978 1 905624 29 4) Stonehenge and its landscape, from magic and email: PRODUCT CODE 51199 Merlin to the obsessive diggers of the 19th [email protected] Paperback, 184 pages century.The 20th century is a story of collapse and restoration, of changing ownership and Please make all conflict, of botched excavations and the final cheques payable triumph of science in unlocking some of the in sterling to stones’ most closely guarded secrets. English Heritage. This book brings our understanding of Publications may Stonehenge into the 21st century, and is written also be ordered with the authority that comes from 25 years of from www.english- involvement with the monument and a passion heritage.org.uk to share its wonders. PRICE £30.00 + P&P (offer: £27 + free delivery*) ISBN: 10 – 1 905624 00 X (13 – 978 1 905624 00 3) / PRODUCT CODE 50965 Hardback, 350 pages

* Special offer prices are valid to 30 June 2007 for orders made through English Heritage Postal Sales at the address shown, above right. Please quote ‘Conservation Bulletin Offer’, the title and product code. For all other orders P&P is £2.50 per book for the first two items and £1.00 for each additional book thereafter.

Conservation Bulletin appears three times a year. It is printed on paper made from chlorine-free pulp sourced from sustainable managed forests. ISSN 0753–8674 Product Code: 51307 Subscription enquiries: tel: 020 7973 3253; email: mailinglist@english- The Historic Landscape of the heritage.org.uk Quantock Hills Additional copies: [email protected] by Hazel Riley Guest editor: Stephen Trow The Quantock Hills, famous for their associa- Editorial and project management:Whimster Associates Ltd; 01672 521525 tions with Coleridge and Wordsworth in the tel: ; email: [email protected] 19th century, have been the canvas on which Original design: Boag Associates Ltd are sketched the shadowy images of people Layout: Libanus Press Ltd who lived on the land from prehistoric times to Printed by: Hawthornes Ltd the present.There are Bronze Age cairns and Web version: www.english-heritage.org.uk 2007 burial mounds, Iron Age hillforts, Roman © English Heritage settlements, medieval manors and post-medieval English Heritage is the Government’s lead body for the historic estates, right through to stark monuments of environment. 1 138 142 the Second World War and the Cold War. English Heritage, Waterhouse Square, – Holborn, 1 2 This book presents and interprets the London EC N ST

48 | Conservation bulletin | Issue 54: Spring 2007