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BENGT ANKARLOO and STUART CLARK I Witchcraft and Magic in Europe the Period of the Witch Trials Wi EDITED BY BENGT ANKARLOO and STUART CLARK I Witchcraft and Magic in Europe The Period of the Witch Trials Wi WITCHCRAFT AND MAGIC IN EUROPE Series Editors Bengt Ankarloo Stuart Clark The roots of European witchcraft and magic lie in Hebrew and other ancient Near Eastern cultures and in the Celtic, Nordic, and Germanic traditions of the continent. For two millennia, European folklore and ritual have been imbued with the belief in the supernatural, yielding a rich trove of histories and images. Witchcraft and Magic in Europe combines traditional approaches of politi­ cal, legal, and social historians with a critical synthesis of cultural anthro­ pology, historical psychology, and gender studies. The series provides a modem, scholarly survey of the supernatural beliefs of Europeans from ancient times to the present day. Each volume of this ambitious series contains the work of distinguished scholars chosen for their expertise in a particular era or region. Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Biblical and Pagan Societies Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Middle Ages Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Period of the Witch Trials i Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Twentieth Century tchcraft and Magic in Europe The Period of the Witch Trials BENGT ANKARLOO STUART CLARK WILLIAM MONTER Edited by Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart Clark PENN University of Pennsylvania Press Philadelphia First published 2002 by THE ATHLONE PRESS A Continuum imprint The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SEI 7NX First published in the United States of America 2002 by University of Pennsylvania Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-4011 © 2002 The Authors Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ankarloo, Bengt, 1935- Witchcraft and magic in Europe : the period of the witch trials / Bengt Ankarloo, Stuart Clark, William Monter; edited by Begnt Ankarloo and Stuart Clark. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8122-3617-3 (cloth : alk. paper); ISBN 0-8122-1787-X (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Witchcraft—Europe—History. 2. Trials (Witchcraft)—Europe—History. I. Clark, Stuart. II. Monter, E. William BF1584.E9A55 2002 133.4/3/094—dc21 2002075051 Not for sale outside the United States of America and its dependencies and Canada and the Philippines All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, I stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without prior ■ permission in writing from the publisher. Typeset by SetSystems, Saffron Walden, Essex Printed and bound in Great Britain Contents Introduction vii Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart Clark PART 1: WITCH TRIALS IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE 1560-1660 1 William Monter, Northwestern University Montgaillard, 1643 3 Features of Continental Witch Trials 6 Witchcraft and the Reformations 10 Three-quarters German? European Witch Trials 1560-1660 12 A German Sondenveg? 16 1563: Weyer and Wiesensteig 18 Germany’s ‘Superhunts’ (1586-1639) 22 A Bavarian Sonderwegf 29 Confessionalism and Appellate Justice in the Empire 31 The ‘Lotharingian Corridor’ and Francophone Witch-hunts 34 Witch-hunting in the Kingdom of France 40 Witchcraft and the Mediterranean Inquisitions 44 Witch-hunting after 1650: New and Old Patterns 49 PART 2: WITCH TRIALS IN NORTHERN EUROPE 1450-1700 53 Bengt Ankarloo, Lund University Introduction 55 The Rise of Government and the Judicial Revolution: Accusatorial versus Inquisitorial Regimes 63 Consolidation of Patriarchal Social Relations 70 Development of Theology and Demonology 72 Social Tensions on the Local Level 73 The Sixteenth Century: From Sorcery to Witchcraft 75 Witchcraft by Regions 76 Conclusion 93 vi Contents PART 3: WITCHCRAFT AND MAGIC IN EARLY MODERN CULTURE 97 Stuart Clark, University of Wales Swansea Chapter 1: Popular Magic 99 Magic at Work 99 The Meaning of Magic 105 Maleficium and Magic 112 Religious Reformation and Popular Magic 116 Chapter 2: Demonology 122 The Literature of Witchcraft 122 Witchcraft and Intellectual History 132 The Politics of Witchcraft Belief 137 Languages of Witchcraft 143 Chapter 3: Intellectual Magic 147 ‘The Greatest Profoundnesse of Natural Philosophic’ 147 Intellectual Magic and the Scientific Revolution 154 Natural Magic and Demonic Magic 160 Magic and Politics 167 Bibliography 171 Index 187 Introduction Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart Clark With this volume the History of Witchcraft and Magic in Europe reaches period of ‘witch-hunting’, from the mid-fifteenth to the mid-eighte^the centuries. This may be a label that is increasingly being questionern historians but the fact remains that only at this moment in Euro^ history was diabolic witchcraft a criminal offence in most legal secular and ecclesiastical, and only then were the vast majority of wl\hes actually prosecuted for it. The numbers involved and the reasons bel^n(j the witch trials continue to be debated — and are debated again here ^ut no one denies that they belong to the early modem era as they belong to no ether. One of the aims of this series is to balance this undeniable focc with an awareness of the role of witchcraft and magic in other societies that did not have the same general desire or legal capacity to punish them as thoroughly or even at all. Indeed, we want to demonstrate an enduring significance for these subjects that is independent of the phenomenon of legal prosecution, even during the age of witch-hunting itself. Another overall aim is to treat manifestations of witchcraft and magic before and after the early modem era on their own terms, rather than as the origins or aftermath of what happened during that time. Nevertheless, we still have to acknowledge that the period of the witch trials saw the high point not only of witchcraft as a criminal offence but also of magic as a serious intellectual pursuit. Witchcraft and magic belong also to the historiography of the early modem era as to that of no other. It is extraordinary how, in the last thirty years, these subjects have come to occupy a commanding place in the scholarship devoted to this period of European history. Before that time many mainstream historians were clearly uncomfortable with them, finding them difficult or impossible to fit into the prevailing patterns of interpretation except as negatives — instances of irrationality, superstition and wrong-headedness to set against what was progressive in Renaissance and Baroque society and culture. The mood of amiibiguity is caught perfectly in Hugh Trevor-Roper's famous essay on ‘The EuropeanEuropean Witch-Craze of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries’, its first versions dating from the 1950s and its final pubheation from 1967. Trevor_ Roper obviously recognized the historical relativism of Lucien F^bvre concerning witchcraft, referring to him as ‘one of the most perceptive ancj viii Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Period of the Witch Trials philosophical of modem French historians’ and quoting approvingly his view that only an intervening ‘mental revolution’ could account for the distance between modem rationality and the witchcraft beliefs of the sixteenth century. At the same time, he himself felt obliged to characterize witchcraft as the grotesque side of the Renaissance and describe acceptance of its reality as ‘hysterical’ and ‘lunatic’. From the 1970s onwards, by contrast, the trend was away from this kind of rationalism and towards explanation — sometimes very grand explanation indeed. The tendency here was still to assume that societies that prosecuted witches must have something wrong with them — some pathology that accounted for what was obviously aberrant behaviour. But at least witchcraft history was accorded the benefits of interdisciplinarity before other fields were. Historical studies inspired by theoretical insights drawn from anthropo­ logy, sociology and social psychology began to turn witchcraft into a subject at the crossroads of the disciplines. More recendy still, explanation has given way to interpretation, and with this has come the desire to understand the history of witchcraft in more cultural terms — taking culture at its broadest and most inclusive. This kind of understanding makes different assumptions about both witchcraft and magic and is achieved more by the effort to contextualize than by the resort to grand theory. The worst excesses of the witch trials, described, for example, in the section of William Monter’s essay in this volume on the German ‘superhunts’, will always strike us as abhorrent; so, too, the activities of the most notorious ‘witch-hunters’ of the period - like the officials who worked on the ‘extirpation programme’ of the Archbishop of Cologne, Ferdinand of Bavaria, in the late 1620s and 1630s. But under the influence above all of cultural anthropology, we have come to realize that the prosecution of witches may have rested on a culturally based rationality quite unlike our own, as in the case of other episodes in early modem European history that we once struggled or failed to comprehend. This indeed was the suggestion that Trevor-Roper could not quite accept in Lucien Febvre’s Annates essay of 1948 — ‘that the mind of one age is not necessarily subject to the same rules as the mind of another’. It was the view of the Spanish anthropologist and historian, and pioneer witchcraft scholar, Julio Caro Baroja, that a different version even of reality itself was at work in witch-prosecuting
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