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Diagnosing a City´s Social Diversity Jane Jacobs and ’s van Es, R.; van Rossum, J.S.

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Citation for published version (APA): van Es, R., & van Rossum, J. S. (2018). Diagnosing a City´s Social Diversity: Jane Jacobs and The Wire’s Baltimore. In R. Rocco (Ed.), Jane Jacobs is still here: Jane Jacobs 100 Her legacy and relevance in the 21st Century (pp. 200-207). TU Delft Press. https://books.bk.tudelft.nl/index.php/press/catalog/book/isbn.9789461869005

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Download date:01 Oct 2021 Diagnosing a City’s Social Diversity Jane Jacobs and The Wire’s Baltimore Dr. R. van Es* J.S. van Rossum Msc**

* Organizational Philosophy Political Science, UvA [email protected] **Policy and Governance, Political Science, UvA [email protected]

Abstract – Of Jane Jacobs’ four conditions for optimal diversity in the city, only the fourth deals with social diversity and it is exactly this condition that continues to spark criticism. To widen the perspective and obtain a comprehensive view of a city´s social diversity it would be helpful to use a broad diagnostic tool like the Organizational Discourse Analysis Model from organi- zational studies. This model is used to diagnose social diversity in the city of Baltimore as portrayed in the television series The Wire. The perspectives of Jacobs and critics are plotted in the Model, showing what other perspectives are relevant for diagnosing a city´s social diversity. Key words – Jane Jacobs, social diversity, The Wire, Organizational Discourse Analysis Model

Introduction Discourse Analysis Model enriches of urban life. Jacobs views the Jacobs’ condition of a city´s social built environment through an According to Jane diversity. We will briefly discuss the anthropological lens (Wortham- Jacobs’ The Death and Life of conditions for diversity formulated Galvin, 2012) and includes in her Great American Cities (1961) by Jacobs and her critics. We will book everyday mini-narratives the concept of the city as an then describe the Organizational about real-life urban experiences organism required diversity. Jacobs Discourse Analysis Model and (Hirt, 2012). At the core of her distinguished several conditions explore multiperspectivism and how investigation is the question of for a city´s diversity, which became this influences the organizational how livable a city is. Where Le commonplace in the domains of analysis of a city. The model will then Corbusier sees standardization as urban planning and inner city be applied to the city of Baltimore the ideal and looks at a city as a architecture. Several social sciences as depicted in the HBO series The machine, Jacobs’ ideas about the disciplines, however, voiced criticism Wire. We will conclude by showing city are based on a concept of of Jacobs’ fourth condition that the angles on a city’s social diversity the city as an organism (Jacobs, addresses social diversity. To that are missing from Jacobs’ and 2009; Lengkeek, 2009). She sees gain a full understanding of the her critics’ analyses, but are revealed the city as an animate object or an concept of diversity, it is wise to by the diagnostic model. organism, with streets, parks and investigate it from different angles squares full of inhabitants, that and different disciplines (Hospers has an ability to revitalize itself et al., 2015). A multiperspectivist Jane Jacobs: The and is characterized by diversity. tool that would serve that purpose is Jacobs (1961) distinguishes four available. Developed in the field of Importance of a City’s conditions that are indispensable organizational studies, it is known for a city’s diversity: 1. A mix as the Organizational Discourse Diversity of primary functions: living, Analysis Model (ODAM). This tool working, recreation and culture; is helpful to analyze ´a body of Jane Jacobs is best known 2. A mix of old and new buildings citizens´ (polis) in the process of for her book The Death and Life that enable the mix of functions; organizing. This paper focuses on the of Great American Cities (Jacobs, 3. Blocks of mixed sizes, and lively question of how the Organizational 1961), an ethnographic description sidewalks; and 4. A sufficiently

201 dense concentration of people and a in a neighborhood. In fact, such between individuals, we also look at variety of people. A city must meet contrasts partly determine a city’s the differences between cultures and all four conditions to continue to charm (Page, 2011). Cities are subcultures when studying a city’s function and to be an economically complex places constructed around social diversity. Diversity in cultures viable and pleasant place to live. people (Hollis, 2013). and subcultures is about groups that The absence of any one of these Both criticisms primarily delineate and identify themselves conditions undermines the diversity address Jacobs’ fourth condition— in relation to other groups (Latour, of the city and will eventually diversity in numbers and types 2005). Group members expect a facilitate the city’s decline. of people. This paper will deal certain combination of attitudes exclusively with this fourth condition and behavior from each other. of ‘a variety of inhabitants’, which This combination is visible in we interpret to mean ‘a city’s social features like language, group size, Criticisms of Jacobs’ Views diversity’. In order to get a clear idea customs, rituals and symbols. of that type of diversity, we will first A combination of attitudes and on Diversity define a city’s social diversity and behavior is justified by a mix of then analyze it systematically. morals, ideology and religion. The One of Jacobs’ greatest concept of social diversity is directly critics is sociologist Herbert connected to concepts such as Gans. In City Planning and equality, democracy, solidarity Urban Realities (1962), he Social Diversity Individual Cultural and tolerance (Fainstein, 2010). argues that human behavior differences differences We acknowledge that this link is not so much dictated by the exists, but for the purposes of physical reality of the city— Observable Race/ethnicity, Language, this paper we focus solely on the streets and building—as it characteristics sex, age, body group size, social diversity as a research size, visible customs, is by the culture of the social disabilities, rituals, object (see Table 1). group to which the city dwellers class symbols belong. For example, in working Obviously, this human class culture, social life takes diversity is observable in an place outside the home, while Mindset Values, beliefs, Morality, urban setting as well. We define family life takes place inside elements attitudes, ideology, a city’s social diversity as the the home. That is why blue gender religion way in which a city organizes collar neighborhoods have such and reinforces these differences lively streets, even though the between people. We focus mostly principle of diversity might be on observable characteristics, largely absent as the inhabitants Table 1: Social diversity as a research object and deal with mindset elements often form a homogeneous wherever possible. group and the buildings are The field of not very varied either. When this A City´s Social Diversity as organizational studies provides type of neighborhood is close to a diagnostic model that takes downtown, it attracts artists and a Research Object a broad approach to texts and other bohemians. They too spend images, the differences between a lot of time outdoors, adding to Diversity is about differences, individuals and groups, and the the liveliness of the streets. Gans identities and categories. These ways in which they collaborate argues that middle class desires differences are also constructed in a effectively or ineffectively. This dominate urban planning and new city, as the production of difference model is the topic of the next two developments and that this social takes place in the social context sections. Section 4 introduces eight stratum does not prefer diversity (Hearn & Louvrier, 2015). metaphors and assigns them a place per se, as Jacobs does. According As there are many different in the organizational surface current to Gans, it is social, economic and lenses through which social diversity and undercurrent. Section 5 adds cultural factors that determine a is viewed, a classification by levels two metaphors that connect both city’s livability or unlivability for would be helpful. At surface level, currents and thus completes the that matter. To him, it is not the diversity refers to readily seen Organizational Discourse Analysis city and urban planning that is the attributes, such as race or ethnicity, Model. problem, nor the absence of diversity, sex, age, body size, visible disabilities but poverty and segregation. Unlike or class/socio-economic background. Eight Metaphors in the Jacobs, Gans addresses the issue at Studies at this level focus on a national rather than a local level similarities and differences in those Surface Current and the (L’Heureux, 2012). demographic characteristics. At a A second point of criticism deeper level, diversity refers to a Undercurrent is that Jacobs’ assumptions about non-observable type of diversity: people’s sense of community blind values, beliefs, attitudes and Gareth Morgan (1986) her to the political dimensions of identity aspects of gender. They distinguishes eight metaphors or city life. She ignores city government can be revealed through verbal perspectives from which to look and city politics (Harris, 2011). In communication and nonverbal cues at organizations. Each metaphor the same vein, she largely disregards (Lambert and Bell, 2013). Both reveals relevant aspects of the opposing interests and oppositions, of these levels (easily observable organization. Van Es (2011) i.e. deviants, misfits and local attributes and aspects of people’s reinterprets the eight metaphors weirdos that live in every city mindsets) concern differences we can and assigns them a place in either (Mennell, 2011), factors which can distinguish between individuals. the surface current or undercurrent inspire exciting creative processes Aside from distinguishing of the organization. The surface

202 current encompasses anything information, how it organizes are key. rational, conscious and directive feedback and adapts to signals from Each set of four metaphors in an organization, while the both internal and external sources. has an internal coherence. The first undercurrent comprises anything The emphasis is on improvement and set—Machines, Political Systems, emotional, subconscious and change based on familiar learning Cultural Unity and Brains— associative. Accordingly, Morgan’s patterns. represents the organizational surface eight perspectives are divided into In the second set of current. Together, they give us an two sets of four. four perspectives, organizations idea of how management and board In the first set of four are seen as Organisms, Moral steer the organization. The second perspectives, organizations are seen Concerns (originally Instruments set of metaphors—Organism, Moral as Machines, Political Systems, of Domination), Self-Restriction Concerns, Self-Restriction and Cultural Units and Brains. If we (originally Psychic Prisons) and Flux—forms the organizational look at organizations as Machines, Flux, respectively. If we look at the undercurrent. These metaphors then we pay attention to input, organization as an Organism, its key provide us with clues about how throughput and output. Efficiency, concern might simply be survival, individuals, co-workers and friends perceive the organization and how they deal with, and sometimes even adjust, the collective course set out by management and board.

Completing the Organizational Discourse Analysis Model To connect the four perspectives in their respective currents, we need two additional, interdependent metaphors. These complete the ten perspectives of the Organizational Discourse Analysis Model. The first connective metaphor is Stratego. It is the game the management plays of drawing as many connections between the surface current’s perspectives in order to reinforce their message. It is a deliberate attempt to leverage the undercurrent. This is a classical example of strategy (Whittington 1993) used as a conscious policy instrument. It is the ninth perspective in the model. The second connective metaphor is that of the less well- known Rhizome (rootstalk), a notion Table 2: The Ten Perspectives of the Organizational coined by Norma Jackson and Discourse Analysis Model Pippa Carter (2007). The Rhizome is located in the undercurrent and technology and cost effectiveness are but more often it is staying healthy connects the four metaphors there. key. If we look at an organization and balanced. Everything is geared If we look at organizations from as a Political System, we focus on towards sustainability. Continuity is this perspective, we discern desires, the tactical promotion of interests key. In the Morality metaphor, it is beliefs, motivations and experiences in power struggles. Everything is all about the stakeholders’ interests that cannot be predicted or caught. negotiable. Coalitions and conflict and moral rights. Justice and fairness In this metaphor, we see behavior management are key. If we look are the main concerns and the focus in and between organizations as a at an organization from a Cultural is on preventing unfairness and cluster of accidental connections. Unit angle, we concentrate on an exploitation. In the Self-Restriction Pressure on one point in the organization’s social development. metaphor, we look for constraints undercurrent can lead to unexpected We see coherent and homogenized and taboos. Key concerns are counter pressure with unforeseen symbolism and actions, aimed conservatism, keeping things the consequences at other locations at creating a social reality in line same and reducing insecurity and within the undercurrent (before this with management’s wishes. If ‘splendid isolation’. And finally, in pressure is even transferred to the we approach the concept of the the Flux metaphor, we look at the surface current). This subsurface organization from the Brains organization from the perspective of exchange is what we see when perspective, we study how the flow and momentum. Change, open- we look at the organization as a organization learns and processes mindedness, alertness and creativity rhizome. Jackson and Carter point to

203 coincidence, contingency and open- and the development of the city as Barksdale gang has to learn to deal mindedness toward the unexpected. an organization. with growing competition from the The rhizome draws on a history of Season 1 focuses on the drug Stanfield gang. old pain, shame and mistrust, but trade, and in particular the activities Season 5 deals with the also on old pleasure, pride and trust. of the Barksdale gang and the question of why there is change but The Stratego and Rhizome Baltimore Police Department’s war no improvement. The extra focus perspectives describe the dynamism on the gang. The scenes take place on is now on journalism. Who reports of the organization’s surface current street corners and in police stations what and how? And who is pulling and undercurrent. The dynamism of in the economically depressed the strings behind the scenes? an organization can be interpreted as district of West Baltimore. On both Everyone is caught in compromises. a meeting of perspectives, or as the sides of the law we see “cultures of Together we come up with the two layers acting as communicating addiction to power, ambition and biggest lies and, if we can, we live vessels. The strategic attempt to dope.” (Alvarez, 2009). We also with it. The only thing you can do leverage the undercurrent can never see great inequality. As Detective in journalism is investigate things be fully or permanently successful. Carver says about street corner thoroughly, as editor Gus Haynes of When the drive for maximum drug dealers: “They screw up, they exclaims. “You efficiency becomes unbearable, get beaten; we screw up, we get a need a lot of context to examine people’s survival instinct kicks in. pension.” anything.” And the problem is, The perception of unfairness and Season 2 is largely about the those who are doing the examining exploitation is the underbelly of the decline of the port. The dockers’ need to “do more with less.” power play. The unconscious and union, headed by Frank Sobotka, Using The Wire as a case the unimaginable keep growing, in has lost most of its clout. To survive, study, we remain close to the inverse proportion to the pressure of the union has started smuggling mini-narratives of real-life urban being forced onto the ‘same page’. goods and laundering money. experience that are so characteristic A lack of open-mindedness and Sobotka is desperately trying to find of Jacobs (Hirt, 2012). creativity is the price to pay for a self-respect in a world he no longer fixation on information processing has any control over, as is made clear and fixed learning patterns. by the discovery of 13 unidentified Diagnosing a City´s Social The dynamism in the women’s corpses in a container: undercurrent is expressed as a need evidence of human trafficking. Diversity in The Wire’s for operating informally, without Meanwhile, with Avon Barksdale in pressure or budgets, without prison, the drug business continues Baltimore accountability and based on unabated under the leadership of personal insight. Like the Stratego Barksdale’s deputy Stringer Bell, Our working definition of a perspective, the Rhizome-inspired whose influence keeps growing. city´s social diversity is: the ways in focus can only be sustained partially Season 3 introduces a series which a city organizes and produces and temporarily; coordination, of new characters—drug dealers, the differences between people money and a degree of formality are politicians and civil servants. One (individuals and subcultures). indispensable in the organizational of these is City Councilman Tommy Let us first look at the process. They are the antidote to the Carcetti, a rising star in local politics. distribution of four relevant eruptions of laziness, arbitrariness, Major Colvin of the Baltimore police differences—race, sex, age and unbusinesslike behavior, routine and covertly creates a drug tolerance zone class—among the main actors in The laissez-faire attitudes that would called . The experiment Wire´s Baltimore. We define those otherwise become the norm. Surface works, until politicians and the media actors as the twelve professional current and undercurrent keep each get wind of it. This costs Colvin his roles that shape the city as an other in balance. Table 2 shows job and accelerates business for the organization: gang leaders, gang the full-fledged Organizational drug lords, presenting them with members, police commissioners, Discourse Analysis Model. new opportunities and new ways of detectives, dockworkers, union In Section 7, we will apply plying their wares. Some of them, leaders, middle school teachers, the this diagnostic tool to Baltimore’s like Stringer Bell, start to think of justice department, civil servants, social diversity as depicted in the themselves as businessmen and even politicians, editors and journalists. HBO series The Wire. First, we will enroll in college courses. Others There are considerable social briefly introduce the series in Section reject this, insisting that “the street differences between those groups. 6. is the street.” The drug ring leaders are 100% Season 4 portrays the public black, while the editors of the local The Wire: Portrait of a City education system by following four newspaper and the union leaders in pupils and various teachers. On the harbor are 100% white. Also, The HBO series The Wire the whole, the level of education is they are all men. There are a few (2002-2006) takes place in Baltimore, extremely low because of a lack of women among the detectives and the Maryland. For five seasons, this city funding from the school board, a gang members. Women dominate the is the backdrop to the intertwined lack of interest from the students profession of middle school teachers stories of more than 50 protagonists, and a growing helplessness on the and are a sizable minority as office including , neighborhood part of teachers. As an experiment, workers at the justice department dwellers, junkies, drug dealers, the school starts a special class where and the city administration. Table teachers, students, police officers students are taught their subjects 3 shows an overview of four of the and politicians (Alvarez, 2009). We in a way that reflects the world immediately observable differences look at The Wire as an ethnographic they know. Ex-law enforcement between the twelve actors. document of an American officers, including Colvin, contribute Now we are going to look metropolis that provides both a view to this special class with varying at how the differences in the city of the diversity of its inhabitants degrees of success. Meanwhile, the are orchestrated and reinforced

204 Injecting a bit of fiction into the Four differences Race/ Sex Age Class facts does not seem all that wrong 12 Actors ethnicity to some of them. This is why , a young journalist, 1 Gang leaders 100% 100% male 30-50 Lower- invents a source to quote in his black middle articles. If we look at the organized 2 Gang 100% 90% male 10-40 Lower differences from the Brains members black perspective, we can see the problems in the school system. Schools can 3 Police 70% black 100% male 50-65 Higher- hardly make a difference when commissioners middle there is a lack of money, facilities and good teachers, and the pupils 4 Police 80% black 90% male 30-65 Middle show no interest. The school board’s detectives only concern is that the pupils’ test results are good enough for the 5 Dockworkers 95% white 90% male 20-55 Lower school to continue to receive funding, so teachers are just “teaching to the 6 Union leaders 100% 100% male 50-65 Lower- test” and students are forced to play white middle along. They are not interested in the curriculum because it is irrelevant to 7 High school 80% black 60% 25-50 Middle their lives: “They are not learning teachers female for our world, they are learning for theirs.” 8 Justice 60% white 60% male 35-65 Upper Looking at differences department from the Stratego angle means looking at the underlying, rational 9 Public officers 80% black 60% male 30-65 Higher reinforcements of the policy in the middle surface current of the city as an organization. Officially, this is a 10 Politicians 80% black 80% male 35-65 Higher type of Public Management, but middle to many policy makers rational self-preservation and reputation 11 Editors 100% 100% male 50-65 Upper management are key. This is why white any changes in policy are piecemeal. They might appear wholesale, but 12 Journalists 80% white 60% male 30-65 Higher the underlying balance of power middle must remain undisturbed. Moving on to the five Table 3. Four observable differences between the 12 basic actors metaphors that make up the undercurrent of the city as an organization, we can look at the using the ten perspectives of the can seldom do the same: you keep differences from the Organism Organizational Discourse Analysis working in the role that fits you. perspective and focus on individuals’ Model. There are few opportunities to rise and groups’ personal space, vitality through the ranks, but there is a lot and health. For example, we see how Let us start with the five of under-the-counter money to be Cutty’s return to the streets and to metaphors that make up the surface made. come and go and his work as a drug lord’s bodyguard current of the city as an organization. only survive as long as everyone after years in prison is not a success. If we focus on the differences from clearly sees the benefit. The gang He has changed and no longer fits the Machine perspective, we see that leaders’ co-op for buying drugs into the drug gang game, so he wants both the police and the drug gangs survives for a relatively long time, out. Gang leader Avon Barksdale are organized strictly top-down. The until the upstart understands and lets him go, and police commissioners use written ends it in a bid for power. later even sponsors Cutty. reports, data-driven meetings If we look at the organized We can look at the differences and broad, formal instructions, differences in the city from the angle from the angle of Moral Concerns while their detectives work with of Cultural Unity, we immediately too and focus on feelings of respect, photographs and wiretaps. The drug feel the tension. The Baltimore Sun dignity and justice. Detective Bunk kingpins, on the other hand, use strives to be a collective and hence sits on a park bench with Omar, oral reports, informal and personal to homogenize values and behavior. the series’ informal avenger, and instructions, and the lower-level But the editors are all white males talks about the decline of their drug dealers use pay phones. of 50 years or older who think and West Baltimore district. They were If we look at the organized write in standard American English. both born and raised there. Despite differences as a Political System, Their ideas about honest reporting everything, it used to be a tightly we see that negotiation, as well as are based on their decades of making knit community, Bunk tells Omar. promises and alliances are use to a print newspaper. Young journalists But that has all gone down the drain. protect personal (and organizational) do not have that experience and may Bunk holds Omar partly responsible interests. Police commissioners can feel differently about this, in part for the decline, telling him he is promise promotions and raises to because they feel at home in the contributing to it. This gives Omar their subordinates. Gang leaders world of social media and sociolect. pause for thought and prompts him

205 to later help Bunk collect evidence against a gang. Organized differences can also be analyzed from the perspective of Self-Restriction and looked at in terms of personal beliefs, taboos and security. The institution of a free zone (Hamsterdam) is a daring experiment on the part of Major Colvin. He takes the initiative based on his personal beliefs. Everywhere else in the city, drugs are now strictly forbidden and the people that live in those neighborhoods are very happy about this. Hamsterdam is a dilapidated and largely abandoned neighborhood where drugs can be freely dealt and used without the police stepping in. This works pretty well until the media, the police commissioners and politicians learn of the experiment. This type of drug tolerance is absolutely taboo in American public opinion and is therefore spun as an attempt to “legalize drugs,” while, in fact, safety in the city had increased. The organized differences in the city can also be investigated from the angle of Flux, where we look for signs of alertness, pleasure and improvisation. When detective- turned-teacher Pryzbylewski (Prez) tries to teach his classroom full of black students something, he notices how wide the social gap is. His pupils show no interest in his general stories: what relevance do they have to their lives on the street? Prez manages to connect with them by teaching them mathematics by means of estimates Table 4: Analysis of a City´s Diversity: Mapping Jacobs, Gans and Harris to and card games that his students use the ODAM. on a daily basis. That improvisation creates commitment and learning perspectives that can help us outcomes. Learning now becomes Diagnosing a City´s Social understand the city’s social instrumental to life on the street. diversity. In the surface current, This raises the question whether Diversity we can analyze the diversity in education should not serve another terms of Stratego and look at the goal as well, but that brings us back Jacobs has given us the four differences in how policy areas to the Moral Concern perspective. conditions that a city must meet to are rationally reinforced; and we And finally, we can look at be livable, ranging from the built can analyze diversity in terms of the organized differences in the city environment to social diversity. Her the Brains metaphor and focus on from the undercurrent perspective fourth condition is that there must how information is learned and of the Rhizome, where we focus on be a sufficiently dense concentration processed. In the undercurrent, immediate emotional connections. of people and a sufficiently diverse there are as many as four additional What is true for many of the population. This was the condition perspectives that we can take: Moral inhabitants of West Baltimore is that Jacobs’ critics disputed most Concerns (differences in feelings of that their lives are fraught with often. For example, Gans stresses respect and justice); Self-Restriction insecurity, that violence is always the cultural differences among (differences in personal beliefs, lurking around the corner, that their inhabitants, while Harris highlights taboos, and feelings of security); jobs, income and health are not the political differences at play. If we Flux (differences in alertness, guaranteed and that the only thing overlay the Organizational Discourse pleasure, and improvisation); and they can be sure of is that this is not Analysis Model with Jacobs, Harris the Rhizome, which zooms in on likely to change anytime soon. There and Gans’ approaches to social immediate emotional connections, are plenty of changes afoot in this diversity, we can see that these cover often a matter of pride or trust. city district, but they are seldom perspectives 2, 3, 4 and 6 (see Table improvements. 4) Our analysis of the city of Baltimore as portrayed in The Wire shows that there are six other

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