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Jennifer Elliott Phd Thesis STUDIES ON THE PRESERVATION OF FLOWERS Jennifer Elliott A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St. Andrews 2002 Full metadata for this item is available in Research@StAndrews:FullText at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/2693 This item is protected by original copyright This item is licensed under a Creative Commons License Studies on the Preservation of Flowers By Jennifer Elliott A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Science at the University of St.Andrews October 2001 Abstract A known method for the preservation of green foliage was adapted in order to preserve floral tissues, retaining the colour and texture, thereby providing a method suitable for the preservation of whole flowers. Initially, the effects of the existing foliage preservation process on floral tissues were studied and the resulting problems of limp sticky petals and colour loss were identified. Subsequently, with a knowledge of basic plant anatomy and of the properties of the main floral pigments, the anthocyanins, a series of experiments on petals and whole flowers were carried out in an attempt to rectify these problems and to incorporate the remedies into a method for preserving whole flowers. The problem of improving the texture and firmness of flower heads was tackled by investigating the effects of adding bulking or setting ingredients to the process fluid and establishing their optimum concentrations. In the case of flower colour, the addition of acid was required in order to maintain the bright anthocyanin colours and a range of acids was investigated. Furthermore, since it is known that in nature the anthocyanin pigments are stabilised by metal ions and copigments, the use of these agents in the preservation process was also considered. This empirical work was then validated by confmning the identity of the main pigments involved and by studying various aspects of the new 11 preservation process. Factors examined included acid concentration, temperature, solvent composition and the addition of metal ions and copigments to solutions of petal extracts containing anthocyanin pigments. Physical changes resulting from processing, including process fluid content and the moisture absorption properties of processed petals were also measured. Finally, the application of a selection of coating materials was assessed in an attempt to increase the life span of the processed flowers by providing extra protection against environmental stresses. m Declaration I, Jennifer Elliott, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 40,000 words in length, has been written by me, that is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. date ~ ~: .1.9:.9.! .. signature of candidate IV Declaration I was admitted as a research student in March 1998 and as a candidate for the degree of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in June 1999; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University ofSt.Andrews between 1998 and 2001. date.~ ~L !.9:.9.L signature of candidate v Declaration I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of St.Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. signature of supervisor VI Copyright In submitting this thesis to the University of St.Andrews I wish access to it to be subject to the following conditions: for a period of 5 years from the date of submission, the thesis shall be withheld from use; I, understand, however, that the title and abstract of the thesis will be published during this period of restricted access; and that after the expiry of this period the thesis will be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright in the work not being affected thereby, and a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker. 2Cf'{O'O { d at e ... '" .. , , .. ... signature of "-'UJ.JlU.l\.J.U.L"-' va To my family (including Lizzie) and friends. Vlll Contents Title page 1 Abstract 11 Declarations IV Copyright VB Dedication Vlll Contents IX Abbreviations XXI Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 2 1.2 Aim 4 1.3 Thesis 5 1.4 References 6 Chapter 2 The anatomy of flower bearing plants 7 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 General structure of the plant 8 2.3 The cell 9 2.3.1 General structure 9 2.3.2 Plastids 10 2.3.3 Vacuoles 10 2.3.4 The cell wall 12 2.4 The leaf 14 2.4.1 General structure 14 2.4.2 The epidermis 15 2.4.3 The mesophyll 16 2.4.4 The vascular tissues 16 IX 2.5 The flower 16 2.5.1 General structure 16 2.5.2 Histology ofsepals and petals 17 2.6 Implications 19 2.7 References 20 Chapter 3 Plant pigments 21 3.1 Introduction 22 3.2 ChlorophyUs 22 3.3 Carotenoids 24 3.4 Flavonoids 26 3.5 The anthocyanins 29 3.5.1 Structure 29 3.5.2 Synthesis 30 3.5.3 Reactions ofjlavylium salts 31 3.5.3.1 General 31 3.5.3.2 Effect of changes in pH 32 3.5.3.3 Sulphite bleaching 34 3.5.3.4 Thermal decomposition 35 3.5.3.5 Photochemical degradation 36 3.5.3.6 Enzymatic degradation 36 3.5.3.7 Oxidative deterioration 37 3.5.3.8 Condensation reactions 38 3.6 Stabilisation of anthocyanins 39 3.6.1 General 39 3.6.2 Molecular association complexes 39 3.6.3 Self-association 42 3.6.4 Intramolecular copigmentation 42 3.6.5 Intermolecular copigmentation 44 3.6.6 Interaction with metals 46 x 3.7 Contribution of anthocyanins to flower colour 47 3.7.1 General 47 3.7.2 Hydroxylation 47 3.7.3 Methylation 48 3.7.4 Glycosylation 49 3.7.5 Concentration 49 3.7.6 Copigmentation 50 3.7.7 Metal complexing 50 3.7.8 Effect ofpH 51 3.7.9 Histological and structural effects 51 3.8 Implications 52 3.9 References 53 Chapter 4 Process development (a qualitative approach) 56 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Equipment and materials 57 4.2.1 Heating 57 4.2.2 pH 58 4.2.3 Light exposure 58 4.2.4 Chemicals 58 4.3 The effects of the foliage preservation process on whole flowers 59 4.3.1 General 59 4.3.2 Experimental 60 4.3.3 Results and discussion 60 4.4 The effects of temperature, process time and fluid composition on 60 on the processing of red petals 4.4.1 General 60 4.4.2 Experimental 61 4.4.2.1 Temperature 61 4.4.2.2 Time 61 4.4.2.3 Composition 61 Xl 4.4.3 Results and discussion 62 4.4.3.1 Temperature 62 4.4.3.2 Time 63 4.4.3.3 Composition 64 4.5 The effects of acidification 65 4.5.1 General 65 4.5.2 Experimental 66 4.5.2.1 Addition of acid to a processed petal 66 4.5.2.2 Acidification ofthe process solution with HCI 66 4.5.2.3 Assessment of alternative acids 66 4.5.3 Results and discussion 67 4.5.3.1 Addition of acid to a processed petal 67 4.5.3.2 Acidification ofthe process solution with HCI 68 4.5.3.3 Assessment of alternative acids 68 4.6 Processing of flower heads 70 4.6.1 General 70 4.6.2 Experimental 70 4.6.3 Results and discussion 71 4.7 Two-stage processing of whole flowers 71 4.7.1 General 71 4.7.2 Experimental 72 4.7.3 Results and discussion 72 4.8 One-stage processing of whole flowers 72 4.8.1 General 72 4.8.2 Experimental 73 4.8.2.1 Acidification with HCI 73 4.8.2.2 Acidification with p-toluenesulphonic acid and reduction 73 ofbutan-l,4-diol content 4.8.3 Results and discussion 74 4.8.3.1 Acidification with HCI 74 4.8.3.2 Acidification with p-toluenesulphonic acid and reduction 75 ofbutan-l,4-diol content xu 4.9 The use of propan-2-01 in the final rinse 75 4.9.1 General 75 4.9.2 Experimental 76 4.9.3 Results and discussion 76 4.10 The effects of higher molecular weight diols 76 4.10.1 General 76 4.10.2 Experimental 77 4.10.3 Results and discussion 77 4.11 Processing of whole roses using hexan-l,6-diol as an ingredient 78 4.1l.1 General 78 4.11.2 Experimental 78 4.11.3 Results and discussion 79 4.12 Prevention of growth of hexan-l,6-diol crystals 80 4.12.1 General 80 4.12.2 Experimental 81 4.12.2.1 The use of glycerol in the process solution 81 4.12.2.2 The use of polyethylene glycols in the process solution 82 4.12.2.3 The use ofPolidene coatings 82 4.12.3 Results and Discussion 83 4.12.3.1 The use of glycerol in the process solution 83 4.12.3.2 The use of polyethylene glycols in the process solution 83 4.12.3.3 The use ofPolidene coatings 83 4.13 The effects of adding alternative ingredients to hexan-l,6-diol 84 4.13.1 General 84 4.13.2 Experimental 85 4.13.2.1 Polyethylene glycols as replacements for hexan-1,6-diol 85 4.13.2.2 Sugars as replacements for hexan-l,6-diol 85 4.13.2.3 Polymeric materials as replacements for hexan-l,6-diol 85 4.13.2.4 Polysaccharides as replacements for hexan-I,6-diol 86 4.13.3 Results and discussion 86 4.13.3.1 Polyethylene glycols as replacements for hexan-l,6-diol 86 4.13.3.2 Sugars as replacements for hexan-l,6-diol 87 4.13.3.3 Polymeric materials as replacements for hexan-1,6-diol 88 Xlll 4.13.3.4 Poysaccharides as replacements for hexan-1,6-diol 88 4.14 Reduction of hexan-1,6-diol content 89 4.14.1 General 89 4.14.2 Experimental 89 4.14.3 Results and discussion 89 4.15 The effects of various combinations of acid, copper salt and 90 chlorophyll on the processing of dark and pale coloured flowers 4.15.1 General 90 4.15.2 Experimental 90 4.15.3 Results and discussion 91 4.16 The effects of copper sulphate concentration on the processing of red roses 93 4.16.1 General 93 4.16.2 Experimental 94 4.16.
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