The Application of the Hyogo Framework for Action in Thailand

The Application of the Hyogo Framework

for Action in Thailand

A thesis submitted to the Graduate School

of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF COMMUNITY PLANNING

in the School of Planning at the College of Design,

Architecture, Art and Planning

NEVENA KRASSIMIROVA KOTZEVA

B.S. University of Cincinnati 2011

July 2013

Committee Chair: David J. Edelman, Ph.D.

Abstract:

Global climate change is modifying the meteorological rhythms of places all over the world. These shifts are affecting the biological and economic compositions of regions and countries as growing seasons and water availability are affected. Other places experience increased exposure to hazards, intensification of damaging events or even unprecedented disasters. This shared hardship has created many international initiatives to slow the rate of pollution and combat the resulting consequences.

The Kingdom of Thailand is an excellent example as it is located in Southeast Asia, which is the most hazard prone area in the world. Recent history has tested the resiliency of this country with the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami and floods of historic proportions.

As a result, the many agencies active in disaster preparedness and response work very hard to minimize preventable losses and empower the affected people. Education programs for all levels and roles continue to be at the center of the national strategy, which employs decentralization as a means to cope with the wide variety of conditions present in the country.

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNODRR) has aided international efforts in developing the Hyogo Framework for Action. This document outlines goals and strategies for countries aiming to improve their ability to withstand the challenges of disaster. While this tool is very general and comprehensive, it allows for many forms of strategy to employ its recommendations and milestones for self-evaluation and improvement. The case study of Thailand will seek to compare the current state of preparedness and mitigation to the measurements and practices given in the Framework.

Acknowledgements:

An undertaking such as this would have been impossible without the generous support from Mahasarakham University of Thailand. Dr. Tarawut Boonlua, Rutchanoophan Kumsingsree, Nillapat Srisoparbin and Dr. Pondej Chaowarat from the Faculty of Architecture provided invaluable help with the cultural and linguistic challenges that occurred along the way. The use of their infrastructure and resources is also greatly appreciated.

A deep debt of gratitude is also owed to the many officials, organizations and lay people who kindly shared information and their observations in contribution to my research. In particular, the Thai Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, the Municipality of Patong, the Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation and numerous departments from the United Nations in Bangkok. Special recognition is owed to Prof. Dr. Krasae Chanawongse, Chairat Sukaban, and the many others who represented their constituents and organizations in this research.

The guidance and encouragement of my committee was instrumental to the completion of this endeavor. I must thank my committee chair, Dr. David J. Edelman, for his patience and mentorship throughout the lengthy and tumultuous writing process. This project would not exist were it not for his generosity and commitment to the growth of his students. Professors Christopher Auffrey, PhD and Menelaos Triantafillou also provided significant support in the completion of the requirements.

My friends and family deserve much credit for aiding the completion of this project. Their sacrifices and love have not gone unnoticed.

Contents

1.Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1

1.1. The World Context...... 1

1.2. The Case Study Context ...... 3

1.3. Research Objectives and Questions ...... 6

2.Chapter 2: The Hyogo Framework for Action ...... 8

2.1. Origin of the Hyogo Framework...... 8

2.2. The Hyogo Framework Structure ...... 9

2.3. First Priority ...... 9

2.4. Second Priority ...... 11

2.5. Third Priority ...... 12

2.6. Fourth Priority ...... 13

2.7. Fifth Priority ...... 14

2.8. Practical Application of Disaster Preparedness...... 16

3.Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 32

3.1. Study Methodology ...... 32

3.2. Choice of Case Study ...... 33

4.Chapter 4: Data and Observations ...... 38

4.1. National Command Structure of Department of Disaster Prevention and

Mitigation ...... 38

4.2. Provincial Command Structure of Department of Disaster Prevention and

Mitigation ...... 42

4.3. Local Command Structure of Department of Disaster Prevention and

Mitigation ...... 43

5.Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 47

5.1. Conclusions ...... 47

5.2. Recommendations ...... 50

Works Cited 53

iii

Table of Figures

Figure 1: A Population Density Map of Thailand Showing the Contrast between the Rural,

Agrarian Areas and the Dense Urban Ones. Image courtesy of Encyclopedia

Britannica online...... 5

Figure 2: International Participation. Source: Global Assessment Report 2011 ...... 16

Figure 3: Thai Institutional Responsibilities. Source: Japan Media Communication Center ... 31

Figure 4: Response Framework as Established by the Prevention and Mitigation Act of B.E.

2550 (2007). Image courtesy of the Asian Disaster Reduction Center ...... 39

Figure 5 State of vital services in Phuket Province Source: Nevena Kotzeva ...... 48

Figure 6 Electrical wiring in Patong Source: Nevena Kotzeva ...... 50

1. Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. The World Context

Climate change is a global phenomenon that has been very controversial in the science community. While many agree that it is occurring, opinions on cause and rate are highly contested. Whatever one believes, it is hard to deny the amplification of climactic events. The hydrologic cycle, in particular, is experiencing an intensification and acceleration due to the heating of the earth. The warmed air holds more moisture, and the warmer waters evaporate more quickly leading to higher saturation levels. Through the increase in saturation, precipitation events discharge more water and occur more often. (Borenstein

2011) As such, better preparedness on the part of agencies, organizations and private citizens is needed. Climate change threatens to disturb many of the rhythms that have shaped how the human race relates to its surroundings. As the global temperatures increase, many coastal areas are experiencing rising levels of water, earthquakes due to the heating of the Earth’s core and other disastrous events. Hurricanes, in particular, stem from tropical storms that begin in warm waters. As the temperatures of the oceans rise, climatologists predict an increase in frequency. Naturally, many organizations and levels of government seek to prepare and protect the people exposed; however, most of the efforts tend to be localized. (Bagley 2011)

Unfortunately, the systems that are currently in use will need major investments in order to adapt to the changing conditions. Many corporations and countries still view disaster preparedness as a luxury. Due to this perception, there is also a lack of political will for the needed changes. It can be said that the apathy is, in part, due to the terminology used in the explanation and classification of events. Flooding, for example, is termed in 1 years. A ten-year flood is perceived as a flood that occurs about every ten years, but this is an error as the term is not an actual measure of frequency. The time between one ten-year flood and another can be a year or fifteen years. The term is rather a measure of the probability. It implies that every year there is a one in ten chance that there will be flooding of the ten-year magnitude. (Phillips, Neal and Webb 2012)

The best way to explain the terminology is as a gamble. Every year a fair die is cast, and every year is a roll whose outcome is independent of the previous one. Every year the chance of flooding remains one in ten. Laws of probability suggest that the chance ratio holds over many tries. This means that a "flood" roll may occur two, three or even more years in a row, while the ratio holds true over a large number of rolls. In the case of the weather and earth sciences, these ratios can span the entirety of recorded history, and on extrapolations based on ice and soil probes dating back hundreds, if not thousands of years.

(Gillis 2013) This is a concept that many people do not realize is implied in the terminology.

The complacent attitude that stems from the lack of understanding endangers people as it prevents them from taking appropriate measures to address the risk. (Diacu 2009) This becomes even more deadly and devastating when the event is of greater magnitude.

Another factor to consider is that the current warming of the planet is occurring at an unprecedented rate. While the Earth has a natural cycle of cooling and warming, the current trend should be one of cooling. Unfortunately, human activity has disrupted that cycle and has turned the trend upward drastically. Earth is now warming faster than ever before, approximately 40 times faster. (Gillis 2013) While to many, this is just a statistic, to other scientists, it signals a state of emergency as these changes are outpacing the ability of species and ecosystems to adapt. This elevated stress on the systems exceeds their

2 tolerances and throws them out of balance. As systems collapse, the populations and health of species are adversely affected. (Gillis 2013)

One of the major indicators used by scientists in measuring the disruption to ecosystems is albedo. It is a unitless measure used to express the reflectivity of the Earth's surface. While it stems from the Latin word "whiteness", it can be used for all wavelengths of solar radiation, including the visible ones. (Gillis 2013) Land cover also ranges in albedo scores. The range is between 1 and 0 where 1 is complete reflection of the radiation and 0 is complete absorption. The closest value to perfect is ice covered in snow as it is bright and very reflective at .9 or 90%. The earth's oceans and land, on the other hand, are in the lower range between 0.1 and 0.4. As the higher temperatures are warming the ice masses and melting them, the Earth's albedo is affected. This produces a feedback loop that reduces the reflectivity of the planet allowing more heat to be absorbed rather than reflected, and, in turn, the increased warmth melts more of the ice.

1.2. The Case Study Context

The Kingdom of Thailand is located in Southeast Asia and enjoys a climate typical of the region. The three seasons which the country experiences vary in intensity and characteristics in accordance with the topography of the area. The northern areas experience the three seasons in a distinct manner with the cool season, the hot season and the rainy season. The south, on the other hand, alternates between a dry and a wet season with more consistently warm temperatures. (Tourism Thailand 2013) This monsoon- controlled climate experiences much intense precipitation that feeds the watersheds of the major rivers. Thailand is a middle-income country that has seen remarkable progress in human development in the last twenty years. Despite the dynamic political climate,

Thailand now has a Human Development Rating of 0.768. This means that Thailand is well on its way to meeting its Millennium Development Goals. (United Nations Thailand 2012)

The government has positioned the policy to encourage international tourism and investment to help grow the development of all demographics in the country. Currently,

Thailand is a strong exporter of computers, transistors, seafood, clothing and rice. Its agriculture is also strong with cassava, rubber and corn. This dependence on the soil has diminished in recent years as rapid urbanization the shifting emphasis on a knowledge- based economy surge. (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2010)

Many foreign nationals reside and work within Thailand, and the diverse influx of skills and labor has allowed the country to develop strong international relationships. The wide reach of its international good will was demonstrated by the outpouring of aid during the 2004 tsunami. (Diacu 2009) While much of the territory is in close proximity to elements of nature known to periodically cause disaster, the government has worked hard to develop response mechanisms to control the levels of devastation caused by seasonal floods and winds. Yet Thailand's most popular places are also becoming the most developed, as international funds and investments drive density in favor of profit.

Apart from tourists, Thailand is also host to many migrant workers and refugees who still struggle to integrate into the mainstream society. Undocumented and illegal residents from neighboring countries pose a challenge for authorities as they have difficulty with the

Thai language and structure. As unregistered residents, they face more challenges in receiving adequate information, assistance and aid. Such vulnerable populations tend to settle on undesirable lands due to economic and social factors, which in turn puts them at risk of flooding, landslides and other disasters. (Hyndman and Hyndman 2011)

Figure 1: A Population Density Map of Thailand Showing the Contrast between the Rural, Agrarian Areas and the Dense Urban Ones. Image courtesy of Encyclopedia Britannica online.

With a well-developed infrastructure and a free-enterprise economy, Thailand has enjoyed steady growth in recent years. (Central Intelligence Agency 2012) Its focus on investment policies has allowed exports to maintain a gradual expansion despite the

5 periodic economic difficulties; other thriving industries include tourism, textiles, garments, agricultural processing, beverages, tobacco and cement. (National Geographic 2005) Many international organizations and banks are also eager to invest in the growing economy in order to stimulate recovery and expanded opportunities for vulnerable populations.

(Central Intelligence Agency 2012)

Industries that contribute to the success of the Thai economy include light manufacturing such as jewelry and electric appliances, computers and parts, furniture, plastics, automobiles and automotive parts. It is also the world's second-largest tungsten producer and third-largest tin producer. (Central Intelligence Agency 2012) Given these strengths, it is easy to understand how Thailand has been able to leverage this diverse set of activities in its tsunami recovery efforts. Its economic partnerships with countries such as

Japan and Australia have also been key assets in offsetting economic losses.

This level of prosperity has initiated development into many areas exposing new investment to hazards. As more of the area around the cities becomes impermeable to water, the watersheds of the great rivers are affected. For a country with a recognized season for precipitation, the rainfall is a managed part of life. As a result, the residents expect some seasonal flooding, but in the last decade, two major events have tested their ability to respond to disaster. (Hookway and Phromchanya 2012)

1.3. Research Objectives and Questions

The following work seeks to explore the way disasters are perceived and approached by comparing two instances of waterborne events. In an effort to capture a more balanced image of global disaster response and preparedness, the subsequent chapters examine the

6 disaster preparedness and mitigation measures in Thailand. While disaster risk reduction should be present in every aspect of life, due to limited resources and time, the focus of the study will be to answer three research questions:

 How does Thailand measure against the current Hyogo Framework for Action?

 What improvements still need to be made?

 How is Thailand preparing for the new updated plan on the Hyogo Framework for

Action?

The succeeding chapters of this thesis are structured as follows:

 The Second Chapter will explore the origins and contents of the Hyogo Framework for

Action document as well as its implications;

 The Third Chapter will outline the methodology employed in the data gathering and

analysis;

 The Fourth Chapter will explore the results of the research and the appropriate

analysis, and

 The Fifth Chapter will explore the conclusions derived from the application of the

methodology.

2. Chapter 2: The Hyogo Framework for Action

2.1. Origin of the Hyogo Framework

On December 26th 2004, the Indian Ocean Plate slid beneath the Burma Micro-Plate off the coast of Sumatra in the Andaman Islands. While the precise magnitude of the resulting earthquake is still contested, the devastating effects are undeniable. The many agencies that have investigated this earthquake place it above 9.0 on the Richter scale. In turn, the displacement of large volumes of water triggered a solitary wave. The resulting tsunami caused disastrous consequences far and wide along the coasts of Asia and Africa, and the effects were felt throughout the world. The Boxing Day Tsunami, as it is called, is an event that was widely visible to the global community and propelled disaster preparedness and mitigation into the forefront of international attention. (Hyndman and Hyndman 2011)

In January of 2005, the World Disaster Reduction Conference was held in Kobe,

Hyogo, Japan. This event resulted in the first plan to state a comprehensive set of goals and roles for multiple actors and agencies with the aim of reducing preventable losses from disasters. This is a unique tool as it provides a common ground that allows experts, international agencies, governments and other stakeholders to come together and collaborate with a clear purpose. This plan is the Hyogo Framework for Action and aims to bring participating countries to standard by the year 2015. (United Nations Office for

Disaster Risk Reduction 2005)

This global effort to reduce loss of life and property in natural disasters relies on many specialized organizations and extensive expertise of professionals. As such, it bears periodic assessment of general and specific advancements. Progress for countries and

8 regions is also re-assessed every two years through the Global Assessment Report series issued by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR).

2.2. The Hyogo Framework Structure

The aim of the document is to improve resiliency of communities and countries in their social, economic and environmental spheres. This is to be accomplished through three strategic goals: (1) the integration of risk reduction into sustainable development policies and planning through land use regulation, building standards and other measures; (2) the development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards through efficient investment of capital and effort, and (3) the systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programs into routine training and all processes. These three goals are to be achieved through the following five priorities. (United

Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2005)

2.3. First Priority

The first priority is aimed at bringing disaster risk reduction to the forefront of national operations. It speaks to making the population and decision makers aware of the risks and available remedies. Through proper empowerment and motivation, all the stakeholders are able to shape laws and regulations that are appropriate to the hazards they face. The national level is emphasized due to the importance of consistency in standards and policy. Uniform methodologies allow for streamlining of operations and ease of mutual assistance within the country. (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2005)

The recommended steps to achieve this goal consist of inclusionary structures at the national and institutional levels. The systems are asked to integrate the goal of disaster risk reduction into their legislative and development policies as well as their operational and planning activities in a way that is supportive of the shared national goal. The top government level is also the coordinating agent for the decentralization of disaster risk reduction while ensuring that relationships with appropriate partners are maintained.

(United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2005)

To ensure national commitment to disaster risk reduction, this set of recommendations emphasizes the need for legislative and financial support from the government. Clear delineation of roles and responsibilities is among the top suggestion in this category as it makes the decentralization of resources more efficient. In the administrative structure, accountability and transparency are also stressed. Hierarchy and control of resources are essential in chain of command and assist in times of emergency. A knowable structure also allows for discovery of gaps and inefficiencies before their presence is problematic. (Hyndman and Hyndman 2011)

Since disaster risk permeates every aspect of public and private life, the first priority expresses the need for comprehensive integration of measures. The aim is to include vulnerabilities and liabilities into the thinking processes that occur during decision making, not only for the government endeavors, but for the private sector as well. Reports increasingly show that exposure to natural disasters is rarely considered when investments and development is encouraged. (UNISDR 2013) This selective blindness in the name of growth is the underlying reason for the first priority.

Public participation is also emphasized under this topic. A wide involvement ensures not only accountability and thoroughness, but a stronger sense of civic pride and stewardship. The latter is especially important as global climate change, environmental degradation and reckless development practices are shown to be the lead causes of the increase in magnitude and frequency of natural disasters. (UNISDR 2013) (Royal Thai

Government - Ministry of the Interior 2007)

2.4. Second Priority

The second priority deals with awareness and ensuring that all who have the potential to be affected know the risks of developing and living in the area. It urges the use of technology and new discoveries to improve the availability of information. Namely, it urges prioritization of infrastructure that best enables the monitoring and minimizing of occurrences. This emphasis on appropriate investment in prevention seeks to "identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning." (United Nations Office for

Disaster Risk Reduction 2005)

The case is made that in order for any institutions and actors to be able to prepare, the hazards must be identified and quantified. Once the possible threats are known, steps can be taken to address them in a measurable way. This includes social, economic, and environmental consequences related to the loss of physical assets. Attention must also be directed toward the shifting patterns of disaster occurrences and probabilities. As global climate change occurs, the existing coping mechanisms may prove inadequate or inappropriate. (Hyndman and Hyndman 2011)

To this end, countries are encouraged to create, disseminate and maintain hazard maps. Since such efforts require specific capacities and expertise, they require the committed cooperation of multiple agencies and organizations. (United Nations Office for

Disaster Risk Reduction 2005) This is a challenge in many developing countries and the investment in training and infrastructure can prove to be substantial. Accurate information on exposure, risks and conditions should be made widely available to prevent high concentrations of capitol in at risk areas.

2.5. Third Priority

The third priority deals with education. It is meant to ensure that in a time of need, all are able to respond in an appropriate manner. This priority is meant to target everyone, including vulnerable populations and the young by fostering a culture of safety and resilience. The assertion is that if the population is educated and made aware of the hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities. Disasters can be greatly reduced by changing the mindset of those likely to be affected by natural occurrences. (United Nations Office for

Disaster Risk Reduction 2005)

Through school, mass and social media, dissemination of literature and other activities, a government can educate its people on the recommended practices in minimizing risk, evacuation procedures and recovery actions. To ensure survival and resilience, a sense of personal responsibility must be instilled and cultivated. Families must be empowered with the tools and skills to be able to plan and prepare for challenges the might face. Some examples are evacuation routes, the proper types and quantities of emergency supplies to keep or even how to plan for recovery through personal savings, insurance and other practices.

Countries are also encouraged to strengthen and develop the capacities of its disaster risk reduction professionals and researchers. The improvement of expertise must be a constant pursuit as research methods, tools and technologies are ever evolving in the attempt to address the complex systems that cause natural disasters. As environmental conditions and circumstances change around the world, the status quo becomes outdated and inappropriate as a way to manage the consequences. Since some disasters are more predictable than others, this category focuses comprehensive education of public and private individuals as well as the general public. (Diacu 2009) (United Nations Office for

Disaster Risk Reduction 2005)

The recommendations also address the inherent disparities between the urban and rural populations. As outreach strategies differ in success depending on the density, available modes of communication and even levels of education, countries are urged to diversify in their strategies. Bridging income, generation and literacy gaps to inform the public is a serious challenge for any state, but significant progress must be made in order to ensure the safety of the people.

2.6. Fourth Priority

The fourth priority seeks to reduce the underlying risk factors of environmental degradation, loss of ecological resources, climate change, and strengthening of existing key resources and infrastructure. Countries are encouraged to integrate disaster risk reduction in all environment related legislation and policies. Strengthened land use and natural resource management should be used as a tool to allow for natural processes, such as the water cycle, to occur as part of a protected system rather than a destructive force. This priority also contains the aspects of social, economic and environmental conditions that

13 overlap with the other priorities. Here, they are related to the land use patterns and consequences of hazards in the natural sectors.

Climate change is accepted as the leading cause of the increase in destructive occurrences and their magnitude. As a result, environmental stewardship is the underlying theme. The correlation between human activity and the intensification of disaster impacts is strong as ecosystems continue to be disturbed and destroyed by growth and development.

Consequently, all parts of the affected systems suffer and create externalities that further radiate the consequences outward. The Hyogo Framework for Action states explicitly that sustainable land use management and development must be one of the tools that countries employ in their disaster mitigation activities.

Structural and non-structural measures are encouraged to undergo environmental impact analysis with a focus on disaster reduction, especially when modern construction uses so many impermeable surfaces and is spreading onto previously uninhabited areas.

Such interventions disturb the hydrological cycle drastically and are so wide spread, that many places in the world are struggling with drought or flooding conditions. Many other human activities are also affecting other natural processes much to the same effect.

2.7. Fifth Priority

The fifth priority is the direct focus on disaster preparedness through training of responders, building capacity for search, rescue and first aid. The decentralization of disaster response is also in this category. (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

2005) The UNISDR has repeatedly asserted that it is significantly more efficient to invest in prevention and preparedness. "Global public investments dwarf international aid. If national

14 public investment systems truly account for disaster risk, they can reduce potential losses at a scale impossible to achieve through stand-alone DRM." (UNISDR 2011) Through integrating disaster proofing and preparedness in all projects and proceedings, the cost of the needed measures can be minimized by being included in the design stages.

The Framework emphasizes the importance of establishing a legal authority for technical and institutional interventions in all levels of the governance. Focus on local capacities and support is the purpose of the decentralization goal. Through allowing people to be self-sufficient through most disasters, their social capital and resiliency are strengthened. If the citizens rely solely on the national government for disaster response, they miss the opportunity to affect change during the first stage of a disaster. As the moments immediately after a devastating occurrence are the most crucial, it is imperative that those who are already on location are able to respond in a competent and beneficial manner. Without local competencies, extended response time becomes problematic.

Community Based Disaster Management is a popular concept employed to prevent disasters from becoming catastrophes. If disaster response is centralized, the destruction of infrastructure would delay help significantly, but through decentralization communities are able to assist themselves and others in times of need without relying solely on the higher levels of government. (Khunwishit and McEntire 2011)

The role of the national government is also to foster a sense of unity within its lower levels. Encouraging smaller jurisdictions to share in expertise, capabilities and resources builds pre-need relationships. These connections prove to be beneficial as officials of neighboring localities build trust and understanding which allows for improved results during a crisis situation.

The creation and periodic revision of local and regional plans within the participating country is also recommended under this priority. The act of planning would not only help expose and correct gaps in the current practices, but also encourage problem solving. This is also appropriate since the budgeting for these activities also falls under this category, as well as the burden of ensuring public participation. (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk

Reduction 2005)

Figure 2: International Participation. Source: Global Assessment Report 2011

2.8. Practical Application of Disaster Preparedness

The cultural implications of the recovery effort also call attention to the many traditions and livelihoods tied to the sea. Agencies and governments decide what happens

16 when villages, where generations of fishermen have sustained their families on the water, find themselves without boats, homes or even food. As such, the trend for many NGOs is to select a region to perform their services where agencies and governments rely on larger infrastructures and function only for those who are able to navigate the red tape. Given these procedures, it is easy to see how minorities and marginalized groups slip through the cracks of the recovery net. (Dahl 2005)

Work with vulnerable populations is also very sensitive, because there is often a long history of interaction with the majority before the disaster occurs. So in order to gain the trust of those who feel neglected and marginalized, help and recovery actions must be sensitive to the events of the past. In Thailand's coastal communities there is a long history of dependence on the ocean; it is intertwined with the culture of the coastal regions and as such makes relocation and recovery more complex.

The Ocean gave us a lot, so much. We have to give back a little. Still, we love the ocean. This tragedy didn’t come from the ocean — it came from an earthquake in the ground. The ocean takes care of our people. If you have us live away from the ocean, we won’t go. We can make money easily when we go out to sea for one day and live for many. We don’t need to take care of the ocean; the ocean takes care of us. Ever since we lived here, it’s been peaceful — just this once. Nobody wants to run away from the ocean. We can live here because the sea takes care of us. Why should we be afraid? -- Village leader, impacted village, Ranong. (Dahl 2005)

When those living on the shores feel such strong ties to the ocean, it is difficult to convince them to move to safer ground or rebuild elsewhere after a disaster. In such cases the government must intervene and impose safety regulations upon development in flood zones and other hazard prone areas. Land use planning is the chief tool for legislators.

Despite the hardships, the regional background of the coastal areas can be summarized by the simple truth that people settle around water. Even in this modern age, many countries experience their highest population densities around their coastal areas and major edges of water. The promise of beautiful views and easy access to the water draws many investors and owners into dangerous areas. Yet this trend is contrary to the need to depopulate the coastal areas as water levels continue to rise, and waterborne disasters grow in intensity. (Borenstein 2011)

The geographic context of the area points to frequent occurrences of waterborne disasters and suggests that a shift toward efficient and equitable preparation would be suitable. Demographics and statistics would help guide the types of preparations and suggestions best fitting each of the affected areas. The Government of Thailand has been commended for its efforts in the tsunami response, but recent events show that more work is needed to protect the natural flood and disaster deterrents. (Hookway and Phromchanya

2012) “The hardest hit areas in terms of loss of life and property destruction were in Phang

Nga, Phuket and Krabi, not just because of their location, but because they were the most developed and the most densely populated areas along the coast.” (Nam 2012)

Thailand also experienced flooding in 2011, which was said to be of historic proportions. The 100-year flood was devastating to the area north of Bangkok and threatened the city itself. (Lefevre, Thailand's Flood Defences Under Strain Again 2012) The monsoon season, combined with the Tropical Storm Nock-ten, proved to be beyond the capacity of the flood prevention measures in place. Many of the impacted areas were declared disaster zones due to the extended period of submergence and the loss of life.

Deaths are reported to be upwards of eight hundred. (Lefevre, Thailand's Flood Defences

Under Strain Again 2012) While above average rainfall was reported throughout the country, Bangkok is situated among the large rivers that flow from the north. As the excess water accumulated, it reached critical levels by the capital. Due to the size and significance of the city, it was protected by water containment measures, but the measures did not extend to many of the rural areas, and caused much devastation to farmland and industry.

(Hookway and Phromchanya 2012)

The government has been commended by the United Nations for its efforts, coordination and response to the events. Margareta Wahlström, UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Disaster Risk Reduction, even presented Yingluck Shinawatra, the Prime Minister of Thailand, with an award for her leadership during the floods and her work with women and vulnerable populations. Yet, there are many policy changes and criticisms that the Thai government was told to address.

One major issue for the economy of Thailand was the flooding of industrial complexes. The criticism was that the Thai authorities did not provide clear and consistent information on the floods, and very little of it was in English. This was a problem as many foreign investors did not feel they were given sufficient notice in order to move their machinery to safety, and as a result, they sustained heavy losses. This also disrupted the supply chain of many companies that had factories in Thailand, thus shaking consumer confidence and exacerbating the delays in resuming production. Furthermore, this meant lost wages to workers, as their places of employment were inundated for extended periods of time and sustained heavy damages.

The Kingdom of Thailand has a broad variety of hazards in its many provinces. As a way of responding to the diversity of its geographic, cultural and economic conditions,

Thailand has chosen to employ community based disaster management. Through this investment in local capabilities, the provinces and municipalities are able to design hazard mitigation plans tailored to their specific set of challenges and educate their responders and citizenry in appropriate safety practices. The effort will be discussed on a national, regional, provincial and city level later in this thesis.

The literature on disaster preparedness only agrees on one thing: the majority of loss experienced during a disastrous event is preventable. (Hyndman and Hyndman 2011) There are many organizations that have issued sets of best practices and recommendations, as well as many textbooks that address the many aspects of disasters. Many of these focus on specific levels, branches and roles of governments and the private sector, but they tend to be more focused rather than comprehensive. There is an inherent weakness in the separation and delegation of risk because every part of mitigation, reduction and response is so intertwined with the others. If agencies and actors do not coordinate efficiently there will be duplications and omissions leading to waste and inadequate support. (Phillips, Neal and Webb 2012)

A single localized event can destroy earthly possessions and livelihoods, but it can also force people to migrate or even become refugees, interrupt supply chains and affect the economy of an entire region. (Dahl 2005)This can greatly affect those who are not in the area of direct impact who are exposed to secondary effects. These can vary greatly in type and magnitude, which drives some to pressure for an inadequate but hasty recovery process. (Phillips, Neal and Webb 2012) It takes strong political will to resist the surge for redevelopment and recover in a positive and healthy fashion.

In the case of displaced peoples, many insist on rebuilding the original community to its former capacity. While limited changes are made to accommodate the new danger, the reconstruction follows closely what was there. This scenario is often chosen in the interest of saving time. To return to the previous status quo requires minimal effort, as the plans, drawings and regulations are already in place. It is also favorable to the building departments as staff members are already trained in the intricacies of the existing practices and procedures. (Topping, Hokanson and

Butterfield 2013) This also occurs in places where there is a strong identity tied to the location and physical characteristics. Just as the fisherman insist on living by the ocean, residents of places with historical significance experience strong ties to a place that can span generations. Stories of family farms and houses built by ancestors are very common among the rural residents of developing countries.

For others, it is a chance to improve on the old in a more focused way. As funding and support become available, and the equity of the affected homes and businesses is liquidated by insurance claims, the community finds itself with a blank slate and available resources. In the places where the political will is strong enough, the planning process is put into high gear as the affected areas create a new vision for the future and put new priorities into play. (Phillips, Neal and Webb 2012) In these scenarios, speed is of the essence since the planning can only proceed if there is a temporary building moratorium in place to prevent rebuilding that would conflict with the new plan. As the new arrangement takes form, public participation and acknowledgement of the traumatic event are essential. (Topping, Hokanson and

Butterfield 2013) Healing depends on the collective realization that things will never

21 again be exactly what they were, but with effort and collaboration, a new normal can be reached where the community is able to resume daily life.

In the interest of healthy recovery, jurisdictions of all levels are encouraged to have established laws and procedures that allow them to assume extra power during states of emergency. Such powers include suspending the issuing of permits for a temporary amount of time, or bypassing certain processes in procurement of emergency resources and aid. (Topping, Hokanson and Butterfield 2013) Some jurisdictions also have restrictions on where certain types of funding and aid can be directed in such situations, which allows for maximization of the initial wave of aid, since the generosity of many often wanes after news coverage of the disaster stops.

After the disaster occurs, the top priorities consist of safety and recovery. In the interest of safety, many hard hit areas are evacuated to allow first responders to monitor exposure levels to harmful substances. Where sewage and water services have been disrupted, biohazard teams and specialists are often needed. Utility workers are necessary when the likelihood of downed power lines occurs during flooding. These and many other reasons prevent people from returning to their homes immediately after, but these measures allow for the minimization of loss from disease outbreaks, electrocution and many other secondary disasters. Police and army forces are most heavily involved in this stage. (Hyndman and Hyndman 2011) (Partridge et al. 2012)

When an event such as the Indian Ocean Tsunami occurs, the recommended course of action is evacuation and medical attention for those who are injured. Then the search and rescue efforts take place. These steps are taken to ensure the safety of

22 all. As responders follow protocol for inspecting buildings, shifting debris and attending to those found, they also seek to prevent further death and devastation by identifying hazards such as unstable structures and biohazards. Jurisdictions also deploy police and other security personnel to discourage looting and other human activities that might exacerbate the losses. (Phillips, Neal and Webb 2012) It is important for people to be able to trust the process and the people involved. This allows cooperation to take place rather than resentment. (Topping, Hokanson and

Butterfield 2013)

The response procedure that the City of Boston followed after the terrorist bombing in April 2013 has been identified as a successful model in evacuating the affected area, securing the transportation system, distributing the injured to the hospitals and dealing with the immense chaos that results from panic. (Grabar 2013)

While the survival rate of those who were injured was impressive, the responders excelled at controlling and utilizing the occurrence of SUV's. The term spontaneous unaffiliated volunteer strikes both fear and awe into the hearts of officials. These individuals are defined as bystanders or people who were relatively close to the occurrence, but largely uninjured and unaffected. They can pose great problems when they try to help, but instead become in need of assistance themselves by getting further injured or trapped. Officials are also wary of those who have good intentions, but lack training. Such people are not integrated into the chain of command and act as free agents further contributing to the chaos. If completely rebuffed, they become part of the problem as they vent their frustration on social or conventional media and

23 tarnish the image of the effort. (Partridge et al. 2012) (Topping, Hokanson and

Butterfield 2013)

The Boston model was very successful in taking advantage of volunteers while maintaining security of the area. This was possible due to the nature of the event. In the aftermath of the Indian Ocean Tsunami, there were relatives that came to stricken areas to help those who were affected and search for those who were missing. In cases such as a natural disaster, there are many hazards endangering the responders, but they have their training and equipment. For civilians taking the effort into their own hands, the hazards can be deadly. Typical dangers can range from food and water shortages to infections and the lack of medical supplies. By joining the response efforts, many volunteers can place an undue burden on the relief supplies that are sent for the survivors and assisting personnel. (Hyndman and Hyndman 2011)

Volunteers who fall ill also place demands on the time of the medical personnel charged with responding to the disaster. Further issues are caused when those volunteers are of international origin or politically significant. Yet, communities need such good Samaritans to increase the number of people searching. When time is of the essence, victim location is paramount to finding survivors. A good response plan addresses how these individuals are best utilized and handled. This interaction is based on the education and involvement level of the community prior to the event and the relationship between the community and the responders. Ideally, every volunteer would be Red Cross certified and able to follow direct orders from a uniformed individual, but many times they are simply willing helpers. This reason fortifies the need for public training exercises.

The City of Boston conducted two live city drills in order to conduct realistic scenarios in its context and to demonstrate to its citizenry that the officials had prepared for the unexpected. As a result, their volunteers were assistants to the authorities rather than impediments. (Grabar 2013) Through a strongly developed relationship with neighborhood leaders and other stakeholders, the authorities had social capital working in their favor, including social media. The entire city took heart when the police asked that all stay indoors during the hunt for the bombing suspects and showed their trust in the system. This type of pre-need relationship is highly recommended by all the sources consulted.

The sensitive line for governing bodies is between educating people enough to allow them to care for their own safety and that of their families without giving away information that would highlight weaknesses to those who would use them to inflict harm. The specifics of certain preparation measures are kept confidential for precisely this reason. Still, it is important for governments to inform their people of the appropriate ways to act in a disaster. It becomes even more imperative when there is so much misinformation.

As an example, modern construction no longer guarantees that doorways are the safest places during earthquakes. The proper procedure is to hide underneath a sturdy piece of furniture instead, making sure to cover one's head. (Coppola 2011) A tsunami cannot be countered with an opposing wave, yet many early mathematicians proposed this as a countermeasure. (Diacu 2009) In fact, many natural disasters perform counter-intuitively. People are also undereducated about how to prepare for disasters even when significant warning is given. Things such as flashlights, dry clothes,

25 water and non-perishable food ought to be common knowledge, but educating the public is difficult. As with anything, there must be a multi pronged approach that reaches every part of the population. (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk

Reduction 2005)

Many organizations and jurisdictions employ tactics to engage every demographic. The traditional drills and coloring exercises are still employed in classrooms, but now there are opportunities to integrate these lessons in science class when children learn about earth and the many interactions between humans and nature. Public service announcements and shows that teach are a great way to reach the mature audience. The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction and many other web sites have games and tools for parents to teach their children. Even social media is working to find a role in creating awareness. Yet many who are exposed to the knowledge do not retain and disseminate. The now famous story of a young girl who remembered what she learned in geography and saved her family from the tsunami when so many others perished seems to illustrate the lack of knowledge.

(Diacu 2009)

As a developing country, Thailand is eager to have good investments and opportunities for its people. It participates actively in the Asian and global markets as manufacturer as well as consumer. As a result, it has experienced rapid globalization and high growth in urban density. (Central Intelligence Agency 2012) A challenge to developing countries lies in enforcing building codes and regulations while continuing to attract businesses. Worries ran high when the 2012 floods threatened foreign investments in the shape of factories and machinery. Since then, there has been a

26 greater push for expanded communication and warning methods. (Hookway and

Phromchanya 2012)

Commercial and residential investments differ slightly in enforcement as the commercial ventures give more weight to the insurability of the investment where residential investments need more governance to control development in hazard prone areas. The government of Thailand and a few other agencies have identified the at risk areas. Some parts have the probability of multiple hazards. With that information known, provinces and cities should limit investment in those areas. Yet in some cases, there may even be incentives to develop if density prohibits investment elsewhere. If governance is weak on this matter, many lives can be in danger. (Phillips,

Neal and Webb 2012)

Areas with high risk should be considered for temporary or public use in order to minimize the impact of any disaster events. They should also be considered for preservation and restoration, since many of the flooding and drought events are due to the destruction of naturally occurring water management features, such as swamps, wetlands, ponds and so on. (Topping, Hokanson and Butterfield 2013) Since conditions and threats differ so much, it is easy to see why the government had divided the country into smaller and more manageable pieces. Yet with divided jurisdictions, it is difficult for a province downriver to have influence on the water management practices upriver. This is especially the case when desertification and erosion further alter the way a river functions.

Haiti is a global example of how an earthquake can expose grave deficiencies in construction quality, and code enforcement can cause the death of many. Other developing countries also suffer from such business practices where proper reinforcement and materials are omitted. It can occur for many reasons, such as cost cutting, ignorance of proper construction practices or dishonest builders, but, in the end, it takes its toll in lives. (Coppola 2011) Such preventable losses have been addressed through Priority 4 in the HFA. In this, Thailand's efforts to minimize its liabilities and vulnerabilities are explored and measured.

In reality, it is true that risk can never be eliminated, and it is needed to fuel new discoveries and ventures. The calculated and moderate risk involved in most activities is called the acceptable risk. This is the level of risk where the community or government has deemed that the public benefit outweighs the risk and is therefore willing to bear it. (Phillips, Neal and Webb 2012) An important distinction is to whom it is deemed acceptable. In order to determine the level of acceptable risk, many stakeholders must be consulted, and intensive public participation is needed. These proceedings can often be used to educate the people involved about the risks in their area and the ways to mitigate them to the satisfaction of the actors involved.

In an effort to demonstrate just how much of the developed assets are exposed to risk, sources suggest that potential losses should be carried on the balance sheets of the government as well as businesses. The staggering liabilities are hoped to be more compelling than the arguments for ethics and prevention. Rising insurance premiums are also suggested as a means of controlling development of hazard areas, but in many countries, it has proven to be less of a deterrent than originally hoped. For many

28 developers, beach fronts and amazing views are motivation enough to build in floodplains or hillsides in danger of landslides. The ultimate pay out and the transfer of risk leads to many issues if there are not strict government regulations on the types of acceptable risk.

Public investments in Thailand have also been significant given the highly functional road network. Still, much of the advice available discourages people from relying on the highways as a means of evacuation. Traffic congestion is a concern for the DDPM as well as many of the other ministries. The difference being that very few others have as many lives at stake.

Some developed countries with tsunami and flooding exposure warn their citizens of how quickly circumstances can change. Large amounts of water can travel very quickly through the oceans and streams. Flash flooding can be devastating to crops, as well as lives, yet there is often very little warning of the approaching danger.

This is why proper construction and education save lives when seconds are of significance. If the people are trained, their instincts will be correct, and they will be able to take the necessary measures to protect themselves and their loved ones.

Otherwise, many are at the mercy of the forces of nature. (Phillips, Neal and Webb

2012)

Centralization and decentralization are addressed in all disaster preparedness scenarios. The best models integrate the two in a way that utilizes the strengths of both approaches and minimizes their weaknesses. The complementary approach allows for coverage to be appropriate to the disaster and prevents gaps in response.

The decentralized approach allows for community based disaster management.

This is appropriate since Thailand's provinces differ culturally as well as geographically.

The Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act of 2007 allocated money and authority for city and province preparedness measures. Since each locality faces different challenges, the DDPM has offices in each province to conduct annual drills. The idea behind this approach is that local authorities have established relationships with the communities and have a more complete knowledge of the cultural circumstances. First responders who are from the area are better able to navigate the damaged infrastructure and are more aware of other factors that may impede their operations.

The weakness of this approach is that an event can easily overwhelm the systems of a province and cause great suffering to the inhabitants.

The centralized approach helps when resources are limited and must be deployed in a strategic manner. Some cities do that when their hospital networks receive many patients and threaten to overwhelm a single institution in particular. In the case of Boston's response, victims were distributed to different hospitals in a strategic manner so as to ensure all were able to get care according to the severity of their wounds. Centralization also allows for the quick and efficient movement of assistance from unaffected neighboring areas in a short timeframe and with minimal cost. Separate jurisdictions often do this through mutual assistance agreements or

MOU's, but the scope and terms are often limited.

Thailand uses a centralized national approach and a decentralized approach in the provinces and localities. This hybrid model incorporates the advantages of both

30 strategies and is just a glimpse of why the government's response to the tsunami was seen as so successful in the face of so much devastation.

Figure 3: Thai Institutional Responsibilities. Source: Japan Media Communication Center

3. Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1. Study Methodology

The methodology selected for the purpose of this investigation is the case study. The case study is commonly defined as a flexible method of examination that allows for exploratory research and yields descriptive and qualitative data. It is most often used in the humanities and social sciences due to its ability to capture descriptive and underlying principles of data about groups, cultures, policies and occurrences without the implication of generalizable results. The choice of the case study is appropriate due to the fact that no country can be said to be representative of the population being studied. (Yin 2002)

In this instance, the investigation is conducted as an exploratory case study. The object is to gather information about the application of disaster preparedness and mitigation theory. (Yin 2002) Since the amount of information and variations of application is vast, breadth was sacrificed in the interest of depth. The country of Thailand was selected as the focus for a multitude of reasons. The primary one was the availability of resources to conduct field research. The secondary was its status as a rapidly developing country.

(Central Intelligence Agency 2012) This positioned it as a suitable case since its economy and size are comparable to many other countries.

This is an illustrative case study as it poses no theory to be proven or disproven; rather it seeks to provide an example of how countries with limited resources and capacities address universal issues through the comparison of the ideal and the real. (Yin 2002) This comparative part of the study juxtaposes the Hyogo Framework for Action with the observed conditions in the country. Since each country differs greatly in the challenges posed and the resources available, it cannot be said that there is any one example of

32 application that is representative of disaster preparedness practice. Therefore the following work seeks simply to illustrate practical knowledge in the application of theory in the current conditions in Thailand.

3.2. Choice of Case Study

The methodology employed for this research, then, is the case study, which is undertaken at three levels: the national, the provincial and the local. This methodology was selected due to its flexible nature, which allows the process to be specifically designed for each instance and to explore the context within which the subject occurs. (Meyer 2010) This is especially important for disaster preparedness research since so many of the decisions and policies are based on the cultural setting. (Yin 2002) The information assembled is as much about how the Kingdom of Thailand operates as it is about the preparedness and mitigation practices employed. Since it is a constitutional monarchy, some decentralization of power has occurred, but the country has managed to make significant progress on the development goals issued by the UN. The implications of this setting will be made more apparent in the Third Chapter covering data and analysis.

This study examines the comprehensive work of the Department of Disaster

Preparedness and Mitigation within the Ministry of the Interior. This department was originally founded as a defensive arm of the military to protect from and respond to all kinds of air attacks. (Khunwishit and McEntire 2011) It was later expanded in 2007 to serve in the event of natural disasters. In a single piece of legislation, the prevailing duties were expanded in a way that made the department the coordinating agent among all the other different ministries and organizations. As liaison, this department also handles non- governmental organizations and international aid. The department itself is split up among

33 the provinces. (Khunwishit and McEntire 2011) Due to this stratification, the national level is one of the units explored in this research. There are parts of the national development plan that address disaster preparedness and resilience, and those will be examined through the self-examination in the HFA report that Thailand has made available.

The offices of a few major organizations at the national level have also been contacted, including the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the Asian Disaster Reduction

Center and various UN agencies. They were initially approached through an official letter from Mahasarakham University in Thailand and by a lecturer at the university in order to schedule a meeting. The meetings are used to clarify the information from the UN and international reports available publicly. Limitations on extensive communication include language difficulties on all sides and time constraints.

The country divides itself into four different regions according to historic, cultural, geographical and other characteristics. Each region is comprised of differing geographical characteristics, and, as such, each province faces unique challenges. The country is organized into seventy seven different provinces of varying conditions and threats. The climate and terrain differ so much that one province might be in danger of flooding while another is threatened by drought. Thus, a second level of examination is made at the provincial level. Phuket Province was chosen as the representative of this level. The provincial level is underrepresented in the field research due to communication issues, but its role will be assessed through the duties designated to the provinces by Thailand's

Progress in Implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action report as well as the

Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act of 2007. The expected duties of the provincial

34 authorities are also outlined in the Disaster Preparedness Plan for the Municipality of

Patong.

The island of Phuket was chosen due to the level of destruction it suffered during the

Indian Ocean Tsunami. It is the second smallest province in Thailand and easily accessible by road. These factors were considered due to the short duration of the field research. Another major factor was the popular nature of the place, which increased the likelihood of finding individuals who would be able to communicate in English. The language barrier has been lessened somewhat by the generous assistance of Thai lecturers from Mahasarakham

University. The officials contacted correspond to the organizations that have assembled the literature from which most of the information is derived.

3.3. Field Research

Initial contact with provincial officials is made by official letter issued by

Mahasarakham University in the Thai language and followed by phone contact from one of the lecturers. In person conversations are desired, but not all those contacted were able to commit to a meeting. Questions are formulated from the available written reports and external literature.

Phuket Province is relatively densely developed, compared to much of the rural northern part of the country. One city, in particular, Patong, is selected to represent the lowest (local) level of the DDPM. This city is also declared as the role model for city level implementation of the HFA. It is the only one, other than Bangkok, to submit a self- assessment against the Making Cities Resilient - My City is Ready Program. It has registered and actively participated in the initiative.

Due to the short duration of the field study period, some aspects of disaster risk reduction are given less treatment in this paper, but this is not indicative of their importance to disaster preparedness and mitigation or to the safety of those affected. Disasters impact every part of life. Mitigation efforts must as well. Everything from sustenance and potable water, to shelter, to medical attention and sanitation are understood as part of disaster preparedness. However, many things are not understood by the initial scope.

The reestablishment of essential services such as running water, power for cooking and safety and schools are crucial steps that allow healing to begin. Schools especially ensure that the children are safe, and the adults are free to pursue the recovery and rebuilding efforts. This stage is also where the emergency preparedness of businesses and industries becomes evident. Continuation of operations means minimization of losses for the companies involved as well as the workers who depend on wages to survive. The HFA application by the DDPM must include incentives for private companies to develop contingency plans. This practice is evaluated through the reports available and the observations acquired during the field research.

The public sector is the one that leads the recovery efforts as infrastructure is restored, and the essential business networks are reestablished. This step in the process is a crucial turning point for many communities struggling to recover. As investments come in, their use and allocation determine how well the systems will work in the future. Especially in cases where the destruction was total, the opportunity to fix imperfections and glitches in the systems is invaluable. The expanded authority of governing bodies also helps in the process of rebuilding better and with greater efficiency. Upgrades and updates on systems are also best done in this stage. As everybody must adjust to the new normal, a well

36 designed physical environment can encourage the creation of new and more sustainable habits in the population. Transportation in particular is important to tourist industries, as well as manufacturing and service providers, because they rely heavily on human labor. The benefit can be increased by higher density and greater connectivity in the new normal. The

City of Patong, that is, the third level, will be examined in this context.

Risk is so much a part of how businesses and people grow that to eliminate it completely would be impossible and a disservice to society. Instead, governments can empower investors and citizens by communicating the types of risk and the likely areas of impact. The ability of the community to weigh the threats and benefits allows for better determination of the acceptable levels of risk. The availability of information is recommended in the HFA and is a goal of the development oriented organizations.

4. Chapter 4: Data and Observations

4.1. National Command Structure of Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation

The Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act of B.E. 2550 (2007) repealed the previous disaster related legislation and established the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation

Committee. Through this law, the structure of the Department of Disaster Prevention and

Mitigation is built as a complement and parallel to the existing government framework. In compliance with the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015, risk reduction is embedded in every level. This legislation also establishes the authorities and duties of the Department which is nestled in the Ministry of the Interior. (Royal Thai Government - Ministry of the

Interior 2007)

The national level is authorized to budget for the activities and supplies needed as well as to determine the necessary advancements, improvements and investments. The governing of this level includes the current education campaigns and the efforts to establish a cultural norm of preparedness and risk aversion. Awareness and capacity building are both important as they are meant to ensure consistency of standards across the various jurisdictions. While the Ministry of Education is an active partner in the dissemination of proper information, the Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation is also responsible for the training and strengthening of the Army, first responders and Civil

Defense Volunteers. To this end the Department maintains and funds the Disaster

Prevention and Mitigation Academy. It is the main facility for training managers, practitioners, instructors, government officials other important agents. The many campuses that comprise this institution serve to allow for a consistent level of training with

38 specialization in the most appropriate knowledge according to the region. (Royal Thai

Government - Ministry of the Interior 2007)

Figure 4: Response Framework as Established by the Prevention and Mitigation Act of B.E. 2550 (2007). Image courtesy of the Asian Disaster Reduction Center

Monitoring and assessment also rest in the highest level as many of the tools and capabilities rely on heavy concentration of resources. As an example, the buoys employed in detecting tsunami waves require a significant investment in infrastructure. Sensors, satellites and the personnel needed to support them are well beyond the budget of any single jurisdiction or even province, but the national level has been able to partner with

39 multiple organizations and other governments to take advantage of existing expertise and data. Since many of these efforts are international, they are directly under the jurisdiction of the highest levels of government. (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2010)

The Kingdom of Thailand has a wide variety of cultural, geographic and climatologic conditions. In an effort to accommodate the many differences, the country utilizes a decentralized model of government and retains some regulatory functions in the ministries and parliament. For the purposes of disaster preparedness, there is the National Disaster

Prevention and Mitigation Committee. The NDPM Act places the Prime Minister as chief of the committee and requires the participation of a multitude of departments and ministries as staff. This body is responsible for the creation and enforcement of legislation and regulations relevant to disaster risk reduction as well as the creation and implementation of the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan.

Figure 5: Thailand: Natural Hazard Risks. Source: OCHA Regional Office for Asia Pacific

4.2. Provincial Command Structure of Department of Disaster Prevention and

Mitigation

The territory of Thailand is divided into seventy six provinces in addition to the

Bangkok Metropolitan Area. These administrative units are incredibly diverse in nature and as such yield some autonomy of internal governance. In fact, each is required by law to have a detailed plan that works in parallel to that of the national level. (Royal Thai Government -

Ministry of the Interior 2007) In those plans, development of resources and capacities is just as crucial as the national plan. Since the provincial response is expected to mobilize for events that may overwhelm the local systems, but do not necessitate the scale of the national level, adequate preparedness is key. The decentralized model employed in this structure is dependent on each level, but there is much overlap in expectations and capabilities. (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2010)

The province is further required to assist localities with development and land use planning as well as other routine activities. As such, provincial directors and relevant personnel attend the Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Academy in person. Their education is specialized in the types of disaster most likely to occur within their jurisdiction.

The training is crucial as the provincial government is responsible for the population within its boundary, especially those who are not within the urban or municipal jurisdictions.

Figure 6: The Four Regions of Thailand Source: Regional Data Exchange System on Food and Agricultural Statistics in Asia and the Pacific

4.3. Local Command Structure of Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation

Within each province there are districts that serve as smaller divisions with a further refinement of focus. Since there are 855 of these entities, much of what they do is aimed at empowering the local jurisdictions rather than undertake major operations. (Royal Thai

Government - Ministry of the Interior 2007) Still, each has a division of the Department of

Disaster Preparedness and a Director that is educated at the Disaster Prevention and

Mitigation Academy.

The province of Phuket is small compared to the others, but it is an island. Its only connection to the mainland is a bridge with relatively low traffic capacity. As a chokepoint for evacuations, the bridge may prove to be

One criticism particular criticism that was echoed throughout the research was the lack of clear delineation in duties and jurisdiction among the provincial governors, the district directors and the tambon (district subdivision) chiefs and councils. The expectation is that these governing bodies work in cooperation to support the needs of the more localized entities in services that benefit from economies of scale. The districts are expected to provide assistance in procurement of tools, technologies, vehicles, machinery and other physical resources. The tambons and municipalities within each district are understood to be unable to invest in many of the instruments required in a state of emergency, but as a shared resource, the financial burden is lessened.

Within each district there are tambons. These smaller divisions exhibit local pride, exemplified through the One Tambon One Search and Rescue Teams that receive specialized training and regular drills and exercises by teachers trained at the Disaster

Prevention and Mitigation Academy. The municipality of Patong contains three tambons within its borders. These units also receive designated resources to address disaster reduction needs and maintain the needed resources. The preparedness and state of the search and rescue vehicles does pose an issue as much of Thailand presents a challenging terrain even when the roads are in good condition and dry. The usefulness of a commercial quality car does come into question on roads that lack drainage during the rainy season.

Municipalities are defined areas within the defined boundary governed by a mayoral system. The municipality taken as a case study is the City of Patong in the province of

Phuket on Phuket Island. It has been commended for its great progress by the HFA Making

Cities Resilient: My City Is Getting Ready initiative. It is held by the initiative as a role model.

Municipality of Patong

Figure 7: Municipalities of Phuket. Source: Changwat, Amphoe, Tambon

Through the considerable funding received since the Indian Ocean Tsunami, the municipality has managed to greatly improve many of its vulnerabilities. These resources have been applied to the One Million Safe Schools And Hospitals initiative which has enabled the administration to create safe shelters. Through this investment, the resilience of the community is greatly strengthened by ensuring the continuation of health care and

45 proper facilities for the temporary housing of displaced populations. Despite the significance of these improvements, the curriculum of the schools continues to lack disaster risk reduction education as it is not required by the Ministry of Education. This shortcoming translates to the private sectors as well.

The Municipality of Patong acknowledges that the local business communities continue to take disaster risk and vulnerabilities lightly. The lack of initiative from the production sectors does not bode well for the resilience of an island that could very easily become isolated should the infrastructure to the mainland fail. Given the dense population on the island and the many tourists present, this is an important issue. Hopefully more awareness will be created through the financial interests investing in this region as global economic losses continue to increase as disasters become more frequent and devastating.

Private Citizens are empowered and encouraged to personally take measures to reduce their risk exposures. Popular media and other campaigns seek to change the attitude that the consequences of disastrous occurrences. As people have the perception that the government will reimburse them for their losses, the importance of preparedness and mitigation is still not part of the culture. In casual conversation, many admit that they have seen and heard information pertaining to their safety, but did not internalize it.

5. Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1. Conclusions

It is unrealistic that any developing country would be completely prepared for every possible disaster. Such efforts are very resource and cost prohibitive. Yet, after recent events, there has been much political will and social pressure in support of greater disaster preparedness. Unfortunately, the perception within Thailand is that corruption and incompetence hinder the national progress in all areas, including disaster risk management.

Local officials express frustration with the speed of bureaucracy and outdated technology.

In instances where minutes count, like tsunami warnings, delays can be deadly.

Current tsunami warnings rest in in satellite communication with buoys linked by satellite to a central command at the National Disaster Warning Center that then has to alert the local authorities who then pass on the information to those who might be affected. The time between detection and local alert has been estimated at fifteen minutes. Average pre- tsunami warning signs occur 45 minutes before landfall. The approach to disaster and preparedness in Thai culture is another hindrance that magnifies the losses from disasters.

Many of those interviewed expressed that evacuations are unsuccessful when the people do not have trust in the system. The misgivings about recommended evacuations stems from the perceived corruption in the powers charged with maintaining order. Many are hesitant to leave their homes for fear of looting and other property loss. This is further exacerbated by the prohibition of private vehicles during an evacuation. Since the private mode of transportation is something of great value, leaving it behind is not something

47 people are inclined to do despite a state of emergency. This attachment also signifies the lack of pedestrian culture withinThailand.

The municipality of Patong and the province of Phuket have both received sizeable investments for disaster preparedness from foreign and domestic agencies and donors. As a result, much is expected of their efforts. While the self-assessment submitted to the MCR program took into account that improvements still needed to be made, there are many factors that must be addressed. Like any tool designed for general use, the self-assessment can be overly simplistic in many areas of importance. It does not address the vital nature of the infrastructure and neglects the resilience of essential services.

Figure 5 State of vital services in Phuket Province Source: Nevena Kotzeva

It was stated that in order for any of the hotels to renew their license, their staff must undergo disaster preparedness. Some documents even stated that brochures with disaster preparedness information were available for tourists. Yet none of the hotel staff, even at the front desk, were able to supply one. In fact many seemed confused by the inquiry. Tourists and migrant workers are very concentrated in this province, yet as vulnerable populations, are left largely in the dark. In the case of a tsunami, given the island's recent history, there are many signs designating at risk and evacuation areas. Yet the roads are narrow because the island has mountainous terrain. Another part of the culture, disclosed off the record, is that many refuse to evacuate due to general distrust and fear of looting. Others still, are unable to evacuate without the aid of vehicles, yet vehicles are not allowed on the roads during evacuations.

Figure 8: Tsunami Warning Signs. Source: The Pacific Tsunami Museum

An infrastructure problem also became apparent as the island was explored further.

Due to the rocky terrain, the electrical wires are above ground. While this is true for many countries and localities, this particular instance is troublesome as the infrastructure seemed outdated and overwhelmed. Wires hang off the poles in large bundles and tangles. Some have dropped to dangerous levels and seemed unstable. This fact is exacerbated by the fact that the island is not sheltered from winds from the west. As others on the Andaman Sea suffer from cyclones and monsoons, it seems dangerous that such a vital and essential service is not better protected.

Figure 6 Electrical wiring in Patong Source: Nevena Kotzeva

A stronghold of Patong is its hospital. It is built in a designated evacuation zone and thus far from harm. Its school is also built in a multi story fashion in an effort to provide extra protection and a safe place for the children of the municipality. The Deputy Vice

Mayor spoke with pride of his administration's local efforts to provide monitoring and warning independent of the national system to allow for a longer response time. The resources provided by other interested parties also commend the existing system and the initiatives that are in place to strengthen it. Since the spotlight is already upon this jurisdiction, it is reasonable to expect that progress will continue.

5.2. Recommendations

Further research is needed due to many of the constraints and shortcomings of this study. The first of which proved to be more of an obstacle than anticipated. The language

50 barrier precluded first hand observations of the laws and policies in their original. As many of the available translations were made by non-native English speakers, as evident by their command of grammar and jargon, secondary sources were used to verify the intent and efficacy. Objectivity and reliability were also an issue as evaluations and reports were issued by the very institutions and departments they were meant to assess. Future investigations should bear in mind that nuances and subtleties in legal and legislative works are crucial to their intents and efficacies. Translation very rarely captures those elements faithfully.

The accessible information was very limited despite the fact that many of the departments, agencies and organizations conduct most business in English. Also, some parts of the DDPM still lag behind the progress of the neighboring countries. The self-assessment for the year 2013 has not been conducted by the country of Thailand. Therefore it was unavailable for the Global Assessment Report 2013 and direct comparison with those in the region.

The Post-Hyogo Framework for Action World Conference in 2015 will seek to push past the goals set in 2005. As that date nears, unmet goals become more troubling and those sectors that lag behind will need significant investment to stay relevant and effective.

Figure 9: Assessment and Revision Schedule for the Disaster Risk Reduction Framework. Image courtesy of Prevention

Web (UNISDR)

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