1979INo. 8 by Howard and Nancy Cuba Today: Impressions of the North America Handelman Revolution in its Twentieth Year [HH-1-'791

As the Cuban passengers boarded For the Americans on the flight, the but find fault with aspects of its our Air Canada flight from Toronto first aerial view of Cuba generated a implementation. Thus, critical works to Havana, we were amazed at the different type of excitement and an by scholars such as Ren6 Dumont huge volume of packages they air of mystery. All the people in our and K.S. Karol-both leftists carried with them. Laden like study-tour group had long been who spent extended periods in the Andean cargadores (porters) with anxious to observe firsthand the country as guests and blue jeans, skirts, toys, and perfume, dramatic process of political and advisers- have been very poorly they could have been walking socioeconomic change unfolding in received by the Cuban department store advertisements. that nation. Until recently, we had government.2 The Cubans also The woman seated on our left was a entertained little hope that a journey retain a not unreasonable wariness United Nations official returning to such as this-several intensive of CIA espionage. Consequently, Cuba after four years of diplomatic weeks visiting and studying various those who want to conduct service in New York. Other Cubans Cuban political and economic scholarly research projects must be with whom we spoke were either institutions-would ever be sponsored by an interested Cuban returning technical and diplomatic possible. To be sure, group travel institution (a university or representatives or, in several cases, from Mexico or Canada to Cuba has government agency) and must expatriates who had left the island been open to Americans for several generally be recommended by before the Revolution and were years, and in 1977 direct charter persons sympathetic to the returning for the first time to visit flights between the United States evolution.^ relatives.' The various appliances and Havana were reintroduced. But and clothing being brought to most existing group tours are Our study-tour, sponsored by the Havana for the passengers own use designed for Canadian and Mexican Venceremos Brigade, would allow or for relatives (in the case of the tourists who wish to soak up the us to travel the length of Cuba expatriates) testified to the Caribbean sand and sun and have overland, from Havana to Santiago continuing scarcity of consumer little interest in the Cuban political and back, visiting factories, housing goods in the revolutionary republic. process. The Cuban government, projects, state farms, hospitals, anxious to promote its developing schools, and political organizations Several hours later, as our plane tourist industry, has encouraged such as the Committees for the neared the island's shores and we such visits and, indeed, has even Defense of the Revolution (CDRs) could make out its lush, green colors instructed Cubatour (the and Poder ~o~ular?Because of the from the air, the Cubans excitedly government tourist bureau) guides impossibility of independently rushed to the windows. All of them, to steer away from political booking spaces in Cuba's heavily diplomats and returning expatriates discussion. overcrowded hotels and intercity alike, seemed deeply moved by their buses, individual members of the imminent return to their homeland, For those American scholars, Venceremos tour could not leave whatever their attitudes toward the students, or journalists wishing to the group overnight for separate Revolution (we suspected that some engage in more intensive study of travel. However, throughout the trip of the expatriates were not Cuba's revolutionary process, it is the two of us (and other group supportive). Cuba's culture and still extremely difficult to obtain members) excused ourselves from climate-like those of Puerto Rico, individual entry visas. The Cuban various scheduled visits and also Trinidad and other Caribbean regime remains sensitive to took advantage of unscheduled islands-inspire the love and criticism, particularly when it "free time" (including almost every affection of its native sons and emanates from leftist intellectuals night after dinner) to strike off on daughters. who sympathize with the Revolution our own to talk individually with Cuban citizens in the streets, bars, national holiday, Fidel (as the economic difficulty, 1964-1969, the parks, and in their homes. We found Revolution's "Commander in Chief" nation's GNP fell by a total of 2 the Cuban people almost universally is universally known) regularly percent while per capita GNP friendly, extremely hospitable, addresses crowds of up to one declined by some 10 percent. anxious to exchange viewpoints million in Havana's Plaza of the with foreign visitors, and fascinated Revolution to explain, at great The severity of these problems by the opportunity to meet length, the current state of the should not be overstated. A new "yanquis" -whatever their views of Revolution and its future policies. sense of national pride and their own Revolution and of independence, an unprecedented American policies. We are At the close of the year, one more level of socioeconomic convinced that most of them revolutionary milestone would be egalitarianism, new opportunities expressed their political views to us reached-the twentieth anniversary for social and educational mobility, freely and honestly. Indeed, those of General Fulgencio Batista's flight and a revolutionary Elan- Cubans we met who opposed the from the island and the incredible particularly among the young- government (we spoke to a number victory of the small guerrilla army buoyed the spirits of the 75 percent who did, almost all in Havana) were led by Fidel, his brother RaGl, ChE or more of the population that not in the least bit hesitant to Guevara, and Camilo cienfuegos5 probably endorsed the Revolution express their criticisms and The International Youth Festival and and Fidel's leadership. Moreover, complaints to us. the two anniversaries (July 26 and despite declines in per capita GNP January 1) are together significant and food production (documented The Revolution Approaches Middle benchmarks in the unfolding of by the Cuban government's own Age Cuba's revolutionary process. Like statistics), two-thirds of the Our visit to Cuba (June-July 1978) its "maxima lider," Fidel, whose population-particularly the rural came on the eve of a series of beard increasingly reveals specks of sector and the unskilled, urban critical dates in the nation's gray, the Revolution has entered population -were undoubtedly revolutionary history. Throughout middle age. After years of isolation living better than ever before. our trip we saw volunteers, mostly and serious economic problems, this Distribution of available wealth and organized through the Committees is a time of particular satisfaction income, especially after the flight of for Defense of the Revolution and contentment for the nation's much of the middle and upper (Cuba's principal mass mobilization leadership and much of its classes, was far more equitable. In organization), repairing and painting population. addition, guaranteed employment monuments, major thoroughfares (in a nation which had traditionally and buildings in preparation for the In contrast, the 1960s-the first suffered from chronic upcoming XI International Youth decade of the Revolution-was a unemployment), free medical care, Festival. In late July thousands of period of great trials and difficulties. the virtual abolition of rent on delegates from the Third World, the Staunch opposition of most of the housing, and fully-paid vacations Soviet Bloc, Western Europe, and nation's upper and middle classes, raised mass living standards, though the United States would flood the early attempts at such gains were not reflected in island, straining its tourist facilities counterrevolutionary sabotage and GNP figures. Still, by 1969, with the and dormitories to the utmost. guerrilla warfare by opponents of opportunities for further economic Signs mobilizing the population for the regime, CIA plots to overthrow redistribution virtually ended and a the festival-a major source of the government (capped by the Bay declining per capita GNP, the need national pride- were everywhere of Pigs invasion), and expulsion for economic growth became in evidence. The festival itself from the Organization of American pressing. The nation continued to would coincide with another States (OAS), had all conspired to face an acute housing deficiency major, national celebration, the isolate Cuba internationally (except and to suffer serious shortages of twenty-fifth anniversary of the from the Soviet Bloc) and to instill a basic food and consumer items abortive attack by a group of siege mentality among her leaders. (due, in large part, to an extremely university students, led by Fidel The U.S.-directed economic high rate of capital investment). Castro, on the Moncada military blockade, the flight of most of the Revolutionary spirit could not be barracks in Santiago. The attack country's professionals and maintained indefinitely in a stagnant failed to ignite a popular uprising technicians, the great difficulties of economy. against the long-standing Batista socializing a highly dependent dictatorship, but served as the capitalist economy, and the many The 1970s have featured a steady opening battle in a five-year struggle planning and managerial errors economic recovery and growth. that culminated in victory for the committed by the government at all With the emergence of new "barbudos" (bearded rebels) on levels, contributed to a series of technicians to replace those who New Year's Day, 1959. On July 26, economic setbacks and a stagnant had fled, the rectification of many the anniversary of the Moncada Gross National Product (GNP).~ earlier planning errors, and more attack and now Cuba's primary During the period of greatest balanced economic development, the fruits of earlier capital through which citizens can and do virtually all the country's 3,500 investment began to blossom. The address complaints and requests to political prisoners, all reflect the GNP rose by an estimated 5 percent the government. Finally, the regime's current confidence and its in l97l,9 percent in 1972,13 popularly elected local officials, in belief that the Revolution has percent in 1973, and 8-10 percent in turn, elected delegates to both reached a new stage of maturity. 1974 and 1975.~While economic provincial and national assemblies. data for 1976-77 have not yet been While the municipal Poder Popular A Revolution Latin Style published, it is estimated that elections were undoubtedly not As our tourist bus traveled down the growth continued at a rate of some totally open in the British highway from Jose MartTairport 4-6 percent. During our trip, the Westminster tradition -there was toward Havana, we passed a small government announced that the no formal campaigning and number of billboards offering a sugar harvest (still by far the most outspoken criticism of the variety of political messages: some critical sector of the economy) had revolutionary process would not be expressed support for "the people approached the 1970 record of 8.5 allowed-seats on the councils were of Uruguay in their struggle" against million tons, which suggests that contested vigorously in what Frank a rightist military dictatorship; 1978 was also a good year for the Mankiewitz and Kirby Jones have others exhorted the population to Cuban economy. Moreover, unlike called "the most honest and further their education or to get out the previous record harvest, this democratic elections in Cuban the sugar harvest. Some of the zafra (sugar harvest) had been history."8 Candidates for the posters were more mundane, calling accomplished without causing municipal councils were frequently on citizens to conserve energy or to dislocations in other sectors of the not members of the Cuban save money at the government's economy. Communist Party and in many cases national bank (where deposits are they defeated party-member safe but draw no interest). In our conversations with various opponents9 Cuban citizens, we were repeatedly Inside our bus, a Beatles tape, played again and again by our told that many food and consumer The Cuba we visited last June was a Cubatour and ICAP (Cuban Institute items that needed to be rationed in stable and confident nation. The for Friendship Between Peoples) the past are now freely available Organization of American States guides, reverberated over the ("porla libre"). People are eating had voted to lift its diplomatic amplifier. Indeed, our guides' more eggs, fish, and dairy products blockade, and the country already enthusiasm for rock (as well as for (especially yogurt) than ever before. enjoyed economic and political Salsa and other Latin beats) was Apartment construction has also interchange with a number of seemingly exceeded only by their expanded greatly during the past hemispheric neighbors (including fervor for the Revolution. The music decade and we could see new Peru, Mexico, Argentina, was our first indication of the housing being built throughout the Venezuela, Panama, and Jamaica). cultural openness and latino island. Indeed, the construction The Western economic blockade vibrance of the Cuban Revolution. industry has been expanding in the had been greatly weakened, if not In art, music, and lifestyle there is 1970s at incredible rates of 15 to 40 ended. At the United Nations, Cuba neither the somberness of the percent annually. has emerged as a leading Soviet Union nor the rigidity of the spokesman for the Third World and People's Republic of China. Economic growth has been its delegation is known for its accompanied by political thorough preparation on major To be sure, we were struck in our development and the refinement of issues. In Africa, it is extending subsequent travels by the Cuban revolutionary institutions. The most technical as well as military people's extremely high level of important recent change in this area assistance to a number of nations. politicization, particularly outside involved the creation of Poder In Miami and elsewhere, increasing Havana. For example, a week after Popular ("Popular Power"). In numbers of Cuban exiles are our arrival we happened upon a October 1976, Cubans throughout accepting the fact that the public exhibition of posters, almost the island voted for thousands of Revolution is here to stay. The exclusively political in nature, in the representatives to municipal hosting of the International Youth city of Santiago-the "cradle of government councils under the Festival, the government's the Revolution." By then we had terms of the nation's new willingness (indeed, eagerness) to become accustomed to the crowds constitution. The officials elected to accept thousands of "bourgeois" of outgoing, inquisitive youngsters these Poder Popular councils (a Canadian, Mexican, and American (in this case aged 7 to 12) we often part-time, unpaid, position) direct tourists, the new policy (introduced attracted. the administration of many local after our trip) of allowing visits by "What country are you from?" they services. In addition, their offices expatriates who had fled after the (which are apparent everywhere and Revolution, and-perhaps most asked. may even be found in gas stations in important-the decision (also "Try to guess," we replied, well more remote areas) serve as boards subsequent to our trip) to release aware of what an oddity American tourists were, particularly away from the beaches near Havana.

"East German?" "No!"

"Polish?" "No!''

"Russian?" "No!"

Finally, after they had run through most of the Soviet Bloc nations, one young boy guessed, "Japan." "Don't be silly," countered a more mature 12-year-old, "they couldn't be from Japan.. . . That's a capitalist country."

Later, we asked the children to identify the home countries of Agostinho Neto (Angola), Mengistu Haile Mariam (Ethiopia), and other leftist, Third World leaders who Political posters on a street in Santiago: upper left, "Communist Ethics: the Highest appeared in several posters with Form of Human Living Together"; lower left, "Parents: An Educational Example." their names printed but not their countries. We were amazed at how more similar-at least on the Cuban Women to attend schools many they were able to place. surface-to Veracruz (Mexico) or where they could learn alternative Santo Domingo (Dominican occupational skills. The government Yet, Cuba's culture is clearly not Republic) than to the austere image now guarantees full employment for totally politicized, nor is that the of the Cuban capital painted by all women who wish to work?' so government's intention. On our first some of the U.S. news media. economic necessity has lost its morning in Havana, we turned on There were revolutionary posters motive force, although in the bars of the radio and were greeted by the here and there and a CDR office on Havana's old city we did see several strains of "The Sound of Music." every block, but on the beaches women soliciting customers. We That album was followed by a fairly along the tree-lined Prado and on were told the authorities tolerate political childrens' show, a the sea wall of the Malecon, this small amount of remaining revolutionary "Sesame Street," if Havana's waterfront, young men prostitution, although it is you will, featuring stories stressing watched the passing scene as technically illegal. The continued the value of hard work at school and miniskirted young women (long tolerance of Cuban society is also concluding with a bouncy tune skirts are out in Cuba) walked along reflected in its special hotels entitled "Firme con Fidel, Firme con the avenues with their families or designed to allow young couples- el Ch6" (Unswerving with Fidel . . . boyfriends. In the darkened with no apartments of their own-to [andl Chef'). After the children's doorways along the Malecon many check in by the hour. Such hotels program, the station turned to a couples could be seen passionately were introduced well before the selection of traditional, Caribbean- embracing. Revolution but continue to flourish style music. Similarly, while political under new, state management. In films are shown widely, they are not While the Cuban Revolution thus short, while the government and the the dominant movie fare. Local has little of the puritanical values CDRs have sought to eliminate movie theaters featured "Hello and style commonly associated with traditinal Latin machismo and Dolly" and "Chinatown," as well as other Marxist societies, it has sexism in the family, the sensuality a variety of Mexican adventure prompted the elimination of and sexuality of Cuban humor and films. On the beach near Cienfuegos pornographic films and magazines, of male-female relationships we were approached by a large rampant prostitution, and the remains untouched. group of teen-agers who wanted to infamous sex shows for which get the latest news regarding the prerevolutionary Havana was so Early in our tour, we attended a Bee Gees. well known. In the Revolution's national music contest at Havana's early days, Havana's many large Karl Marx Theater. Leading During our first night in Havana prostitutes-deprived of their North Cuban singers were performing (Saturday), we were struck by the American customers- were songs in the final round of city's lively, latino atmosphere, far encouraged by the Federation of competition to select an official what they want and, in its own way, it is revolutionary.

Impressions of Havana Walking down the streets of Havana, one is struck by two major contrasts with other Latin American capitals such as Mexico City or Lima. First, there are a limited number of restaurants, bars, and shops, and the range of products within those establishments is quite narrow. At the ice cream parlors (ice cream is a Cuban passion), long lines form to buy the one or two flavors usually available. At one cafe, we tried wheat ice cream-it tastes a bit like frozen cream of wheat. Long rows of North- American-style stores, filled with toys and clothing for the middle and upper classes (or tourists), so typical Havana's ocean front: the Malec6n. of Mexico City, are not to be found here. Grocery stores offer a very song for the International Youth American group complained about limited selection: cucumbers (or Festival. The performance was the song's "sexist style," the other vegetables in season), cooking televised nationally, but since tickets audience clearly loved it. bananas (plantains), rice, sugar, are inexpensive ($1.15-$2.30)and yogurt, powdered and condensed well within the budget of most Thus, the Cubans have rejected a milk, cooking oil and lard, eggs, Cubans, the theater was nearly full revolutionary culture that politicizes soap, and a small variety of canned (including a large number of families almost all art and cultural life. Cuba goods were in stock at the shops we that had brought their children). For is a highly mobilized and politicized visited. There are no competing those members of our study group society. The Revolution has instilled brands or even brand names. who had expected an evening of strong ideological commitment and Butcher shops offer a small quantity militant, revolutionary music, the seriousness of purpose within its of rationed meat, but fish is now concert proved to be a population, particularly among the plentiful and unrationed. Clothing is disappointment. Most of the songs young. But Castro and the top usually practical and work-oriented; were softly lyrical, extolling nature, revolutionary leadership-to their though we did see a tuxedo and love, youth, and "the future" with credit- have not sought totally to wedding gown for sale in one store only tangential political content. transform the traditional culture, or window. Even the most politically oriented to remove the elements of style and songs were a far cry from the individuality which give the island so Beyond the small quantity of Chinese People's Republic's much color and vibrance. At the consumer goods, there is also a best-sellers calling on the nation to Tropicana Night Club in Havana, second distinctive feature of surpass Britain in steel production. couples of all social backgrounds Havana's streets. One encounters The sequinned costumes of the dance to Latin rhythms in their none of the beggars and maimed performers and the master-of- patent leather dress shoes while cripples with outstretched hands ceremonies' style suggested, more bikini-clad performers sing on stage. common to other Latin American than anything else, a Latin version The cost of the Tropicana ($13 or capitals. (Badly crippled persons of the old Ed Sullivan variety show. more per couple) is high. But with and some mentally retarded The unquestioned hit of the night, full employment, free social individuals seem to be given jobs bringing the audience to its feet, services, and a scarcity of consumer selling newspapers, magazines, and was not even an entry in the goods, most Cubans have more candies in street stands.) Nor are contest; instead, it was a fiery cash available than they can readily there the hustling shoe shine boys rendition of "BabalCi" performed by spend. For many of them, a trip to or the pathetic, barefoot kids that Rosita Fern&, a vicacious, 55-year- the Tropicana -formerly the sell flowers and chiclets in the cold old Cuban musical star whose exclusive preserve of rich Cubans mountain nights outside the movie dress-slit to the thigh-showed and "yanquitourists"-is the theaters of Bogota (Colombia) or La her still youthful figure to full fulfillment of a long-time dream. It Paz (Bolivia).11 Finally, we saw no advantage. While some of our may not be overtly political, but it's old people or children sleeping on the sidewalks at night-a sight so depressingly common in Rio de Janeiro, Bogota, or Mexico City. In short, the Revolution has eliminated both the extremes of dire poverty and of middle- and upper-class luxury.

It is quickly apparent why so many of the urban middle and upper class chose to leave. Gone are most of the fancy nightclubs and restaurants, the exclusive beach resorts and private schools, the expensive appliances and cheap maids, and the many privileges they enjoyed before the Revolution. The range of salaries for skilled and unskilled occupations has narrowed considerably. Whenever we visited factories, hospitals, universities and schools, state farms, and hotels, or when we met people on the street, Street in Old Havana (Sunday morning). we inquired about current salaries. The figures we gathered (Table 1 ) coincide closely with earlier data available e~sewhere?~

Because so many services are free in Cuba (medical care, schooling, sports events and, until 1977, public telephones) or have been reduced to nominal costs (rent which never exceeds 7 percent of income) and because so many consumer goods

Table 1

Monthly Salaries of Selected Cuban Occupations

Occupation Monthly Salary in Pesos*

Hotel Cleaning Lady 75-80 Agricultural Workers Downtown Havana. (State Farm) 80-100 Electricians 120-220 Cement Plant Workers 100-250 are rationed or very expensive technicians (including government Hospital Laboratory (electrical appliances, for example), functionaries) obviously earn more, Technicians 1 50 it is difficult to evaluate purchasing but most have monthly salaries of Hospital Staff Doctors 200-400 power or to make direct 200-300pesos and very few earn Middle-Level Govern- comparisons with developed or more than 350. With rare exception, ment Administrators 200-300 Third World nations. What AS there is a salary ratio of University Professors significant is the salary range. The approximately 3.5:l between top (Santa Clara) 300-500 vast majority of rural and urban and bottom incomes; this ratio is workers seem to earn between 100 extremely small compared to that of *The official exchange rate (given and 150 pesos ($1154173) per other Latin American nations or tourists) is: 1 peso = $1.15. month. Professionals and even in industrialized societies. individual is limited to one home (the most affluent lost their summer houses) and children who move out of their family's home lose the right to inherit it.^

The loss of skilled professional and technical persons-both Cuban and foreign - in the 1960s was extensive and created a major economic crisis. Of 6,000 doctors in the country at the time of the Revolution, some 50 percent left the island. The flight of the engineers and industrial technicians was even more widespread. A number of doctors and other professionals, particularly younger ones, stayed out of ideological conviction and accepted their more modest standard of living. In the major provincial hospital of Camaguey we spoke to Some consumer goods in Havana appliance shop. one of the few senior staff members at the time of the Revolution who chose to stay. He told us that while his income is much lower than it had been previously, he is much happier with his work now that he can serve those who most need him and can practice preventative medicineJ4

The Disgustados Of course, not all the remnants of the old middle and upper class share his political commitment. Many who stayed did so because of family ties or an unwillingness to move to a new culture. In the province of Sancti Spiritus we met a middle-aged Havana couple on vacation. The husband had worked as an engineer for a well-known, American-based, multinational corporation before the Revolution and now was employed as a high- level technician in the communications ministry. His wife Lining up to buy flowers for Fathers' Day (to be put on grave sites) near Havana's main cemetery. was also a college-educated technician working in a government Professionals and technicians who occupationally necessary. More agency. After the Revolution they chose to remain in Cuba after the affluent persons who remained on had remained in Cuba because of Revolution for either ideological or the island were allowed to keep the his inability to gain custody of the personal reasons continue to enjoy a homes they lived in before the children from his first marriage. somewhat higher than average Revolution. We met one woman When we met them, they had been standard of living and a great deal of who told us that she and her standing in front of their hotel for prestige. For example, only immediate family (husband and over an hour awaiting a taxicab (that university graduates are allowed to three children) retained their five never did come) to take them to a buy the few automobiles sold for bedroom house while her aged Catholic religious shrine near the private use-if they can secure and mother lived alone in a nearby four city of Trinidad. "Since the afford them andprove that the car is bedroom home. However, each Revolution," they angrily told us, "taxi service has gone to hell." remaining private businesses still buy a tape recorder or stereo on Undoubtedly it has-taxis are not allowed to function in the capital.15 their behalf. Other members of our currently a high government group had similar experiences. priority. During the early 1960s, then- Indeed, many of the young Premier Fidel Castro estimated that dissidents whom we spoke to in The couple reflected a common 30 percent of Cuba's urban Havana, both near the hotel and viewpoint among dissatisfied population did not support the elsewhere, seemed most interested members of the urban middle class. Revolution. If that estimate was in buying clothing from us (in order As religious Catholics who before correct (some argue it understated to circumvent the rationing system the Revolution enjoyed a luxurious the degree of opposition), the level or to get a pair of highly valued lifestyle-vacations in Miami, the of discontent in Havana American blue jeans) or wished to best medical care, private schools undoubtedly was (and still may be) engage in some other form of black for their children-the new regime higher. During our first days in the market activity. When they has little to offer them. The capital, when we struck off expressed their distaste for the G6mezes (not their real name) had individually away from our study Revolution (which they did without refused to join a CDR (to which group and guides, we were caution or hesitation), their about 70 percent of adult Cubans approached a number of times by complaints seemed to center on belong). Moreover, they told us that disgustados. Almost all were young economic rather than political most of their friends and co-workers men in their late teens or early factors, although some did criticize knew of their antirevolutionary twenties (Cuba is still sufficiently the absence of political freedom or sentiments. latino that young women don't their inability to freely travel abroad. strike up conversations with For the most part, however, they "And yet, in spite of your known strangers.) These "dissidents" were more interested in stereos than political convictions, you are not tended to hang around the foreign in press freedomJ6 Usually they bothered and can keep important tourist hotels, particularly the came from middle-class posts in government agencies [they Havana Libre (formerly the Havana backgrounds or, in some cases, had a combined salary of over 500 Hilton). Their attraction to that merely aspired to such a lifestyle. In pesos per month]?" we asked. particular hotel, Havana's largest, discussing the absence of modish soon became apparent. In the rear clothing and electrical appliances in "Sure! As long as we don't of the lobby is a large shop stocked their country, they often made proselytize or engage in with Cuban tourist products (rum, invidious comparisons with the antigovernment activities." cigars, "Cuba S?' T-shirts, scarves, United States where many of them etc.) as well as imported wines and had exiled relatives. Like many disgustados (persons beers, more expensive clothing, opposed to the Revolution), the Japanese tape recorders and Many Western observers visiting G6mezes continued to attend televisions, and other items that are Cuba have also faulted the church services on Sunday along either tightly rationed for Cubans or Revolution for its spartanly austere with a significant minority of mostly totally unavailable. The shop has living conditions. Yet, both the older Cuban citizens. Official policy two purposes: first, it provides Cuban disgustados and foreign discourages religious practice, goods for foreign tourists or items critics overlook the fact that while however, and parents who attend that the foreign diplomatic more luxurious consumer goods are church regularly or who enroll their community "demands" (tape indeed readily available in other children in religious instruction recorders, Heinekin beer) but which Latin American nations, most of cannot usually enter these children are unavailable in local shops those items are beyond the in the Pioneers, the national youth because the government feels they economic means of 40-60 percent of mobilization organization. Yet, in are luxuries an underdeveloped the population. In Brazil, Argentina, Santiago a group of workmen who country cannot afford; second, it Chile, Peru, and Uruguay (and in were rebuilding the roof and a wall furnishes the Cuban economy with Mexico during the 1940s and 1950s), of a large church told us they were badly needed foreign exchange. the lower 50-70 percent of the employed by the state whose policy Indeed, only dollars or other hard population have taken sharp cuts in it is to keep the nation's churches in foreign currencies are accepted at their living standards-working good repair. A leader of the Jewish the store and only foreigners are class real income has typically community in Havana informed us allowed to pass beyond its totally declined 30 percent in those that, despite the government's anti- draped glass doors and windows. nations-in order to finance Israeli foreign policy, state-owned industrialization or to repay loans bakeries still provide the Jewish On several occasions when we from the International Monetary center with matzo (unleavened visited the Havana Libre we were Fund (IMF) and other lending bread) for Passover. Several approached by young men offering agencies. Cuba is the only Latin privately owned kosher butcher to exchange pesos for dollars at American nation where the upper shops in Havana are among the only favorable (illegal) rates if we would income strata rather than the lower were forced to sustain declines in smallholders throughout the world, have spent a year or more on the their standard of living in order to he had a rather cautious and island-was that the number of finance capital investment. At the conservative world view, and he persons who endorse the same time, the Cuban regime has showed no great enthusiasm for the Revolution, with varying degrees of guaranteed its rural and urban lower government. Yet, when asked to enthusiasm, far outnumber those classes jobs, educational cite the single greatest change in who oppose it. To the extent that opportunity, medical care, and an village life since the Revolution, his discontent exists, it seems to be adequate if somewhat spartan diet, response was a positive one. overwhelmingly concentrated in something that virtually no other Pointing up the road to a new Havana. Indeed, not once were we Latin American nation has secondary school perched on a hill, approached outside the capital by achieved.I7 he declared, "Now our children can persons wishing to engage in black study to be whatever they want." market dealings and only rarely On the basis of only several weeks in when outside the capital did we hear Cuba, it was obviously impossible In Santiago, we met a young black critical comments about the for us to gauge with great engineering student on the bus. government. confidence the proportion of the After talking to us briefly about population that supports or opposes Malcolm X and Martin Luther The Revolution in the Provinces the government. Those young King-whose writings he had read While our visits to the Havana Libre Havanans who approached us in the in translation- he confided that one Hotel exposed the continued capital undoubtedly were not a of his great desires in life was to get existence of consumer-oriented representative sample of public a pair of genuine Wrangler blue values and antigovernment dissent opinion. At the same time, the urban jeans. Like the young disgustados in Havana, our second trip to the and rural workers to whom we were whom we had met in Havana, he hotel also showed a very different introduced in our guided tours were too would have liked more Western- side of the Revolution. On that surely atypically unreserved in their style consumer goods. But, unlike occasion we met two young, rural revolutionary enthusiasm. Generally the others, he was unequivocal in couples who were enjoying their they came either from model state his support for the regime. "My honeymoons as fully paid guests of farms and factories with particularly father was an unskilled railroad the state. We learned that a paid good working and living conditions worker," he told us. "Yet I and two honeymoon is the privilege of all or from sectors of the working class of my sisters have gone to Cuban citizens. One couple, both (such as the cigar workers) with university. Before the Revolution aged 18, told us this was their very long histories of radicalism even that would never have been first visit to Havana. Mixed among preceding the Revolution. possible." the "Libre's" foreign tourists and official delegations, they gazed in Our conversations with citizens On the whole, our own amazement at the luxury hotel so whom we approached impression- buttressed by the totally beyond the dreams of their independently suggested that it is observations of colleagues who parents in prerevolutionary days. quite erroneous to imagine a bi-polar division between impassioned opponents of the regime on the one hand, and fully committed, revolutionary ideologues on the other. Like citizens everywhere, Cubans tend to evaluate their government and its policies in terms of a mixed bag of political and economic criteria. In Holguh province we traveled on our own and into the countryside to talk both to peasants working on a state farm and to a number who still owned their own plots. One of the latter complained that he disliked having to sell his products at state- controlled prices and would prefer having greater control over the use and marketing of his pigs and vegetable crop. Like most

Santiago street scene. The fact that they couldn't enter the for five years in the Cuban army opportunities, and government hotel's tourist shop to buy Heinekin while her husband, by then a services. If Cuba's wealth-sugar, beer or short-wave radios did not member of the Communist Party, tobacco, cattle-originated in the seem to bother them. They never studied for a period in Moscow. countryside, it was spent almost had developed such tastes. For Later, she left the military and briefly exclusively in Havana. While there them, the honeymoon, like the new headed the province's Federation of was poverty in the nation's capital, it school and polyclinic in their village, Cuban Women. Recently widowed was also the stronghold of the was among the many wonders Fidel (Francisco had died of a heart middle and upper classes as well as and the Revolution had brought. attack), Helena is simultaneously the bastion of "foreign, bourgeois, directing an adult education consumer-oriented values." When we left the capital for the program and pursuing her studies at "Havana," said Fidel, "is the provinces of Cienfuegos, the University of Camaguey in order overdeveloped capital of an Camaguey, Sancti Spiritus, ~ol~ufn,to complete requirements for her underdeveloped nation." Santa Clara, and Santiago, we were teacher's credentials. She proudly struck by the marked change in told us that her eight-year-old daughter headed her second grade atmosphere. The people with whom Nothing is more apparent inCuba group of Pioneers. we spoke in the provincial capitals today than the extent to which and towns tended to be more earlier priorities have been reversed. animated, outgoing, and outspoken Fidel Castro has stated that 90 In the provincial towns and cities we in their support for the revolutionary percent of Cuba's rural and small visited throughout the island, we process. town population support the repeatedly passed new housing Revolution. Our experiences outside being constructed by worker In a cafe in the city of Camaguey, Havana suggested that this estimate "microbrigades." These brightly we met two union activists: may not be exaggerated. Like its painted new apartments that dot the Gregorio, a railroad mechanic, and counterparts in Vietnam and China, island are practically nonexistent in Helena, the director of an adult Cuba's Revolution was not really a Havana (where most apartment education program at a nearby classical Marxist class struggle buildings have been allowed to canning factory. Both were open between the industrial proletariat decay considerably). In fact, the and voluble, stating at the start of and capitalists. Instead, the hallmark only major housing project being our conversation that they were of government policy has been the built for the capital -the vast model committed revolutionaries and transfer of resources and benefits city of Alamar-is located well Marxist-Leninists. Indeed, they from Havana to the provinces, from outside the city.'* Similarly, many made it clear they trusted us-as city to countryside. Like all consumer goods (clothing, books, Americans-only because we were capitalist, Third World nations, appliances) were more widely traveling with the Venceremos prerevolutionary Cuba was marked available outside Havana than in the Brigade. Helena, a large-framed by sharp urban-rural discrepancies capital, a complete reversal of the intense woman, symbolized the in income, health care, educational pattern in other Latin American doggedness and persistence of the rural revolutionary. The daughter of a Camaguey small landowner, she had left the farm early to live with her sister in the provincial capital in order to complete her primary education. At the start of the revolutionary struggle she had studied bookkeeping for two years and was employed by a local firm. Both she and Francisco, the man with whom she was living, were militant unionists and when he joined the rural guerrillas in the closing months of the fighting, she stayed behind in Camaguey to engage in "clandestine underground activity." Married after the guerrilla victory, Helena worked

New rural housing: El Tabl6n dairy farm ( Cienfuegos Province). nations. Moreover, modern medical care, once almost exclusively limited to Havana and other major cities, is today available throughout the country in government polyclinics providing free service. The large number of doctors graduated since the Revolution (over 60 percent of the current medical population) are required to spend three years, after completing their schooling, practicing in provincial cities and towns where their services are most needed. Many of them remain after their obligatory service has ended, either out of ideological commitment or simply because the cultural, economic, and recreational opportunities available in the provinces are no longer very different from those in the capital.

Microbrigades and Worker Heroes Old rural housing: typical Bohia still widely seen. Walking through the streets of Camaguey one evening, we entered a complex of new, high-rise worker apartments not far from our hotel. Housing over 700 families, the complex included a day-care center, primary and secondary school, athletic facilities, and, atop one of the buildings, a combination restaurant and nightclub. We were told by several residents that the units were two to three years old and, like most new Cuban apartment houses, were built by volunteer worker brigades.

Microbrigade housing represents an innovative approach to solving Cuba's extensive housing shortage without diverting labor resources from other sectors of the economy. In factories throughout the country, teams of volunteer workers (usually about 35 in number) are released Huge Alamar housing project (microbrigade) outside Havana. from their regular labor obligations for a period of several months, while has been built at an annual rate of areas and attractive pastel their factory co-workers obligate 20 themselves to make up the 25,000 units (accounting for 80 coloring. volunteers' regular production percent of all newly constructed quota. After a brief training period, apartments).19 With the exception The project we happened upon in the microbrigade volunteers, of Alamar and several other large Camaguey had one apartment receiving their regular salaries, projects, most apartments are no building put up by local construction construct apartment units (generally more than three to four stories high. workers, another by railroad prefabricated) for the workers in The ones we saw in various workers, and two by microbrigades their factory so as to partially or fully locations throughout the island from nearby factories. Each meet their housing needs. During were simple but generally tasteful in apartment came equipped with a the 1970s microbrigade housing architectural style with open green small television and stove (both free), but no refrigerator. Rent on all month-long vacations (while his great emphasis on increasing microbrigade apartments is set at 7 family continued to receive his productivity. Repeated stress was percent of the salary of the family's regular pay). placed on reaching and exceeding highest wage earner. Thus, if both "las normas" (worker production husband and wife are working-a The family's new apartment and norms or quotas), and salaries for common practice- rent comes to a refrigerator as well as Felix's individual workers or production nominal 4 percent or so of family European vacations were evidence teams often varied by 25 percent or income. Once the apartments are of the material rewards now so according to how much they completed, they are allocated to available to exemplary workers. produced ("segh /as normas"). On workers in the factory according to During the mid-1960s, Cuba's the Ciego de Avila citrus farm in a vote of all the plant's employees. revolutionary leadership (as well as Santa Clara, for example, fruit The criteria for the allocation of European advisers and scholarly pickers' salaries varied from 90-105 apartments (since supply rarely observers) intensely debated the use pesos ($103-$121) monthly. meets demand) include both family of "material" (economic) versus need and the applicant's "merit." "moral" (purely idealistic) incentives At the same time, however, our This second factor is, in turn, as a means of stimulating worker hosts stressed that economic productivity in the factories and determined by a worker's rewards depend on collective rather countryside. During the early years productivity, revolutionary than individual efforts. Productivity- of the Revolution, the prevailing commitment, and general attitude. related wage boosts are generally ideological strain-emanating Workers who maintain low absentee tied to the output of a whole primarily from Chi5 Guevara-was records, exceed their production production unit while critical that the "new socialist person" norms (quotas), attend adult incentives (microbrigade would work harder, not for personal education classes, participate in apartments, televisions, and material gain, but out of an idealistic CDR volunteer labor projects, and washing machines, etc.) are commitment to the development of are ideologically committed to the allocated on the basis of the the country and the good of future Revolution, are given first priority. workers' collective decisions. generations ("moral incentives"). Similarly, rather than compete with The use of personal material We were invited for a beer in the each other for material rewards, incentives (the norm in capitalist apartment of Felix, a construction workers are encouraged to societies), Guevara and his worker living in one of the "emulate" the revolutionary supporters argued, would not only Camaguey apartments. He, his wife commitment and spirit of violate the Marxist axiom of Carmen, who worked in a nearby self-sacrifice of local worker heroes pharmaceutical warehouse, and rewarding "each according to his (whose pictures appear on factory three children share a modest, two- need" but would also reintroduce bulletin boards) or of legendary bedroom apartment. Carmen class differences. Spurred on by figures such as Chi5 Guevara. At proudly showed us their refrigerator, revolutionary idealism and times, however, the difference a highly valued possession in Cuba. government propaganda, many between emulation ("emu/aci6n" While the price of refrigerators is Cubans extended their work week was a word we heard repeatedly) quite high, demand still far exceeds by 10-20 percent (working overtime and competition escaped us. At supply because of the surplus of and on weekends) at no extra pay Havana's La Corona cigar factory disposable income already noted. through voluntary labor in their (Roberto Ferngndez Tobacco Plant) Like apartments, refrigerators are plants or with the CDRS.~' But we asked if the various parallel allocated by a vote of the workers in overall the system failed. With production units competed to each plant according to the same almost all citizens guaranteed their produce the most. "No," responded criteria. Washing machines are basic diet and medical needs, rent our guide, "we don't believe in assigned in the same way, but only nearly free, "luxuries" virtually competition." Then, after a pause, working mothers are eligible to unavailable, and little additional "There is socialist emulation receive them. income (and even fewer goods) to between units to see who can be gained by working harder, produce the most." worker productivity per hour fell by We learned from Felix that during perhaps as much as 30 percent. By four of the five previous years he the mid-sixties, absenteeism had Fidel had been cited by his co-workers also reached alarming proportions. Twice during our Cuban visit we had and supervisors as a "hero worker" Thus, by 1970, with the economy in the opportunity of seeing Fidel for his exceptionally high level of a prolonged slump, the role of Castro on national television. In production and revolutionary material incentives-never totally Cienfuegos we watched him give an commitment. As his reward he had eliminated from the economy-was extensive interview to reporters earned expense-paid study- increased.22 from the three major U.S. television vacations in Bulgaria, East networks. (Both Castro and his Germany, Poland, and the Soviet In our various visits to factories and Cuban audience lavished special Union during his annual, state farms we were struck by the attention on Barbara Walters who, by virtue of her earlier interviews of Fidel, has become something of a national favorite. "Did you see Fidel's interview with Barrr-bara last night?" we were asked by several Cubans the next day, as if the other network reporters were not there. The following week in Havana we watched the President address the opening session of the 1978 National Assembly of Poder Popular. The appearances gave us an opportunity to observe his skill as a speaker and performer as well as to watch the reaction of his Cuban audience in our hotels.

In his address to the National Assembly, for over one hour Castro was at his oratorical best explaining government economic policy. What might have been a dry, statistical presentation became instead an Mural of Ch6 Guevara on Havana's Plaza of the Revolution. engrossing combination of lecture, anecdote, and humor. Throughout, his jokes, they seemed to hang on chief" has established a direct, Castro alternated between high every word. Those who crowded personal bond with his people that is school economics instructor ("What expectantly before the television probably matched by no other world is a social expenditure?" he asked. were probably a self-selected leader. To almost all Cubans he is "A school is a social expenditure; a audience of regime supporters, but known as "Fidel" (just as other hospital is a social expenditure."), Fidel's obvious rapport, even across revolutionary heroes are always political leader and rural storyteller the air waves, was impressive. referred to as "Ch6" [Guevaral, (clearly relishing all three roles). Indeed, a full understanding of the "Camilo" [Cienfuegosl, or "Frank" Addressing himself more to the Cuban Revolution is impossible [Pafs] ). In fact, it is considered national television audience than to without a feeling for the unique somewhat rude to speak of the Assembly itself, Fidel stressed relationship between its "maxim0 'Castro" (or "Guevara"). that even should the United States lfder" and the Cuban people. As end its economic blockade of American journalist Lee Lockwood There appears to be a conscious Cuba, the people mustn't expect to once noted, the Cuban working effort to prevent the development of get all the material goods they want. class and peasantry originally a "cult of personality" comparable Illustrating the point further, he accepted the need for a Marxist to that in Stalinist Russia or Mao's dramatically recalled his yearly revolution, not because of prior China. We saw no statues of Castro Christmas-season letters to the ideological orientation or because of and surprisingly few photographs or Three Kings telling them the many immediate economic gain, but out posters. Government offices, things he wanted them to bring for of a deep, abiding trust in i id el."^^ schools, and factories were far more Epiphany. "Each year," he Throughout the difficult years of the likely to carry pictures of Ch6 or recounted, "my list got longer and '60s, the rationing and the volunteer Jose Martf(the nineteenth-century each year my letters became even labor, that faith did not seem to leader of the independence more sincere and insistent. This time waver struggle), Camilo or even Lenin. The they would surely bring me slogan of the Pioneers, "Seremos everything I wanted. But they never Given the relatively small size and como el Che" ("Let us be like did." population of the island and Ch6"), holds up the slain guerrilla Castro's constant jeep trips through leader as the primary hero for On both occasions when we saw the country, most Cubans have youthful emulation. While Santiago Castro appear on television, the either spoken to their President features a Frank PaTs Museum (this hotel's Cuban guests and directly or have at least been present capable leader of the urban employees quickly gathered in the at one of his speeches to a mass resistance movement against lobby near the set. Nodding their rally. A man of tremendous physical Batista was killed before the heads in approval of his major and intellectual energy, with a revolutionary victory), there is, to points, exchanging knowing glances magnetic, charismatic personality, our knowledge, no street, building at his best stories, and laughing at the Revolution's "commander in or museum named after Fidel. President Castro has also begun in amateur baseball, track, and boxing our guides, for example, was about recent years to delegate more teams are not only the best in Latin to return from Angola where he had decision-making responsibility. The America but are among the most spent several months as a creation of Poder Popular powerful in the world. When we construction adviser. Since represents an attempt to move from spoke to a group of high school returning civilian or military a charismatically directed regime to students in Santa Clara, they "internationalists" (the term Cubans a more institutionalized Revolution. wanted to know if we thought use) receive tremendous prestige as Despite his constant denials to "Cassius Clay" (as he is still known well as first crack at new apartments foreign reporters, however, Fidel in Cuba and the rest of Latin and other material benefits (some remains the ultimate decision- America) would be willing to fight microbrigade apartment houses are maker. Others may have critical Te6filo Stevenson, Cuba's two- specifically designated for them), influence on central government time Olympic, heavyweight gold- there is no shortage of volunteers policy, but the final decision is his, medalist. "Who would win?" we for African service and no need for and only his closest associates asked. "Stevenson," they shouted forced military duty. Not a single argue strenuously with him. For in unison. disgustado whom we met cited most Cubans, Fidel is the Revolution Cuba's African involvement as the and his word is gospel. Only time Pride in their country's athletic basis of his criticism. This was will tell whether he can successfully achievements is but one particularly noteworthy since most transfer his personal legitimacy to manifestation of Cuba's nationalism of the dissidents with whom we revolutionary institutions that will and of popular recognition that their spoke were of draft age. Other smoothly handle his passing from small country (under 10 million) now prorevolutionary Cubans sometimes the scene. exercises a role in the world mentioned their country's disproportionate to its size. In his "international mission" with Cuba's Place in the Sun speeches to the Cuban people, pride.24 As we entered the country at Jose President Castro often boasts that MartfAirport and when we stayed at the country will soon have more Education and the "New Socialist various tourist hotels, we were doctors, engineers, and technicians Person" greeted by billboards declaring, than it needs. But, says Fidel, this "If there is a privileged class in Cuba "Welcome to Cuba: First Free needn't worry us, for we can then today," one foreign journalist has Territory in the Americas." While send our professionals abroad to aid recently observed, "it is the that proclamation may outrage other developing nations. Cuba is children." Our own experiences opponents of the Revolution, it already sending technical advisers during our weeks of travel on the reflects the belief by many Cubans to Vietnam, Laos, Jamaica, Peru, island seemed to bear this out. we met that theirs is the first Latin Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia, and Whether we encountered young American nation to achieve other allied nations. economic and political Pioneers singing and chanting on independence from United States' We spoke to several Cubans (at the back of a packed truck (ona domination. Signs of national pride both formal, group meetings and in field trip), curious secondary level were everywhere evident. We were informal street encounters) who had students at the beach, or elementary constantly asked during our trip returned from "international school students taking a break from (more than in any other Latin service" in Africa. In our classes at their farming community, American country we have visited), conversations we were mindful of Cuban youth appeared alert and "What do you think of our Western press describing heavy confident, with exceedingly high country?" or "What do you think of Cuban military losses in Angola and aspirations. "In Cuba you can our Revolution?" From the Ethiopia as well as strong become anything you wish, if you schoolteacher with whom we disenchantment over the country's want it badly enough," we were told exchanged political buttons in a "African mission." by the 13-year-old daughter of a Santiago bookstore to the recently sanitation worker as we shared a returned Angolan veteran we met in Our own discussions suggested a beer with her parents during Cienfuegos, they greeted positive far different picture. While one Camaguey's Carnival celebration. responses with grins of mother whom we met in Santiago Her mother, who had worked as a appreciation. expressed understandable anxiety maid before the Revolution, smiled about a son who had recently proudly at her daughter's plans to Shortly before our trip, a Cuban departed for military duty in be a pediatrician. When polling a athletic team returned from the Ethiopia, most people told us that cluster of curious children in Caribbean games in Colombia Cuban military losses had been fairly Santiago as to their social where they had totally dominated light. In fact, most of the Cubans we backgrounds and future plans, we the competition, winning almost met who had either served in Africa found most of them interested in twice as many gold medals as all themselves or who had relatives technical occupations. Though they other entering countries combined. there said they were engaged in were children of factory workers, a Cubans are well aware that their civilian roles. The husband of one of bus dispatcher, and a waiter, they aspired to careers in engineering, dramatically by over 400 percent that failure to get their preferred medicine and nursing. Among the from 1970-1977. Still, only about career choice is a major cause of children was the sister of a member one-third of all students appear to dropping out among university of Alycia Alonso's famed Cuban continue beyond elementary school students. A second important cause dance company. While we expected and primary level dropouts remain a is marriage, particularly since his her to favor a career as a ballerina, problem.26 university has no housing for she emphatically stated that she student couples. Thus, at the wanted to be a teacher in the For students who wish to continue University of Santa Clara, there is an countryside where education is still beyond elementary school, there are average annual attrition rate of 18 most deficient. three principal options: three years percent. Students who fail to of technical schooling, five years of maintain the necessary academic It would appear then that Cuba is training for primary level teaching average lose their full-time reducing the link between students' (both of these options are terminal), scholarship and must work during socioeconomic origins and their or a four-year, secondary academic the day but maintain the option of educational aspirations and curriculum. Those who complete continuing their university studies at achievement, while at the same time the secondary school track (roughly night. developing a youthful social the equivalent of junior high school) consciousness. But such things may either continue on to University or advanced technical have been brought forth painfully, preuniversity school (senior high training is not, however, a placing considerable pressure on school) or may enter more advanced prerequisite for attaining a Cuban young people. When we vocational schools for agriculture, successful career. primary toured the primary school at El language, or other technical fields. schoolteachers, for example, begin Tablh, a model dairy farm in Thus, while our conversations with their work after a total of only 11 Cienfuegos Province, slower Cuban children revealed a very high years of schooling, when they are students were being intensively level of aspirations (perhaps only 5 years older than their sixth tutored for approaching final exams. unrealistically high), only a select grade students. Adult education The yearly national tests issued by minority will successfully pass teachers may have only one year of the Ministry of Education were quite through the series of rigorous post-secondary education (12 years difficult, a sixth grade teacher academic examinations and manage total). Indeed, in our travels, we had explained to us. If a student failed to to enter the university system. As a the feeling that Cuban society is pass the exams for several Dean at the University of Santa being run for and by its youth. The consecutive years, he or she would Clara explained to our group, neither average age of workers at the huge pass to a more technical track. the universities nor society as a Nuevitas Cement Factory was 29; at Those children with learning whole can absorb large numbers of the Camaguey Surgical Hospital, disabilities would be sent to special professional students. At the same doctors averaged 31 years of age. In schools. time, the country desperately needs the early 1960s, during the flight of middle level technicians. middle-class professionals from the Universal primary education (six island, more advanced university years) was set as a goal shortly after Not only do the number of people students sometimes taught their the Revolution, but school dropouts, who dream of a university education first- and second-year schoolmates. especially in the countryside, were a far exceed the available openings, In fact, the exodus of professionals continuing problem. Between 1960 but the size of particular curriculums opened up channels for upward and 1970, national enrollment in does not correspond to student mobility in many sectors. Our guide primary schools increased 50 preferences. Since the Revolution, at Cienfuegos' Bulk Sugar Mill had percent while secondary enrollment the universities have sharply been a manual laborer at the mill in more than tripled. Yet, as of 1968 reduced the size of their law, social 1960. Pressed into administrative only one of seven students who had science, and humanities programs service by the shortage of begun elementary school in the while greatly expanding their technicians, he had combined night previous ten years managed to enter engineering and agricultural courses in engineering with high school. Despite the law, large departments2' Admission to the on-the-job training and now holds a numbers of students were not even various programs is based on a high-level supervisory position. completing their primary education combination of student preference, and the truancy nd dropout rates aptitude examinations, grades, and Beyond its obvious purpose of remained high. Data from teacher evaluations. Since there is career training, education in Cuba is selected provinces indicates that still an excess of applications to the designed to promote revolutionary during the 1970s elementary school humanities departments, even those values. From the first elementary enrollment has continued to grow who are granted university school reading primers on, many gradually (about 3% annually) while admission may not secure entrance (though certainly not all) textbooks the number of students in into the program they most desire. promote Marxist ideological norms. secondary schools increased The Dean at Santa Clara indicated Moreover, academic activity is but part of the educational curriculum. At the El Tabl6n dairy farm students spend about three hours of their school day working in orchards and vegetable gardens "to make them aware of a role as producers and not merely consumers." The fruits and vegetables grown by the students later appear on the school dining table.

Educational practices are also designed to bridge the traditional, Third World gap between city and countryside. In the early years of the Revolution children of peasants were sent from their villages -where schools, if they existed, rarely went beyond the third grade-to boarding schools in urban centers. One notable experiment in this area was the Ana Betancourt School established by the "Pioneers"outside their classroom in El TablQnmodel dairy farm. Federation of Cuban Women. Up to 10,000 girls (aged 14-20) were brought each year from rural regions of Oriente Province to Havana where it was felt that could benefit from the cultural opportunities of an urban environment. After being offered a curriculum in basic academic skills, health care, and home economics, they were returned home where they were expected to pass on their knowledge to ten or more girls in their villages. Initially many parents were highly suspicious of the program and some feared their daughters were being kidnapped. It was only after a number of parents were brought to Havana that they fully accepted the program.

In recent years, the Cubans have reversed the direction of geographical mobility. Urban secondary and preuniversity Pioneer youngsters on a field trip in Santa Clara. students are required to spend in agricultural production with their spend the whole day picking fruit much of their summer vacation local, rural classmates. Three during the harvest season (with their doing agricultural work in the hundred and five of these schools academic schedule adjusted to the countryside. Beginning in 1968, the now exist and it is hoped that by season). rural work program was taken one 1980 most secondary education in step further with the opening of the the nation will take place in the The schools in the countryside are first "Secondary Schools in the countryside.28 Secondary and providing a labor supplement that Countryside" (Secondarias Basicas preuniversity students near the formerly only seasonal workers en el Campo). Boarding students Ciego de Avila state citrus farm in could fulfill.29 Obviously they are from the cities reside full time Santa Clara province work four also designed to create positive returning home for vacations) in hours per day throughout the school attitudes toward agricultural labor these schools, studying and working year in the canning factory and among urban students and to break down long-standing cultural barriers between the nation's urban and rural population. Of course, in the case of the children of the old urban middle class, the boarding schools facilitate the teaching of revolutionary values free from "corrupting influences" at home. School officials maintain that, although students are removed during adolescence from full-time family support, they are also placed in a more serious academic environment. Thus, the dropout rates at the Secondary Schools in the Countryside are lower than those of urban secondary schools.

On all levels of Cuban society today, education has become the new religion to which all pay homage. Whether they are engaged as teachers or as students, a large percentage of the population is involved, at least part time, in the educational process. Following a largely successful campaign in the early 1960s to achieve universal adult literacy, the government's present goal is to bring every Cuban child and adult to a sixth grade level. The country is dotted with billboards encouraging adults to "reach the sixth grade." When we walked into a public library in Havana one weekday evening, the reading room was full of adults Large billboard stressing education "Worker: Let us Win the Battle [to reach the studying math, English, and other level of\ the Sixth Grade with Your Attendance at Classes." subjects they were taking in evening courses. material incentives for attendance. would like to try again, he Workers who hope to secure responded "Por que?" ("Why?"). Almost every factory and state farm microbrigade apartments, has its adult education program. televisions, or refrigerators are Others have reacted far more Some, like the cement plant in aware that attendance at adult positively. Our tour bus driver, Nuevitas, provide primary through education courses is one criterion Ramon, was formerly a part-time preuniversity courses and send the for such rewards. boxer and race car driver who was most capable students on to the ready to leave for the United States university in Camaguey. Others, in the '50s because he couldn't find such as the El Tabl6n dairy farm's There are some, like the 82-year-old a steady job and saw no future for adult school, offer only primary level former hacienda peon whom we himself in the country. Now in his training and have to struggle to get spoke to on the streets of Trinidad, early forties, he had finished his workers to attend classes and pass who are beyond the pale of primary education at night and their yearly exams. Workers at the educational ferment. Juan Carlos intended to continue through larger industrial plants are offered admitted to not knowing how to secondary school. He was two hours of classes per day which read ("not a word"). Though he had particularly proud of his daughters they can attend either before or spent two months studying during who were both enrolled in teacher after their shifts. While many the literacy campaign, he had training programs and credited the workers are self-motivated, there forgotten it all (apparently that is not Revolution with having made all of are also social pressures and uncommon). When we asked if he this possible. The Women's Revolution in the be, for most Cuban women, as for female doctors nationally. During Revolution their sisters in the rest of the world, the 1950s, some 65 percent of all School was starting two weeks later entering the labor force means working women were employed in than scheduled and Lidia, our guide working a "double day" at home the service sector, the vast majority at the Nuevitas Cement Factory, and in the workplace. as domestic servants (with teaching wondered how the workers' The government aids working a distant second). By 1970, children would be cared for in the mothers by providing day-care however, the service sector interim. Most of the plant's female programs and by giving them employed only 41 percent of the employees had taken their vacations priority in the allocation of washing female labor force and most of during the regular school break and machines and other labor-saving those women were employed in were now due back at work. Lidia devices. But the availability of such greatly expanding sectors felt that the mothers should extend childcare is well below demand and as teaching and health care (nurses, their vacations briefly so they could many women wish to work but midwives, paraprofessionals) rather rotate watching their children until cannot, due to the shortage of than domestic service3 At the school started again. When asked if facilities. same time, the percentage of the fathers would be willing to share working women who are employed this unanticipated day care, she At the various "model" factories in industry and agriculture remained responded that while some fairly static from 1953-1970 (though husbands were involved, it was still and state farms the group visited, our hosts stressed the growing role their absolute number has grown) largely a woman's concern. Our and most of the new women conversation was broken off of female labor. In Havana's Roberto Fernsndez Tobacco Plant, workers were absorbed by the suddenly when Lidia rushed home commerce sector. after receiving word that her the percentage of women workers daughter had just suffered a serious had increased from 10 to 60 percent The formal entry of women into the since 1959 (although they seemed to fall and had sprained her wrist. The labor market represents only a part occupy the slightly lower paid situation was depressingly familiar. of their changing role in Cuban positions). At the Nuevitas Cement While Cuban women have entered society. Some 2.2 million women Plant and at the Bulk Sugar Mill, new sectors of the work force since over the age of 14 (about where few women worked before 1959 and have made important legal three-fourths of that age group) the Revolution, they now gains, many traditional sex roles belong to the Federation of Cuban constituted about one-fourth of the persist. Women, organized from local block employees, yet many were working groups through the national level. in the laboratories or offices of these Under the terms of the Cuban FMC volunteer activities in the plants. Family Code, the nation's women 1960s literacy campaign, mass are among the most liberated in the vaccination (particularly polio, DPT, world-on paper. As the result of Nationwide statistics indicate that tetanus, and other immunization for political pressure by the huge the growth in the number of women and children), cancer Federation of Cuban Women working women has been gradual screening and pre- and post-natal (FMC), the 1975 government code less dramatic than is often claimed) assistance, have helped improve not only guarantees women legal and that women still constitute a Cuban educational and health equality in such areas as marriage, distinct minority of the total labor standards. Women also contribute child custody, divorce, and "the force. Cuban women constituted disproportionately to CDR volunteer economic basis of matrimony," but some 9-17 percent of the nation's work campaigns. also assigns husbands responsibility active work force between for 50 percent of all housework and 1930-1958; by 1970 their proportion In a variety of ways, then, the childcare (Cuba is the only nation in had only risen to 18.5 percent (only traditional, sheltered role of the the world with such a legal 1.4 percent above their 1953 Cuban woman (a role typical of obligation). When we talked about level).30 According to unofficial latino culture) is slowly changing. the Code to women of various figures cited to us by spokespersons Women are getting out of the home socioeducational levels, however, from the Federation of Cuban either in the work force or as we were told that husbands rarely Women, by 1978,28 percent of the volunteers. In Santiago we were live up to such expectations. Even work force was female. addressed by a member of the the well-intentioned president of a National Directorate of the CDR, a CDR we visited in Santiago Perhaps more important than the 35-year-old woman who had admitted that, while he often picked growth in the number of women recently returned from service as a up his children from their day-care working has been the change in paramedic in Angola. Indeed, large center and put dinner on the stove occupational patterns. At the numbers of women have when his wife was late from work, Camaguey Surgical Hospital we volunteered for nonmilitary service he was doing nowhere near his 50 learned that 40 percent of the in Africa, reflecting a degree of percent share. Whatever the current doctors on the staff are women, independence open to only a small, rhetoric and legal requirements may apparently about the percentage of educated elite before the Revolution. Relations between Cuba in Perspective investment), greater attention to working married couples, at least Since its inception, the Cuban housing needs, and more efficient, among the young ones, tend to be Revolution has usually provoked technologically oriented more career and less family centered intense reactions, positive and management. Critics charge that it than before. Thus, one of our negative. Particularly during its first has also been characterized by a group's guides often travels for decade, critics (Cuban exiles, much loss of idealism and spontaneity. weeks outside Havana, separated of the Western press.. . ) wrote of a from her husband. In general, the totalitarian state featuring political Totally objective analysis of so growing scope of women's activity repression and a stagnant, complex a process of outside the home has probably mismanaged economy. socioeconomic and political change contributed to a steady decline in Revolutionary sympathizers (foreign is probably impossible. Most the nation's birthrate since intellectuals and university leftists) foreigners visiting Cuba bring with 1964.~~Female emancipation may returned from the island raving them certain preconceived also have contributed to the 400 about mass political participation, judgments and values. We suspect percent increase in the divorce rate total equality, and the elimination of that their ultimate evaluations of the between 1960 and 1971. poverty. In short, for one side Revolution usually coincide closely "before 1959 Cuba was a paradise with what they had originally and now it is hell" and for the other expected to find. Leftist In the political sphere, gains for "before the Revolution everything sympathizers (including a number of Cuban women have been slow in was wrong but now everything is our Venceremos Brigade tour coming. When the first experimental right."33 elections for Poder Popular were companions) often come to the held in Matanzas Province in 1974, island expecting to find Utopia (or, women were elected to a mere An alternative to these extreme at least, a nation moving toward it) 3 percent of the seats on the positions was offered by Western and don't leave disappointed. province's municipal councils. This leftists who sympathized with the Western journalists usually extremely poor showing evoked general goals of the Revolution but anticipate a socially progressive but strong criticism both from the FMC found it overcentralized and controlled, regimented society, and and from President Castro. incompetent in its planning they generally leave with their Consequently, when Poder Popular (Dumont), too militaristic (Karol), expectations confirmed. Even the elections were held nationally in too authoritarian (Halperin, most scientific observers cannot 1976, a strong effort was made to Silverman) or too Stalinist escape being influenced by their recruit more female candidates and (Horowitz, ~adosh).~~Unlike underlying ideological preferences. to stress the importance of greater Cuba's more conventional critics, Visitors who are strongly committed to the norms of liberal-democratic female representation. When the they faulted the Revolution for not civil liberties or to the rights of results were in, over 20 percent of being socialist enough. private property will obviously the elected Municipal delegates assess the Revolution differently were women-still an During the past decade, more from those who are more concerned underrepresentation but a distinct dispassionate works by scholarly with mass political involvement or improvement over both the supporters of the revolutionary socioeconomic egalitarianism. Matanzas election and the process (Karl, MacEwan, Zeitlin) international norm. At the top and by academic critics echelons of political power, Cuban (Mesa-Lago, SuArez) have offered Our own observations were leadership is still largely male and carefully documented analyses of undoubtedly similarly influenced by white. Only 6 of the 117 members of both the accomplishments and our ideological preferences and the Political Bureau and Central failures of the Cuban normative values (which differ Committee of the Communist Party regime.35 Western journalists somewhat between the two of us). are women. (Lockwood, Mankiewitz, Ward, As the preceding pages reveal, we FitzGerald) have been more prone to were greatly impressed by Cuba's credit the Revolution with major great gains in education and health The women's revolution in Cuba is socioeconomic improvements, care, the opportunities for upward part of a broader movement toward while still generally faulting it for its mobility, the spirit of common erasing past inequalities of sex, race, lack of liberal, democratic effort, and the movement (slow, to region, and class. Anywhere in the norms.36 The "revoluci6n en be sure) toward sexual equality. world, evenwithin a revolution, marcha" has itself been in a state of Having lived in a number of other such changes are slow in coming constant flux thereby invalidating Latin American countries, we were both because of a heritage of much earlier writing. The struck by the lack of abject poverty long-standing educational and Revolution's second decade has in Cuba, the high degree of socio- cultural inequalities and because of been marked by greater stress on economic egalitarianism, and the the difficulties of altering deeply consumer goods (and a uniquely equal sharing of the many ingrained social attitudes. concomitant cutback in capital sacrifices of development. We feel much of the Western news Our generally positive impression of as vigilantee committees to harass media has erroneously evaluated the Revolution-based on obviously neighbors against whom they held Cuban living standards and political limited exposure-was tempered by grievances; in 1970 he conditions by the criteria of some important concerns. On the acknowledged, and took full blame industrialized, developed nations. whole, we were struck by how few for, the economic chaos caused by Cuba remains an underdeveloped channels of information are the unsuccessful attempt to harvest nation with widespread use of available to most Cubans. The press ten million tons of sugar. But while antiquated technology, inadequate and other mass media offer a very there is much room for criticism of transportation, and an essentially narrow and controlled view of the government performance, we saw single-crop export economy. While world. The selection of material we no evidence of public criticism, or nobody seems to starve, only encountered at the major even debate, over basic policy. children, pregnant mothers, and the bookstores of Havana and Santiago None of the educated, elderly receive a milk ration, and was small and ideologically pro-Revolutionary Cubans to whom meat consumption is very low. An homogeneous, in contrast with we spoke seemed to feel there was impressive number of new those of Mexico and even Brazil, reason to question or criticize apartments are being constructed, which are full of opposition Cuba's military involvement in but many peasants (other than viewpoints. When we spoke to Africa, her dependence on the those living on model state farms) several university students about Soviet Union (and strident criticism continue to live in primitive huts, Cuban electrical power plants (and of China), the increased use of and most housing in Havana the possible construction of a material incentives, or a number of appears shabby and deteriorating. nuclear plant), they were totally policies about which committed Yet, it is ridiculous to expect the unaware of ecological hazards. Marxist revolutionaries might easily Cubans to emerge fully developed in Moreover, many educated young disagree. Thus, while intellectuals two to three decades when no Third Cubans seem to feel that such throughout the world tend to be World nation (save, possibly, Japan) knowledge is not necessary. When their governments' severest critics, has managed to do so. we asked a young Communist Party in Cuba they are usually its most member, with a university degree in unquestioning supporters. And Similarly, given the virtual absence economics, where we could acquire while Fidel has often admitted of Western parliamentary practices recent statistics on Cuban publicly to having made policy in the Third World (practices which agriculture, education, and other errors, not once did we hear a pro- many political scientists see as basic socioeconomic indicators, he revolutionary Cuban suggest that inapplicable), there seems little had no idea. In fact, he found it their "Commandante en Jefe" reason to single out Cuba for special strange that anyone other than a (Commander in Chief) might be censure. Undoubtedly, many government planner working in wrong. Western-style civil liberties are not those fields would be interested. granted in Cuba, but this is true of Through its first 20 years, the Cuban most of the Third World. Moreover, The companion of controlled Revolution has shown a great informed observers indicate that information is a limited capacity to degree of flexibility and a willingness there is no torture of political criticize. It is true that Cubans are to correct past errors. To a large prisoners (common to Uruguay, encouraged to speak out against extent this has resulted from the Chile, and Iran) and certainly there administrative errors and to air their vitality and honesty of its m5ximo are no civilian massacres and death problems (lack of materials for lider, Fidel. However, without the squads as in El Salvador, production, poor bus service) development of a more open, critical Guatemala, and ~r~entina.~~ through Poder Popular, their unions, society, the Revolution's creativity Political corruption and nepotism the CDRs, etc. We found that even and flexibility may not survive him. have apparently been eradicated far the most fervent revolutionary was more effectively than in any other quick to note the continued (January 1979) Latin American nation. Public shortages in child care, housing, and criticism of the Revolution's basic consumer goods. Indeed, Fidel ideological thrust and basic policies is often the government's severist are not tolerated. But, our critic-during the early 1960s he impression was that the CDRs, charged that the CDRs were Poder Popular, and factory- or farm- sometimes used by Cuban citizens level organizations afford the average Cuban worker and peasant a higher degree of decision-making influence at the local (micropolicy) level than is true for their counterparts in Bolivia, Ecuador, or even such formal democracies as Mexico and Colombia. NOTES Doubleday, 1972); Carmelo Mesa-Lago the number of doctors who fled. There (ed. 1, Revolutionary Change in Cuba are now more doctors per capita than 1. Until recently, only persons who left (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, before 1959 (even with population Cuba before the Revolution-that is, 1971). growth). who were not leaving because of counterrevolutionary beliefs-were 7. "Cuba: A Sustained Economic 15. In the countryside, an extensive- allowed to return for visits. That Recovery," Bank of London and South though tightly regulated-private sector restriction was lifted after our visit. America, Review (May 1975); and, remains in the thousands of small unpublished data from Arthur landowners who farm their land 2. See Ren6 Dumont, Socialism and MacEwan, Department of Economics, privately and sell to'the state at a Development (New York: Grove, 1970) University of Massachusetts. controlled price. Most of the country's and his Cuba: Es Socialista?(Caracas, famous tobacco, for example, is still 1971), as well as K.S. Karol, Guerrillas in 8. Frank Mankiewitz and Kirby Jones, grown by private farmers. Power (New York: Hill and Wang, 1970). With Fidel (New York: Ballantine, 1975). Despite their strong reaction to these 16. This is not to suggest there aren't books (Dumont was absurdly accused 9. Of the thousands of Cubans elected many Cubans who object to the of being a CIA agent) the Cuban to the municipal councils, no official censorship of the press, speech, the authorities seem ultimately to have data are available on the percentage media, and books. We obviously didn't adopted many of the authors' proposals. who are not Party members, but the have the opportunity to speak to number is apparently significant. On the political prisoners or dissident 3. The Cuban government seems far other hand, the representatives the local intellectuals. Nor are we dismissing the less upset by the criticisms of nonleftist, delegates elected to the National importance of such freedoms. We Western journalists. Such newsmen (or Assembly of Poder Popular were merely are pointing out that among the women) are admitted into Cuba far overwhelmingly members of the Party. disgustados we met, politically based more easily than are academic scholars. discontent was secondary. One must National Geographic reporter Fred 10. Under Cuban law all able-bodied keep in mind that Cuba has no tradition Ward, for example, spent seven months men are technically requiredto work of political freedoms and certainly did freely traveling throughout Cuba, from the time they complete their not enjoy them under Batista. interviewing both ordinary citizens and education and military service till government officials (including Fidel retirement age (though there appear to 17. In Socialism and Under- Castro). His Inside Cuba Today (New be a number of men "between jobs" or development, Ren6 Dumont York: Crown, 1978) is generally "in training"). Women are not required criticizes the Cuban regime for being far balanced, but strongly anticommunist in to work, but are guaranteed jobs if they too generous in the benefits it lavished tone. want them. on the peasantry in the years after the Revolution, benefits he felt the economy 4. The Venceremos Brigade is a United 11. One does encounter a small number couldn't afford. Our own feeling was not States organization formed in the 1960s of elderly shoeshine men in Havana. that the government has erred in to express solidarity with the Cuban Almost all of them are pensioners who denying its citizens appliances and other Revolution. It is most noted for the are supplementing their old-age pension "luxuries" which a developing nation groups of young volunteers which it has (60 pesos per month). They must pay a badly in need of capital investment sent to Cuba to cut sugar cane or to nominal fee for a license and can then cannot afford. Rather, its error is in work on construction as a show of keep whatever money they take in, building luxury hotels and tourist shops support. Our study tour was open to thereby engaging in one of Havana's which may earn foreign exchange but non-Brigade members of any political few private enterprises. also invite unwarranted, invidious persuasion and this article does not comparisons between lifestyles in reflect the viewpoint of the Venceremos 12. Similar data for wages in the industrialized and developing nations. Brigade in any way. 1968-1970 period are available in Bonachea and Valdes, op. cit., p. 363 18. Currently housing over 25,000 5. These four men each commanded and for 1972 in Arthur MacEwan, persons, Alamar has a projected one of the combat columns of the July "Incentives, Equity and Power in population of 150,000. We found its 26 Movement's rural guerrilla "army." Revolutionary Cuba," in Ronald Radosh grounds less well kept and the complex They are probably the nation's most (ed.), The New Cuba (New York: generally less attractive than smaller widely admired heroes (along with the William and Morrow, 19761, pp. 86-87. microbrigade projects in other parts of nineteenth-century independence The fact that wages have remained the country. leader, Jose Marf?. Cienfuegos was virtually unchanged over the past ten killed in a plane crash shortly after the years reflects the lack of inflation in 19. In a December speech to the Cuban Revolution while Guevara died in his Cuba's controlled economy. Labor Confederation (the CTC), unsuccessful attempt to spark a President Castro announced that the revolution in Bolivia in 1967. 13. When the elderly mother of the volunteer microbrigades would soon be woman mentioned above dies, her replaced by full-time, professional 6. For analyses or criticism of early family will lose the home. It will then be construction crews using more Cuban economic policies, see: Dumont, allocated by the state, probably for sophisticated techniques. The objective op. cit.; Edward Boorstein, The institutional use. is to raise the current rate of Economic Transformation of Cuba (New construction of 20,000-25,000 units York: Monthly Review, 1968); Rolando 14. Since the Revolution, Cuban annually to 50,000 by 1980 and 100,000 Bonachea and Nelson Valdgs (eds.), medical schools have gradually by the late 1980s. Rents for apartments Cuba in Revolution (New York: managed to replace, and then exceed, built in the future will be somewhat higher, but existing rents will remain as 25. Nelson Valdgs, "The Radical 32. The birthrate (and infant mortality they are. Transformation of Cuban Education" in rate) rose slightly in the early years of Bonachea and Vald&, op. cit. the Revolution. Ibid., pp. 30 and 60. 20. Fred Ward, op. cit., writes disparagingly of the frequent 26. The data for 1970-1977 is drawn 33. Mesa-Lago, Revolutionary Change, breakdowns in water and electrical from the Cuban government statistics p. xiii. services in Cuban workers' apartments. published by Editorial Oriente (Santiago: He seems to use U.S. housing as his 1977) in three volumes on the Provinces 34. Maurice Halperin, The Rise and basis of comparison, although water of Granma, Guanthamo, and Santiago Decline of Fidel Castro (Berkeley: and electrical outages are a common de Cuba. For other recent data and University of California Press, 1971); feature of life throughout Latin America, analysis of improvements and remaining Irving Horowitz, Cuban Communism particularly in low income problems in Cuban education, see (New Brunswick: Transaction Press, neighborhoods. Barrio dwellers in "Socialist Ideology and the 1970). The remaining authors are cited Caracas and Bogota told me they rarely Transformation of Cuban Education" in in previous footnotes. get water more than two days per week Karabel, Jerome, and Halsby (eds.), and sometimes go 10-15 days without Power and Ideology in Education 35. Maurice Zeitlin, Revolutionary water. Whereas basic services are very (London: Oxford University Press, Politics and the Cuban Working Class inexpensive in Cuba, they constitute a 1977). The extent of improvement in (New York: Harper and Row, 1970); serious economic burden for school attendance can be fully And& Susrez, Cuba: Castroism and low-income families in most Latin understood when one realizes that in Communism (Cambridge: Harvard American nations. 1958,49 percent of Cuban children of University Press, 1967). primary school age (6-14 years) had 21. Carmelo Mesa-Lago, "Economic absolutely no education. Cuba then 36. Frances FitzG'erald, "A Reporter at Significance of Unpaid Labor in ranked seventeenth in Latin America in Large: Slightly Exaggerated Socialist Cuba," Industrialand Labor primary school enrollment and the Enthusiasms," The New Yorker Relations Review, 22 (April 1969). proportion of school-aged children Magazine (February 18,1974). The other attending school had been higher in authors are cited earlier. 22. For a discussion of the debate in 1923. See Valdgs, op. cit., p. 424. Cuba over incentives, see Bertram 37. We did not observe the conditions of Silverman (ed.), Man and Socialism in 27. Rolland Paulston, "Education," in Cuba's political prisoners and rely here Cuba (New York: Atheneum, 1973). For Mesa-Lago (ed.), Revolutionary on earlier reports by Lockwood, op. cit. more recent developments, see: articles Change. and a very recent evaluation in Latin by Radosh and by MacEwan in Radosh America: Political Report (November 3, (ed.), op. cit.; and, especially, Terry Karl, 28. These schools, then, will conform to 1978), p. 339. The later article quotes "Work Incentives in Cuba," Latin Maria Montessori's recommendation recently released prisoners as saying American Perspectives, II (1975) #4. that adolescent education should take there was mistreatment (but not torture) MacEwan and Karl argue that the place in rural settings and should involve of prisoners by guards in the 1960s but distinction between moral and material significant amounts of physical labor to that since 1968 "treatment has been incentives has been overstated and that absorb adolescent energy. much more humane." For a more the use of collective rather than negative assessment of conditions for individual incentives is more critical. See 29. Sugar harvesting previously involved political prisoners, see Theodore Carmelo Mesa-Lago, Cuba in the 1970s the labor of huge numbers of seasonal Jacqueney, "The Yellow Uniforms of (Albuquerque: University of New workers who would generally be Cuba," Worldview (January 1977). Mexico Press, 1974) for a differing unemployed the rest of the year. By viewpoint. Latin American Economic using student and volunteer labor the Report (January 8, 1979) reports government has been able to shift sugar increases of 40-250 percent in worker workers to other, full-year employment. productivity following increased use of Because of the inefficiency of many of material incentives. these unskilled cutters, however, the government is now shifting its emphasis 23. The best studies of Castro's to mechanization. charisma are: Lee Lockwood, Castro's Cuba: Cuba's Fidel (New York: Random 30. La Poblaci6n de Cuba (Havana: House, 1969) and Mankiewitz and Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 19761, p. Jones, op. cit. 176.

24. James Nelson Goodsell's, "Cubans 31. Ibid., p. 183. Between 1958-1969 the Take Pride in their Africa Role," number of people employed in Christian Science Monitor (July 10, education (a largely "women's 19781, quoting recent visitors to Cuba, profession") increased by over 500 also challenges the prevailing Western percent. By 1978 that figure may have media image of disenchantment. By doubled again. There are still maids in mid-1978, articles in Time and Cuba, but fewer as better employment is Newsweek were contradicting their own made available. earlier reports of high Cuban casualties and antiwar discontent.