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I EFFECTS of VISUAL PRESENTATION on AURAL EFFECTS OF VISUAL PRESENTATION ON AURAL MEMORY FOR MELODIES A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By Nathan O. Buonviri May 2010 Examining Committee Members: Deborah Sheldon, Advisory Chair, Music Education Alison Reynolds, Music Education Michael Klein, Music Studies, Theory Richard Brodhead, Music Studies, Composition i ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to determine how pitch and rhythm aspects of melodic memory are affected by aural distractions when melodic stimuli are presented both visually and aurally, as compared to aurally only. The rationale for this research is centered on the need for improved melodic memory skills of students taking melodic dictation, and the possibility that temporary visual imagery storage of target melodies might enhance those skills. The participants in this study were undergraduate and graduate music majors (n=41) at a large northeastern university. All participants had successfully completed the first two semesters of college-level music theory, and none had perfect pitch. Participants progressed through two self-contained experimental tests at the computer. Identical target melodies were presented: 1) aurally only on one test; and 2) aurally, with visual presentation of the matching notation, on the other test. After the target melody, a distraction melody sounded, during which time participants were to maintain the original target melody in memory. Participants then chose which of two aural options matched the original target, with a third choice of “neither.” The incorrect answer choice in each item contained either a pitch or rhythm discrepancy. The 2x2 factorial design of this experiment was based on independent variables of test presentation format and answer discrepancy type. The dependent variable was experimental test scores. Each participant took both parts of both tests, yielding 164 total observations. Additional data were collected for exploratory analysis: the order in which each participant took the tests, the major instrument of ii each participant, and the educational status of each participant (undergraduate or graduate). Results of a 2x2 ANOVA revealed no significant differences in test scores, based on either test format or answer discrepancy type, and no interaction between the factors. The exploratory analyses revealed no significant differences in test scores, based on test order, major instrument, or student status. Results suggest that visual reinforcement of melodies does not affect aural memory for those melodies, in terms of either pitch or rhythm. Suggestions for further research include an aural-visual melodic memory test paired with a learning modalities survey, a longitudinal study of visual imagery applied to aural skills study, and a detailed survey of strategies used by successful and unsuccessful dictation students. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With great love and gratitude, I acknowledge the outstanding contribution my wife Maria and sons Carlo, Paolo, and Matteo have made to this dissertation. Your patience, strength, and support have inspired me beyond words. Heartfelt thanks to my teachers, beginning with the earliest, Mom and Dad. I extend deep appreciation to Dr. Deborah Sheldon, my dissertation advisor, for being an outstanding model of professionalism in music, education, and research. Many thanks to the members of my dissertation advisory committee: Dr. Alison Reynolds and Dr. Michael Klein. Your expertise, helpfulness, and positive attitude have sustained me throughout this process. Thanks also to Professor Richard Brodhead for document review, to Dr. Cynthia Folio for review of experimental test melodies, and to Andrew Buonviri for technical support. Finally, my sincere appreciation to the participants in the experimental work of this study, and to those who helped me establish contact with them. This research was made possible by you. iv This dissertation is dedicated to my wife Maria; these pages represent your hard work every bit as much as mine. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... iv DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................1 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .............................................5 Aural Perception and Imagery ...................................................................................6 Visual Perception and Imagery ................................................................................16 Relationships Between Aural and Visual Perception and Imagery .........................21 Skilled Imagery ........................................................................................................31 Imagery in Musical Applications .............................................................................37 Aural skills ...........................................................................................................37 Sight Singing ........................................................................................................48 Aural skills and sight singing ...............................................................................54 Conclusions ..............................................................................................................58 Implications for Music Education ............................................................................60 Purpose of the Current Study ...................................................................................62 Limitations ...............................................................................................................62 Definitions................................................................................................................63 CHAPTER 3 METHOD ............................................................................................64 Design ......................................................................................................................64 Participants ...............................................................................................................64 Experimental Instrument ..........................................................................................65 Pilot Test ..................................................................................................................67 Procedures ................................................................................................................68 Anonymity Measures ...............................................................................................70 Analysis....................................................................................................................71 Additional Analyses .................................................................................................72 Test Order ............................................................................................................72 Major Instrument .................................................................................................72 vi Student Status.......................................................................................................73 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS ............................................................................................74 ANOVA Assumptions .............................................................................................74 ANOVA Results of Presentation Format by Answer Discrepancy .........................75 Additional Analyses Results ....................................................................................75 Test Order ............................................................................................................75 Student status .......................................................................................................77 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................78 Summary ..................................................................................................................78 Introduction and Purpose .....................................................................................78 Method .................................................................................................................78 Results ..................................................................................................................80 Conclusions ..............................................................................................................80 Discussion and Recommendations ..........................................................................82 Background of Study ...........................................................................................82 Experimental Design ............................................................................................83
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