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Lecture 7 & 8 and : (Formerly published by Dr. Kenney in Lessons and Lectures in , Kendall/Hunt, 2002). Course, the Mythical/Historical Dimension

This section deals with the dimension called "course," the mythical and historical dimension of religion. Myth and history are often understood as opposites. To put them side by side is jarring. This is intended. Hopefully, this essay will help the reader understand the distinction, relation, and grounds for confusion between these two terms. , a leading mythologist, once said, "religion is misunderstood mythology," and mythology is "someone else's religion" (taken from the audio-tape series, Man and Myth, tape 1, sponsored by the Joseph Campbell Foundation). I apologize for introducing an unannounced third term, namely, religion. Yet, as Campbell suggests, many equate the beliefs of their religion with history, the beliefs of those of a different religion with mythology. Hence, the terms religion, history, and mythology are bound together, and confused, in popular usage. Their meanings and relationships are in focus in this essay. The English word "myth" is based on the Greek word muqo" (mythos), which originally conveyed "the utterance of a thought" (Bromiley, 1985, 610). Thoughts are expressed by words and words gather themselves into or anecdotes. These are often preserved in stories. Hence, the term myth eventually came to be associated with the telling of a story, be it "factual" or "invented" (cf. Bromiley, 1985, 610). In time, however, , or stories in which invention was obvious, involving the activities of the , the miraculous and , came to be distinguished from more straightforward or factual accounts of history. The term myth took on a pejorative meaning. Yet, the mythic aspect of stories never lost its appeal, as it was mainly through the poetic and religious that history could find meaning. Hence, it seems, myth and history were simultaneously divorced and married. There is a little myth in all history, and much history in most myth. Several textbook definitions of myth can now be given. Webster's first meaning of myth is as follows: "a traditional story of unknown authorship, ostensibly with an historical basis, but serving usually to explain some phenomenon of , the origin of man, or the customs, institutions, religious rites, etc. of a people." His second meaning mentions the "exploits of gods and heroes", and only in his third meaning is it made clear that a myth involves a "fictictious story, or unscientific account" (Guralnik, 1970, 942). Ninian Smart defines myth as "a neutral term for a story of divine or significance, without implying that it is false or true" (1995, 75). Holman defines myth as "dramatic or embodiments of a people's perception of the deepest truths of life" (1986, 317). These definitions help to underscore the last point of the previous paragraph, namely, that there is a little myth in all history, and much history in most myth. At this juncture it may help to reorient the discussion. As a reminder to the reader, I am attempting to explain religion in terms of a six dimensional approach. A religion begins with an experience of the UnCanny. This experience continues in the history of the community which is formed as a result of the leader's efforts. In order to preserve the memory of the founder's experiences and teachings, stories (myths) are written down. These myths reflect much of the factual history that actually took place, but with sufficient interpretive overlay to generate difficulty in separating from fiction. The separation of fact from fiction is by no means an easy task. This difficulty will be addressed when our attention shifts to history (historiography). But first some comments on the functions of myth. Myths, understood as stories involving the action of gods, goddesses, angels, and supernatural elements, function in a variety of ways: (1) they communicate a sense of the presence of the numinous, inspiring awe and wonder; (2) they explain past origins of present events; (3) they provide a basis for national or spiritual identity; and (4) they provide a model for action or behavior. Two examples should help illuminate these functions. First, the creation story found in the opening pages of the Bible provides a convenient illustration. The repetition of the phrases " said," and "God blessed," and "God saw," and "God did this," and "God did that," certainly communicate the presence of the numinous, inspiring awe and wonder. The creation story in Genesis serves to explain why it is that the Jewish people observed a day of rest on the Sabbath- after all, this is the day God rested! The observance of this day of rest constituted one of the major ethnic identity markers for these people, hence the "myth" provides a basis for national identity. Finally, the account provides a model for action. God rested, hence, so should his people. In addition, as God creates order out of , separating one thing from another, and imposing a sense of order and dominion over his creation, so should his people "subdue the earth and have dominion over it" (Genesis 1: 28). After all, we were made in the image of God (Genesis 1:26)! A second illustration comes from the Islamic . There is a story in the Hadith (based on Surah 17) concerning Mohammed's ascension into heaven. In this account Mohammed is said to have traversed the seven heavens in order to obtain instructions from Allah concerning prayer requirements. Mohammed's encounters with the great heroes of faith (Abraham, Joseph, John the Baptist, Enoch, , Moses) certainly communicate a sense of the numinous, as these heroes were occupying various levels of heaven. Mohammed's conversation with Allah is very reminiscent of Abraham's intercession for Sodom and Gommorah (Genesis 18:23-33), and like Abraham, Mohammed experienced embarrassment due to his persistence in obtaining favor from Allah. One reads this account with a true sense of awe and wonder. The account serves the Islamic community as a past explanation for why the Islamic community presently prays five times a day (these were Allah's instructions to Mohammed). Hence, this story provides a basis for a Muslim's self-identity. Since Mohammed observed salat (the technical term for this prayer ), all Muslims are to observe. The "myth" provides a model for action. One could attempt this type of analysis on any of the great myths of the world's with similar results. Of greater interest, however, especially to those of a rationalistic spirit, is the question of distinguishing myth from history. This concern will be addressed as our discussion proceeds with an investigation into the meaning and nuances of history. History may be defined as the study of the records of the past. There are three key components to this definition, study, records, and past. If history, as an , is the "study" of the records of the past then it involves certain presuppositions, principles, and procedures. These will be discussed below. The only access one has to the past is by means of "records." These could consist of memories, photographs, written documents, or artifacts of some kind. Generally, the study of history focuses upon written documents. The nature of written documents as "windows" to the past will also receive brief comment. Finally, history is the past, pure and simple. But, as just seen, one's access to this past is not pure and simple. One must have access to "records" and presuppositions, principles, and procedures governing the "study" of these records. In light of this definition two central questions present themselves: (1) Are the records accurate? and, (2) Are the methods reliable? Thorough answers to these questions are beyond the scope of this essay. But some insight can be gained by commenting on the range of perspectives within the modern study of history, stages reflected in historical documents, and the distinction between the time at which a document is written and the time about which a document is written. As to the range of methodological perspectives in analyzing history there are two distinct schools of thought. These are often referred to as hard relativism and hard objectivism (cf. Nash, 1984, 77-92). Hard relativism emphasizes the view that historical documents are subjective, value laden and biased with the perspectives of the author, and hence arbitrary. Skepticism is advised in approaching historical documents. One is called to "doubt," not "believe" what the author is . This school of thought utilizes criteria which work against the biases of texts. If information within a document can satisfy one or the other of several criteria, then its claims to provide accurate information are enhanced. One example might suffice. Take for instance the fact that there are many ancient Christian (cf. Miller, 1994). How can one establish the authenticity of any of these reports? One criteria that is used is called the criteria of independent multiple attestation. If a particular saying or deed attributed to an individual in a written document is independently attested to in multiple documents, then it stands to reason that the given authors of these documents did not "invent" the story, rather it preceded them either in a now lost document or simply in . A clear example of independent multiple attestation in the Christian gospels is the of the mustard seed. It is found in the of Mark, the Q gospel, and the gospel of Thomas (cf. Funk, Scott, and Butts, 1988, 34). These gospels are generally agreed to be independent of each other. One did not "borrow" the parable of the mustard seed from the other, nor did any of them independently "invent" the parable. Its plausibility as an actual parable given by Jesus and then handed on in the oral tradition is enhanced. There are several other similar criteria, but a discussion of these would constitute another essay. Critical to separating history from myth is the insight that documents reflect more accurately the time at which they were written than they do the time about which they were written. This insight is more readily grasped in light of the proposal of three stages to an historical document. These stages will now be explained, followed by some clear illustrations of distinguishing the time at which from the time about which. The first stage of a document is its actual stage. During this time the events, the words and deeds that will later be written down, are actually happening. The second stage is the oral stage. During this stage the events, the words and deeds which will later be written down, are filtered through storytelling. In this process data from the actual stage is remembered, interpreted, synthesized, and applied to the ongoing interests and needs of the community desiring to preserve the stories. This stage may last from months to years to decades. Some information may be retained quite accurately, some information may undergo development, and some information may even be created. Information retained often gets associated with history, whereas information developed or created often gets associated with myth. But one should note that developed and created information is often the result of one's efforts to "interpret" history in the direction of meaning or truth. In other words, history and myth are intertwined. The third stage is the written stage. Finally, someone "publishes" the data of the actual and oral stage into a coherent account representing a particular perspective. What results is a document reflecting the needs and interests of the actual, oral, and written stages. My thesis is that the document reflects most accurately the written stage, less accurately the oral stage, and least accurately the actual stage. We are now ready for some concrete illustrations of these abstract concepts. We begin with Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. These are usually regarded as myth and few readers will take exception to questioning their historical veracity. Homer writes sometime around 800-700 BCE. This is the time at which the document is written. Yet, the story concerns the Trojan War which allegedly took place about 1200 BCE. There is a 400-500 hundred year gap between the time at which and the time about which the story takes place. Homer's heroes are cremated instead of being buried in tholos tombs. This reverses the practice of the time at which and the time about which he is writing. Likewise, the gods are worshipped in temples. There were no temples in the time period about which Homer writes. Homer's warriors do battle in chariots. Yet, although the chariot existed, it was not known to have been used for war during the time about which the story is written. Homer's anachronisms illustrate my thesis (cf. Patterson, 1990, 48-49). The Koran is the holy book of Islam. The Koran reflects much of what Mohammed is said to have said and done. It was written some two decades after the life of Mohammed. Clearly, there is a gap between the actual stage, the oral stage, and the written stage. Anderson, a noted expert in Islamic law, perceives that "the greater part of the alleged sayings and doings of the must be regarded as fictions which mirror the history of the theology, politics, and jurisprudence of early Islam" (1977, 92). Mohammed's night journey, mentioned in Surah 17 and elaborated upon in the Hadith (the book of salat), appears to me as typical of the creative storytelling. The event is narrated to legitimate a later practice. Christian readers might not take exception to my, or Anderson's, perception. But many Islamic readers would. The tradition about Jesus provides no exception to these insights regarding history and myth. The canonical Christian gospels were written at least three to six decades after the life of Jesus. It should be expected that the gospel accounts offer some information about Jesus which was retained from the actual stage, some information which was developed and/or created in the oral stage, and much information reflecting the written stage, the time at which the gospels were written. The following is a clear example. In the sixth chapter of John's gospel Jesus is presented as performing the of the multiplication of fishes and loaves (John 6:1-15). Later, in the same chapter, Jesus explains the significance of this miracle (John 6:34-58). Jesus announces that he is the "bread of life" (John 6: 35). Furthermore, he asserts that "Whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life" (John 6: 54). This all occurs at least a year prior to Jesus' death, and the institution of the Lord's Supper! The anachronistic of the "bread of life" discourse is obvious. The gospel writer was simply legitimating the early Church's practice of the Eucharist. The presence of the risen Christ in the Eucharist receives legitimation by the "prediction" of the earthly Jesus. My last example comes from the Genesis creation account. The time at which this story is written is generally agreed to be the sixth century before Christ. The time about which, according to modern science, is about 15 billion years ago. Genesis 1 reflects accurately the world view of the time at which it is written, and tells us precious little about modern science. Genesis 1 is a Jewish version of contemporary creation stories (e.g., the Enuma Elish) written with an emphasis upon Jewish theology. The emphasis upon God's uniqueness contrasts with the polytheism of the day. The emphasis upon God's sovereignty contrasts with the limitations of pagan (e.g., Marduk, Apsu, Tiamat). The emphasis upon Sabbath rest was the very thing Jews needed to be reminded of in the social-political situation at the time the account was written. In summary, the relationship between religion, myth, and history is and potentially confusing. This essay has offered definitions of both history and myth which indicate that the distinctions between these two are not always clear. Religion has an historical basis which lends itself to mythical development. Scholars may adopt either a hard relativist perspective or a hard objectivist perspective. Either way there is a burden of "proof." When it comes to history, religion, and myth, proof is rare. Probability comes in all shapes and sizes. In interpreting religion, history, and myth one may find guidance in the following: the four functions of myth, the three stages of history, and the insight that documents reflect more accurately the time at which they were written than the time about which they were written.

R E F E R E N C E S

Bromiley, G. W. (1985). Theological dictionary of the : Abridged in one volume. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Guralnik, D. B. (editor in chief). (1970). Webster's New World dictionary of the American language. : World Publishing.

Holman, C. H. & Harmon, William (editors). (1986). A handbook to literature. (fifth edition). New York: MacMillan. Miller, R. J. (editor). (1994). The complete gospels. Sonoma: Polebridge.

Nash, R. H. (1984). Christian faith & historical understanding. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Patterson, G. M. (1990). The essentials of ancient history: 4,500 BC to 500 AD, The emergence of civilization. Piscataway: Research & Education Association.

Smart, N. (1995). : Cross cultural explorations of human beliefs. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Cultus, the Ritual Dimension This essay deals with the ritual dimension, those set, established, formalized acts or series of acts which are peculiar to any given religious group, or cultus. In this essay ritual will be defined, with four functions, types, and characteristics identified and illustrated. The essay will conclude with a warning concerning the two pitfalls of ritual. According to Smart (1995, 129) " are performative acts in which communication is established with the Beyond" (e.g., God, nation, group). For example, the singing of our national anthem, the Star Spangled Banner, which occurs at many civic and sporting events, is a set, established, formalized act which aids in setting a tone and atmosphere to the occasion. One "feels" united with patriotic Americans of the past, present, and future. This sense of pride and solidarity helps underline the value that the group wants to lend to the particular event at which the national anthem is sung. The Jewish Passover provides another clear example. Participation in this annual meal is at the heart of Jewish self-identity and indicates one's obedient response to God's commands (Exodus 12:43-48). Islamic self-identity is reaffirmed daily in the practice of Salat (ritual prayer five times a day). For Christians the most meaningful performative action uniting them to both God and each other is the Eucharist. These and other examples of ritual may be helpfully understood along the lines of four functions, four types, and four characteristics. Rituals function to: (1) recreate; (2) reenact; (3) reveal; and (4) re-experience the foundational events of a given people, , or religion. Rituals are designed to recreate the mood of a foundational event. The courage, heroism, and historical significance of the decisive sea battle alluded to in the Star Spangled Banner "seems" to be present whenever the song is sung. The celebration of Christian Eucharist is understood as a reenactment of the death of Jesus, Christianity's foundational event. Christian scripture asserts "For as often as you eat this bread, and drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord's death. . ." (1 Corinthians 11:28). The practice of Salat, Islamic prayer, reveals to all observing that the practioners are faithful Muslims. The Salat ritual includes many references to Allah's commissioning of Mohammed as his prophet, the decisive historical event upon which Islam rests. The Jewish Passover, a meal which commemorates God's deliverance of his people from the of Egypt, is intended to facilitate a re-experience of that deliverance in the present and/or future experience of the participants. Often the refrain "next time in Jerusalem" is uttered by Jews anticipating the full restoration of the Israelite nation. Rituals may also be helpfully understood along the lines of four types. These are: (1) seasonal; (2) occasional; (3) crisis; and (4) regulative. Seasonal rituals are ones connected to the cycles of nature. Thanksgiving constitutes an American national ritual. Most families follow a set and formalized series of acts to commemorate the occasion. The purchase and roasting of a turkey, our animal (?), along with various other accoutrements usually takes center stage. Many families either watch or participate in family games (e.g., football). But the whole point is to allow this time of year to be one of thankfulness. Harvest (thankful) festivals are common in the of most . Occasional rituals are those not necessarily fixed to the civic or natural calendar. For example, weddings are generally planned in conjunction with the resolve to get married, the engagement. Weddings often evoke the foundational or significant moments of the couples' lives and thus could be understood as having the same function as the more religious rituals mentioned above. Crises rituals are fixed to critical events. Illness and/or death often necessitate some ritual in an attempt to find or express meaning within the tragedy. These rituals differ from to culture but appear to have the same function. The significant moments of the individual's life are recalled and often related in context to the history and future expectations of the given culture's religious outlook. Regulative rituals are fixed to the calendar, both civic and religious. These ritual celebrations regulate daily, weekly, monthly, and annual worship and are the very stuff out of which a religious tradition is made. Christmas and Easter are convenient examples. Christmas occurs on the 25th of December, Easter on the first Sunday after the Jewish Passover (which varies from year to year, but normally falls somewhere in the months of March and April). These momentous annual celebrations often overshadow the weekly celebrations of a holy day (Friday for Islam, Saturday for Judaism, Sunday for Christianity). Rituals also may be viewed as having four characteristics. These are: (1) symbolic; (2) sacramental; (3) static; and (4) social. A symbol may be an action, a word, or some physical object which is understood as a "sign," or as a "pointer," to something else. For example, a stop sign, a 10 foot slender pole with a red hexagon containing the words (usually in white ) STOP, intends to communicate more than simply "hit your brakes." One is to proceed with caution (signified perhaps by the color red) and to proceed in an observant manner (signified perhaps by the height of the pole). Religious symbols most often carry a greater breadth and depth of meaning than the mere example of a stop sign. But the breadth and depth of meaning of religious symbols are important to grasp if one wants to understand the power of ritual. For example, the symbols of bread and wine in Christian Eucharist contain a great depth and breadth of meaning. At one level bread, being solid, stands for the body of Christ. Wine, being liquid, stands for the blood of Christ. But bread and wine connote so much more. What is more basic to human experience than eating bread and drinking wine? Could the Eucharist symbolize the insight that God, in addition to being present in the death of Jesus, is also present in ordinary human experience? Bread and wine can be understood as gifts, the fruit of the vine and the work of human hands. Hence, the sacrificial connotations of these symbols. But bread and wine are also nourishment. So should the Eucharist be viewed as a table or as an altar? Or, perhaps, both? Bread and wine in their commonness may suggest that the ritual is meant for (at least) commoners. Perhaps no one is to be excluded, hence the inclusiveness of the symbol. The reader at this point may begin to see other possibilities to the symbolism of bread and wine, and that is the point. Symbols have evocative power in that they convey both a depth and breadth of meaning. Rituals are also understood sacramentally. The word "sacrament" is based on the sacramentum, which in turn was derived from the Greek mysterion, or mystery. The original notion was that in the ritual act the reality to which the ritual pointed was somehow mysteriously present. In legal, military, or business practices the sacramentum or the mysterion was actually an oath, the giving of one's word, or, "down payment," or a "token," of more to come. In the context of religious ritual something is understood as taking place a wee bit above and beyond the mere symbolic. What the ritual points to may actually be present. For example, in the celebration of the Jewish Passover, both past and future deliverances of God are being celebrated (back then in Egypt, next year in Jerusalem). A sacramental understanding of Passover would suggest that even in and through the ritual reenactment of God's past deliverance, and even in and through the ritual anticipation of God's future deliverance, the participant may experience, in the here and now, the present power of God's deliverance. The ritual may effect, in actuality, that which it signifies. The technical language for this effect is ex opere operato, Latin for "by the working of the work." A little reflection here should help one understand the prominence given to rituals among the religious. Rituals are static. This refers to the fixed and repetitive nature of rituals. The same actions, words, and symbols are used over and over and over again, pretty much the same way each time. The static nature of rituals helps preserve the tradition and keep it from being distorted over time. Nevertheless, some innovation within the static procedure is helpful. For example, although many American civic and sporting events begin with the presentation of the American flag and the singing of the national anthem at the beginning of the event, variations in the type of vocalist asked to do the singing and variations in the type of musical accompaniment lend their own vitality to the already established vitality of the ritual itself. Rituals are social in nature. They take place in public, by the public, for the public. Rituals which are purely individualistic last only as long as the individual. Finally, there are two pitfalls to avoid in the practice of rituals: First, the pitfall of idolatry. Second, the pitfall of ritualism. Idolatry may be understood as a misplacement of meaning within the ritual. If the ritual is meant to point, by its symbolic, sacramental, static, and social nature, to a reality beyond, one might fall into the temptation to focus more on the ritual than to the reality to which the ritual points. In this case the symbol and actions and/or actors become the object of devotion rather than that to which the symbol points. At the opposite end is ritualism. In this instance there is a loss of meaning, rather than a misplacement of meaning. Rather than too much attention being given to the ritual performance, too little attention is given. The ritual is understood as boring, meaningless, and empty. Avoiding these extremes allows ritual to have its proper place in the religious life.

REFERENCES

Smart, Ninian. (1995). Worldviews: A cross cultural exploration of human beliefs. (second edition). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall