Lecture 7 & 8 History and Myth: (Formerly published by Dr. Kenney in Lessons and Lectures in Religion, Kendall/Hunt, 2002). Course, the Mythical/Historical Dimension This section deals with the dimension called "course," the mythical and historical dimension of religion. Myth and history are often understood as opposites. To put them side by side is jarring. This is intended. Hopefully, this essay will help the reader understand the distinction, relation, and grounds for confusion between these two terms. Joseph Campbell, a leading mythologist, once said, "religion is misunderstood mythology," and mythology is "someone else's religion" (taken from the audio-tape series, Man and Myth, tape 1, sponsored by the Joseph Campbell Foundation). I apologize for introducing an unannounced third term, namely, religion. Yet, as Campbell suggests, many equate the beliefs of their religion with history, the beliefs of those of a different religion with mythology. Hence, the terms religion, history, and mythology are bound together, and confused, in popular usage. Their meanings and relationships are in focus in this essay. The English word "myth" is based on the Greek word muqo" (mythos), which originally conveyed "the utterance of a thought" (Bromiley, 1985, 610). Thoughts are expressed by words and words gather themselves into sayings or anecdotes. These are often preserved in stories. Hence, the term myth eventually came to be associated with the telling of a story, be it "factual" or "invented" (cf. Bromiley, 1985, 610). In time, however, myths, or stories in which invention was obvious, involving the activities of the gods, the miraculous and supernatural, came to be distinguished from more straightforward or factual accounts of history. The term myth took on a pejorative meaning. Yet, the mythic aspect of stories never lost its appeal, as it was mainly through the poetic and religious imagination that history could find meaning. Hence, it seems, myth and history were simultaneously divorced and married. There is a little myth in all history, and much history in most myth. Several textbook definitions of myth can now be given. Webster's first meaning of myth is as follows: "a traditional story of unknown authorship, ostensibly with an historical basis, but serving usually to explain some phenomenon of nature, the origin of man, or the customs, institutions, religious rites, etc. of a people." His second meaning mentions the "exploits of gods and heroes", and only in his third meaning is it made clear that a myth involves a "fictictious story, or unscientific account" (Guralnik, 1970, 942). Ninian Smart defines myth as "a neutral term for a story of divine or sacred significance, without implying that it is false or true" (1995, 75). Holman defines myth as "dramatic or narrative embodiments of a people's perception of the deepest truths of life" (1986, 317). These definitions help to underscore the last point of the previous paragraph, namely, that there is a little myth in all history, and much history in most myth. At this juncture it may help to reorient the discussion. As a reminder to the reader, I am attempting to explain religion in terms of a six dimensional approach. A religion begins with an experience of the UnCanny. This experience continues in the history of the community which is formed as a result of the leader's efforts. In order to preserve the memory of the founder's experiences and teachings, stories (myths) are written down. These myths reflect much of the factual history that actually took place, but with sufficient interpretive overlay to generate difficulty in separating fact from fiction. The separation of fact from fiction is by no means an easy task. This difficulty will be addressed when our attention shifts to history (historiography). But first some comments on the functions of myth. Myths, understood as stories involving the action of gods, goddesses, angels, demons and supernatural elements, function in a variety of ways: (1) they communicate a sense of the presence of the numinous, inspiring awe and wonder; (2) they explain past origins of present events; (3) they provide a basis for national or spiritual identity; and (4) they provide a model for action or behavior. Two examples should help illuminate these functions. First, the creation story found in the opening pages of the Bible provides a convenient illustration. The repetition of the phrases "God said," and "God blessed," and "God saw," and "God did this," and "God did that," certainly communicate the presence of the numinous, inspiring awe and wonder. The creation story in Genesis serves to explain why it is that the Jewish people observed a day of rest on the Sabbath- after all, this is the day God rested! The observance of this day of rest constituted one of the major ethnic identity markers for these people, hence the "myth" provides a basis for national identity. Finally, the account provides a model for action. God rested, hence, so should his people. In addition, as God creates order out of chaos, separating one thing from another, and imposing a sense of order and dominion over his creation, so should his people "subdue the earth and have dominion over it" (Genesis 1: 28). After all, we were made in the image of God (Genesis 1:26)! A second illustration comes from the Islamic tradition. There is a story in the Hadith (based on Surah 17) concerning Mohammed's ascension into heaven. In this account Mohammed is said to have traversed the seven heavens in order to obtain instructions from Allah concerning prayer requirements. Mohammed's encounters with the great heroes of faith (Abraham, Joseph, John the Baptist, Enoch, Jesus, Moses) certainly communicate a sense of the numinous, as these heroes were occupying various levels of heaven. Mohammed's conversation with Allah is very reminiscent of Abraham's intercession for Sodom and Gommorah (Genesis 18:23-33), and like Abraham, Mohammed experienced embarrassment due to his persistence in obtaining favor from Allah. One reads this account with a true sense of awe and wonder. The account serves the Islamic community as a past explanation for why the Islamic community presently prays five times a day (these were Allah's instructions to Mohammed). Hence, this story provides a basis for a Muslim's self-identity. Since Mohammed observed salat (the technical term for this prayer ritual), all Muslims are to observe. The "myth" provides a model for action. One could attempt this type of analysis on any of the great myths of the world's religions with similar results. Of greater interest, however, especially to those of a rationalistic spirit, is the question of distinguishing myth from history. This concern will be addressed as our discussion proceeds with an investigation into the meaning and nuances of history. History may be defined as the study of the records of the past. There are three key components to this definition, study, records, and past. If history, as an academic discipline, is the "study" of the records of the past then it involves certain presuppositions, principles, and procedures. These will be discussed below. The only access one has to the past is by means of "records." These could consist of memories, photographs, written documents, or artifacts of some kind. Generally, the study of history focuses upon written documents. The nature of written documents as "windows" to the past will also receive brief comment. Finally, history is the past, pure and simple. But, as just seen, one's access to this past is not pure and simple. One must have access to "records" and presuppositions, principles, and procedures governing the "study" of these records. In light of this definition two central questions present themselves: (1) Are the records accurate? and, (2) Are the methods reliable? Thorough answers to these questions are beyond the scope of this essay. But some insight can be gained by commenting on the range of perspectives within the modern study of history, stages reflected in historical documents, and the distinction between the time at which a document is written and the time about which a document is written. As to the range of methodological perspectives in analyzing history there are two distinct schools of thought. These are often referred to as hard relativism and hard objectivism (cf. Nash, 1984, 77-92). Hard relativism emphasizes the view that historical documents are subjective, value laden and biased with the perspectives of the author, and hence arbitrary. Skepticism is advised in approaching historical documents. One is called to "doubt," not "believe" what the author is saying. This school of thought utilizes criteria which work against the biases of texts. If information within a document can satisfy one or the other of several criteria, then its claims to provide accurate information are enhanced. One example might suffice. Take for instance the fact that there are many ancient Christian gospels (cf. Miller, 1994). How can one establish the authenticity of any of these reports? One criteria that is used is called the criteria of independent multiple attestation. If a particular saying or deed attributed to an individual in a written document is independently attested to in multiple documents, then it stands to reason that the given authors of these documents did not "invent" the story, rather it preceded them either in a now lost document or simply in oral tradition. A clear example of independent multiple attestation in the Christian gospels is the parable of the mustard seed. It is found in the gospel of Mark, the Q gospel, and the gospel of Thomas (cf. Funk, Scott, and Butts, 1988, 34). These gospels are generally agreed to be independent of each other. One did not "borrow" the parable of the mustard seed from the other, nor did any of them independently "invent" the parable.