DOCSLIB.ORG

Separation of Church and State the Past and Future of Sacred and Profane

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Separation of Church and State the Past and Future of Sacred and Profane Separation of Church and State The Past and Future of Sacred and Profane Fourth National Conference of the Historical Society, June 3-5, 2004 © 2004 by Constantin Fasolt. All rights reserved. Note to Conference Participants I wanted to write a paper. Instead I wrote a little book. I do apologize for that. Since it is now written and makes the points that I would like to make, I have decided to present it as it is. At the same time I recognize that readers may be pressed for time. I have therefore included an overview of the whole argument below. I hope it will let the hurried catch my drift and prepare the unhurried for the text. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars for the Fellowship that made it possible for me to write this piece. I would also like to thank Elemér Hankiss and Joseph Brinley for their comments on an earlier draft. I owe a special debt of gratitude to my intern Brian O'Hanlon. He read many different drafts, gave valuable critical suggestions on all of them, and helped me both to clarify my thoughts and to improve their presentation. Contents Contents.........................................................................................................................2 Overview........................................................................................................................3 1 A Challenge to the Received Wisdom............................................................................................ 3 2 An Alternative View........................................................................................................................ 4 3 Separation of Church and State..................................................................................................... 6 4 Method of Presentation.................................................................................................................. 8 1 Preface ...................................................................................................................... 10 2 Principles .................................................................................................................. 11 2.1 The Dilemma ............................................................................................................................. 11 2.2 History and Analogy ................................................................................................................. 13 2.3 Sacred and Profane................................................................................................................... 17 3 The Middle Ages....................................................................................................... 21 3.1 The Character of Religious Liberty in the Middle Ages .......................................................... 21 3.1.1 Three Reasons for Denying There Was Religious Liberty ............................................................. 22 3.1.2 Three Reasons for Asserting There Was Religious Liberty............................................................ 25 3.2 The History of Religious Liberty in the Middle Ages............................................................... 29 3.2.1 From Optimism to Anxiety............................................................................................................... 30 3.2.2 The Familiar Diagnosis: The Failure of the Clergy......................................................................... 31 3.3.3 A Different Diagnosis: The Dangers of Success ............................................................................. 33 3.2.4 The Failure of Reform ...................................................................................................................... 35 3.2.5 Anxiety and Terror............................................................................................................................ 36 3.2.6 From Reform to Reformation: The End of the Middle Ages.......................................................... 37 4 The Modern World .................................................................................................. 40 4.1 The Character of Modern Religion .......................................................................................... 40 4.1.1 Modern Articles of Faith .................................................................................................................. 41 4.1.2 Modern Sacraments .......................................................................................................................... 44 4.1.3 Modern Limits on Religious Liberty................................................................................................ 47 4.2 The History of Modern Religion............................................................................................... 49 4.2.1 From Optimism to Anxiety............................................................................................................... 49 4.2.2 The Dangers of Success.................................................................................................................... 51 4.2.3 Two Modern Heresies....................................................................................................................... 52 4.2.4 The Failure of Reform Revisited...................................................................................................... 54 5 The Present and the Future ..................................................................................... 55 5.1 A Test Case: Abortion............................................................................................................... 55 5.2 The Logic of Crisis.................................................................................................................... 57 5.3 Sex, Drugs, and Speech............................................................................................................. 59 5.4 The Tower of Babel ................................................................................................................... 61 5.5 The Future ................................................................................................................................. 62 Overview The received wisdom about religion in the history of Europe is that religion has gradually lost power over the European mind. During the Middle Ages religion ruled supreme. Then the Reformation broke up the unity of Christianity; the Enlightenment shook the foundations of religion; and the astonishing discoveries made by the natural sciences in the nineteenth century, especially the theory of evolution, dealt a deathblow to religion. Thereafter religion survived only in the nooks and crannies of modern life. It could no longer show itself in public without looking befuddled, ignorant, and cranky. God had died. If Max Weber can be believed, the outcome was a spiritually barren and disenchanted form of life in an "iron cage" of modern legal, scientific, and bureaucratic rationality whose origin and nature Weber so feverishly sought to understand. 1 A Challenge to the Received Wisdom In my opinion, this view is wrong. In the first place, it rests on a mistaken notion of religion because it identifies religion with the intellectual content of religious faith. It points, for example, to the account of human origins in the book of Genesis, contrasts it with the account established on principles of science, and concludes that science has displaced religion. The contrast between biblical and scientific accounts is perfectly real. But the conclusion does not follow. Religion does not consist of any particular belief. It rather consists of distinguishing the sacred from the profane. The ways in which that distinction can be drawn are infinitely variable. So far from displacing that distinction, science may well have become its most important source of strength. Second, the received wisdom imposes a false continuity on European religious history. Because it identifies religion with the content of particular beliefs, it identifies the history of religion with the history of those beliefs. As a result, the history of religion looks like the gradual displacement of certain dogmas of theology rooted in sacred texts by certain secular-scientific views founded on rational analysis and empirical observation. The speed and intensity of the change may be acknowledged to have varied over time and place. But overall there is a single development that leads from the assertion of religious supremacy at the beginning to its denial at the end. In fact, so I shall try to argue, there is no such development. There rather are two separate phases, a medieval and a modern one, each with its own religious faith, each zealous in its devotion to the sacraments. The displacement of medieval theology by modern scientific rationality went hand in hand with the assertion of a modern form of religion that makes its own claims on supremacy. What looks like a gradual displacement of religion by science at the level of particular beliefs conceals a transition from one form of religion to another. © 2004 by Constantin Fasolt 4 Third, the received wisdom offers a false explanation for the decline of religion. It maintains that religion fell under the onslaught of enemies of faith. It views the history of religion in terms of a battle between opposing parties. On one side are those who have religious faith, and on the other those who rest their case on reason.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • REVEL BENEFICE Passionate About Sharing God’S Love with the Whole Community
    REVEL BENEFICE Passionate about sharing God’s love with the whole community Page 1 of 32 BISHOP’S INTRODUCTION There has been a willingness and commitment of the parishes within the Revel Benefice to re- think how mission and ministry might look in their rural context. A few years ago, I challenged them to do some work on what the future shape of their ministry might look like. To their great credit they have taken up the challenge and responded very well. The Parish Profile reflects how far their thinking has come, along with changes in structure they have already made. They have engaged healthily with the 8 Essential Qualities, which they have undertaken as a whole benefice. This has enabled their journey of growing as a mission shaped church to continue. A growth in shared ministry, lay leadership and working together has continued to bear fruit through Messy church, and a growing relationship with schools, has enabled the mission and ministry to continue even with the challenges posed by illness and early retirement of the previous incumbent. The Revel journey draws on a spiritual heritage I found very inspiring when arriving in Coventry Diocese. It can be read in a little but influential book by Stephen Verney called, ‘Fire in Coventry’, and describes how the Spirit moved in the hearts of people in Monks Kirby and the spiritual awakening across the Diocese that happened as a result. My hope and prayer is that this benefice may once again be a place of influential spiritual momentum. This heritage in the spiritual dynamic of laity, has given energy to new forms of mission and ministry in a rural context.
    [Show full text]
  • Relationship Between Church and State, Canon Law and Civil Law: Problems and Prospects
    IUSTITIA Vol. 9, No. 1 (June 2018) Page: 11-50 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHURCH AND STATE, CANON LAW AND CIVIL LAW: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS Paul Pallatir First of all the author examines the Lateran Pacts between the Holy See and the Italian State which constitutes the foundation for the relationship between the Catholic Church and the State even in modern times. Then an overview of the teaching of Vatican II on the autonomy and independence of the Church and civil society in their respective fields is presented, indicating the possibility and manner of observing canon law in democratic, theocratic, confessional, secular, atheistic or totalitarian states. After attempting a compendium of the canons on the theme, the final sections are dedicated to highlight the principles and directives provided by the Codes of canon law regarding the relationship between canon law and civil law, followed by the exemplification of three particular themes: marriage, temporal goods of the Church and penal law. 1. Introduction The Christian faithful, including cardinals, bishops, priests, religious and lay people, are at the same time members of the Church and citizens of a nation. Hence their life and activities are regulated by two orders, canonical and civil, deriving rights and obligations from both. Hence the peaceful life of Christian citizens in any country depends on the harmonious and equilibrated application of canon law and civil Prof. Paul Pallath holds doctorate in Eastern canon law from the Pontifical Oriental Institute in Rome and in Latin canon law from the Pontifical Lateran University. From 1995 to 2011 he rendered service as an official of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments and then for two years as an official of the Tribunal of the Roman Rota.
    [Show full text]
  • Book IV – Function of the Church: Part I – the Sacraments
    The Sacraments The Catholic Church recognizes the existence of Seven Sacraments instituted by the Lord. They are: Sacraments of Christian Initiation: Baptism, Confirmation, and the Eucharist Sacraments of Healing: Penance (Reconciliation) and Anointing of the Sick Sacraments at the Service of Communion: Holy Orders and Matrimony Code of Cannon Law: Book IV - Function of the Church: Part I - The Sacraments The Sacraments (Code of Canon Law; Cann. 840-848) Can. 840 The sacraments of the New Testament were instituted by Christ the Lord and entrusted to the Church. As actions of Christ and the Church, they are signs and means which express and strengthen the faith, render worship to God, and effect the sanctification of humanity and thus contribute in the greatest way to establish, strengthen, and manifest ecclesiastical communion. Accordingly, in the celebration of the sacraments the sacred ministers and the other members of the Christian faithful must use the greatest veneration and necessary diligence. Can. 841 Since the sacraments are the same for the whole Church and belong to the divine deposit, it is only for the supreme authority of the Church to approve or define the requirements for their validity; it is for the same or another competent authority according to the norm of can. 838 §§3 and 4 (Can. 838 §3. It pertains to the conferences of bishops to prepare and publish, after the prior review of the Holy See, translations of liturgical books in vernacular languages, adapted appropriately within the limits defined in the liturgical books themselves. §4. Within the limits of his competence, it pertains to the diocesan bishop in the Church entrusted to him to issue liturgical norms which bind everyone.) to decide what pertains to their licit celebration, administration, and reception and to the order to be observed in their celebration.
    [Show full text]
  • A Fatalidade Do Diálogo Estado-Religião
    RUI ANTÓNIO COSTA OLIVEIRA A FATALIDADE DO DIÁLOGO ESTADO-RELIGIÃO Registos identificados em vários dos contextos históricos da Monarquia e da República Portuguesa, da Modernidade ao Tratado de Lisboa Dissertação apresentada para a obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Ciência das Religiões, no Curso de Mestrado em Ciência das Reli- giões, conferido pela Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias. Orientador: Prof. Dr. PAULO MENDES PINTO Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias Faculdade de Ciência Política, Lusofonia e Relações Internacionais Lisboa 2010 A FATALIDADE DO DIÁLOGO ESTADO-RELIGIÃO A grande individualidade, resultado dos progressos d’este século, vae tornando impos- síveis todas as supremacias, tanto na religião, como no estado, como na arte. É para onde confluem todos os esforços, todas as luctas; é o móbil da acção na Europa moderna. TEÓFILO BRAGA, As Theocracias Litterarias, Lisboa, Typographia Universal, 1865, p. 5 2 A FATALIDADE DO DIÁLOGO ESTADO-RELIGIÃO Resumo Neste trabalho, propomo-nos elencar os vários «instrumentos políticos» de que se têm socorrido, de uma forma geral, o Poder instituído, e, de uma forma particular, o Estado Português, para a regulação das relações de carácter religioso dos cidadãos, entre si – nas suas várias expressões confessionais – e entre estes e o Estado – na diversidade dos canais institucionais de comunicação e de interacção. O enfoque é o da realidade nacional portuguesa, desde a Modernidade (de uma forma pontualizada) e o período que decorre da promulgação da Constituição Portuguesa de 1976 até à assinatura do Tratado de Lisboa, em 13 de Dezembro de 2007, que criou a União Europeia, e que entrou em vigor em 1 de Dezembro de 2009.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Introduction 2 the New Religious Orders 3 the Council of Trent And
    NOTES 1 Introduction I. This term designates first of all the act of 'confessing' or professing a par­ ticular faith; secondly, it indicates the content of that which is confessed or professed, as in the Augsburg Confession; finally then it comes to mean the group that confesses this particular content, the church or 'confession'. 2 The New Religious Orders I. The terms 'order' and 'congregation' in this period were not always clear. An order usually meant solemn vows, varying degrees of exemption from the local bishop, acceptance of one of the major rules (Benedictine, Augustinian, Franciscan), and for women cloister.A congregation indicated simple vows and usually subordination to local diocesan authority. A con­ fraternity usually designated an association of lay people, sometimes including clerics, organized under a set of rules , to foster their common religious life and usually to undertake some common apostolic work. In some cases confraternities evolved into congregations, as was the case with many of the third orders, and congregations evolved into orders. 2. There is no effort here to list all the new orders and congregations that appeared in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 3. An English translation of Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae, the papal bull of 27 September 1540 establishing the Society ofJesus, is found in John Olin, The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola: Reform in the Church, /495-1540 (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), pp. 203-8. 3 The Council of Trent and the Papacy I. The Complete Works of Montaigne: Essays, Travel journal, Letters, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957), p.
    [Show full text]
  • Pope Paul III and the Cultural Politics of Reform Pope Paul III and the Cultural Politics of Reform
    6 RENAISSANCE HISTORY, ART AND CULTURE Cussen Pope Paul III and the Cultural Politics of Reform of Politics Cultural the and III Paul Pope Bryan Cussen Pope Paul III and the Cultural Politics of Reform 1534-1549 Pope Paul III and the Cultural Politics of Reform Renaissance History, Art and Culture This series investigates the Renaissance as a complex intersection of political and cultural processes that radiated across Italian territories into wider worlds of influence, not only through Western Europe, but into the Middle East, parts of Asia and the Indian subcontinent. It will be alive to the best writing of a transnational and comparative nature and will cross canonical chronological divides of the Central Middle Ages, the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. Renaissance History, Art and Culture intends to spark new ideas and encourage debate on the meanings, extent and influence of the Renaissance within the broader European world. It encourages engagement by scholars across disciplines – history, literature, art history, musicology, and possibly the social sciences – and focuses on ideas and collective mentalities as social, political, and cultural movements that shaped a changing world from ca 1250 to 1650. Series editors Christopher Celenza, Georgetown University, USA Samuel Cohn, Jr., University of Glasgow, UK Andrea Gamberini, University of Milan, Italy Geraldine Johnson, Christ Church, Oxford, UK Isabella Lazzarini, University of Molise, Italy Pope Paul III and the Cultural Politics of Reform 1534-1549 Bryan Cussen Amsterdam University Press Cover image: Titian, Pope Paul III. Museo di Capodimonte, Naples, Italy / Bridgeman Images. Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout isbn 978 94 6372 252 0 e-isbn 978 90 4855 025 8 doi 10.5117/9789463722520 nur 685 © B.
    [Show full text]
  • Northanger Benefice Profile for an Assistant Priest (House for Duty)
    Northanger Benefice Profile For an Assistant Priest (House for Duty) Including: St Nicholas, Chawton, St Peter ad Vincula, Colemore St James, East Tisted, St Leonard, Hartley Mauditt, St Mary the Virgin, East Worldham All Saints, Farringdon, All Saints Kingsley, St Mary the Virgin, Newton Valence, St Mary Magdalene, Oakhanger, St Mary the virgin, Selborne St Nicholas, West Worldham Benefice Profile The Northanger Benefice has 8 parishes: Chawton, East Tisted, East Worldham, Farringdon, Kingsley with Oakhanger, Newton Valence, Selborne and West Worldham with Hartley Mauditt. Each has its own Churchwardens and Parochial Church Council. The Churches are: St Nicholas Chawton St James East Tisted with St Peter ad Vincula, Colemore St Mary the Virgin, East Worldham All Saints, Farringdon All Saints Kingsley with St Mary Magdalene, Oakhanger St Mary the Virgin, Newton Valence St Mary the Virgin, Selborne St Nicholas, West Worldham with St Leonard, Hartley Mauditt Insert map 2 All eight rural Hampshire parishes are close together geographically covering a combined area of approximately 60 square miles to the south of the market town of Alton within the boundary of the newly formed South Downs National Park. The parishes have much in common socially with a high proportion of professionals and retired professionals, but also a strong farming tradition; the total population is around four thousand. The congregations range widely in age from children to those in their nineties, many have lived in the area all their lives. Each parish has its own individual foci for mission, but two areas are shared, the first is to maintain a visible Christian presence in the community.
    [Show full text]
  • The Legacy of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages in the West The
    The Legacy of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages in the West The Roman Empire reigned from 27 BCE to 476 CE throughout the Mediterranean world, including parts of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The fall of the Roman Empire in the West in 476 CE marked the end of the period of classical antiquity and ushered in a new era in world history. Three civilizations emerged as successors to the Romans in the Mediterranean world: the Byzantine Empire (in many ways a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire), and the civilizations of Islam and Western Europe. These three civilizations would become rivals and adversaries over the course of the succeeding centuries. They developed distinct religious, cultural, social, political, and linguistic characteristics that shaped the path each civilization would take throughout the course of the Middle Ages and beyond. The Middle Ages in European history refers to the period spanning the fifth through the fifteenth century. The fall of the Western Roman Empire typically represents the beginning of the Middle Ages. Scholars divide the Middle Ages into three eras: the Early Middle Ages (400–1000), the High Middle Ages (1000–1300), and the Late Middle Ages (1300–1500). The Renaissance and the Age of Discovery traditionally mark the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in European history. The legacy of the Roman Empire, and the division of its territory into three separate civilizations, impacted the course of world history and continues to influence the development of each region to this day.
    [Show full text]
  • Benedict XVI's “Hermeneutic of Reform” and Religious Freedom
    Nova et Vetera, English Edition, Vol. 9, No. 4 (2011): 1029 –54 1029 Benedict XVI’s “Hermeneutic of Reform” and Religious Freedom MARTIN RHONHEIMER Pontifical University of the Holy Cross Rome, Italy I. Continuity or Rupture: How Did Vatican II Understand the Church’s Relation with the Modern World? 1 INAnotable Christmas message given before the Roman Curia on December 22, 2005, Pope Benedict XVI cautioned against a widespread interpretation of the Second Vatican Council which would posit that the Church after the Council is different than the “preconciliar” Church. Benedict called this erroneous interpretation of the Council a “hermeneutic of discontinuity and rupture.” 1 The present article first appeared in German in Die Tagespost 115 (26 September 2009): 14, and online at KATH.NET, 28 September 2009 (www.kath.net/ detail.php?id=24068). A Spanish translation of the article appeared in the Appen - dix I of M. Rhonheimer, Cristianismo y laicidad: Historia y actualidad de una relación compleja, Ediciones (Madrid: Rialp, 2009), 167–79. The version presented here includes the text of that article in its entirety, expanded and provided with an appendix, which deals with specific questions concerning the continuity and infallibility of the ordinary universal magisterium, questions inherent to the prob - lem discussed here. This expanded version was first published in French as “L’«herméneutique de la réforme» et la liberté de religion,” in the French edition of Nova et Vetera 85 (2010): 341–63 (online: www.novaetvetera.ch/Art%20Rhon - heimer.htm) and in a slightly abridged version in Die Neue Ordnung 65, no. 4 (August 2011): 244–61.
    [Show full text]
  • 'Libera Nos Domine'?: the Vicars Apostolic and the Suppressed
    ‘Libera nos Domine’? 81 Chapter 4 ‘Libera nos Domine’?: The Vicars Apostolic and the Suppressed/Restored English Province of the Society of Jesus Thomas M. McCoog, SJ It would have been much to the interests of the Church if her history had not included the story of such difficulties as those which are the subject of this chapter. Her internal dissensions, whether on a large or small scale, bear the same relation to the evils inflicted on her from without, as diseases do to wounds won in honourable fight. Thus did Edwin H. Burton open the chapter ‘The Difficulties between the Vicars Apostolic and the Regulars’ in his work on Bishop Challoner.1 The absence of such opposition may have made the history of the post-Reforma- tion Roman Catholic Church in England more edifying, but surely would also have deprived subsequent scholars of fascinating material for dissertations and monographs. In his doctoral thesis Eamon Duffy remarked that, although tension between Jesuits and seculars was less than in previous centuries, ‘the bitterness … which remained was all pervasive … No Catholic in England escaped untouched’.2 Basil Hemphill, having noted that ‘most unfortunate jealousies persisted between the secular and the regular clergy … and with an intensity which seems incredible to us today’, considered their explication essential if history wished to be truthful ‘and if it be not truthful it is of no use at all’.3 A brief overview of uneasy, volatile and tense relations between Jesuits and secular clergy in post-Reformation England will contextualize the eigh- teenth-century problem. 1 Edwin H.
    [Show full text]
  • Dignitatis Humanae and the Development of Moral Doctrine: Assessing Change in Catholic Social Teaching on Religious Liberty
    THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA Dignitatis humanae and the Development of Moral Doctrine: Assessing Change in Catholic Social Teaching on Religious Liberty A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Theology and Religious Studies Of The Catholic University of America In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree Doctor of Philosophy By Barrett Hamilton Turner Washington, D.C 2015 Dignitatis humanae and the Development of Moral Doctrine: Assessing Change in Catholic Social Teaching on Religious Liberty Barrett Hamilton Turner, Ph.D. Director: Joseph E. Capizzi, Ph.D. Vatican II’s Declaration on Religious Liberty, Dignitatis humanae (DH), poses the problem of development in Catholic moral and social doctrine. This problem is threefold, consisting in properly understanding the meaning of pre-conciliar magisterial teaching on religious liberty, the meaning of DH itself, and the Declaration’s implications for how social doctrine develops. A survey of recent scholarship reveals that scholars attend to the first two elements in contradictory ways, and that their accounts of doctrinal development are vague. The dissertation then proceeds to the threefold problematic. Chapter two outlines the general parameters of doctrinal development. The third chapter gives an interpretation of the pre- conciliar teaching from Pius IX to John XXIII. To better determine the meaning of DH, the fourth chapter examines the Declaration’s drafts and the official explanatory speeches (relationes) contained in Vatican II’s Acta synodalia. The fifth chapter discusses how experience may contribute to doctrinal development and proposes an explanation for how the doctrine on religious liberty changed, drawing upon the work of Jacques Maritain and Basile Valuet.
    [Show full text]
  • Translations of Letters Sixty-One to One-Hundred Six of John of Salisbury Mary Patricius Cullinane Loyola University Chicago
    Loyola University Chicago Loyola eCommons Master's Theses Theses and Dissertations 1943 Translations of Letters Sixty-One to One-Hundred Six of John of Salisbury Mary Patricius Cullinane Loyola University Chicago Recommended Citation Cullinane, Mary Patricius, "Translations of Letters Sixty-One to One-Hundred Six of John of Salisbury" (1943). Master's Theses. Paper 478. http://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_theses/478 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at Loyola eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of Loyola eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. Copyright © 1943 Mary Patricius Cullinane 17 'lIWlSLlTIOIfS or LBT'l'1mS SIX'l'Y-OD TO OB-HtJ!IDR.BD SIX OF JOHR OF SALISBUJlY Sister:va17 PatriCiU8 en)Un-n_, 0.S.1. * * * A !hes1s submitted in partl8l tultil.la.t ot thereqa1raaeDt.,~or the degree of Jrastar ot Arts 1it Lo7ola Uniftrs1t7 DeceUer, 1943 COIf '1' E II 'l' S Chapter I The Historical Background of Letters Sixt7-one to One-hundred Six • 1 II Translations of Letters Sixt7-one to One-hundred Six • • • . • • • • . •• 1 III Index of Proper Naaaes • • • • • • •• 108 IV Index of Quota tiona • • • • • • • •• 114 CHAPTER I THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LETTERS SIXTY-ONE TO ORE-HUNDRED SIX Henr,y of Anjou's newly acquired England, "a chaos of pillage and blood­ shed,"l a country crippled and enervated by an era of intrigue and anarchy, relaxed, and took a deep breath.
    [Show full text]