Cancer and HIV-1 Infection: Patterns of Chronic Antigen Exposure
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REVIEW published: 30 June 2020 doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01350 Cancer and HIV-1 Infection: Patterns of Chronic Antigen Exposure Selena Vigano 1, Sara Bobisse 1, George Coukos 1, Matthieu Perreau 2 and Alexandre Harari 1* 1 Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne and Department of Oncology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2 Service of Immunology and Allergy, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland The main role of the human immune system is to eliminate cells presenting foreign antigens and abnormal patterns, while maintaining self-tolerance. However, when facing highly variable pathogens or antigens very similar to self-antigens, this system can fail in completely eliminating the anomalies, leading to the establishment of chronic pathologies. Prototypical examples of immune system defeat are cancer and Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1) infection. In both conditions, the immune system is persistently exposed to antigens leading to systemic inflammation, lack of generation of long-term memory and exhaustion of effector cells. This triggers a negative feedback loop where effector cells are unable to resolve the pathology and cannot be replaced due to the lack of a pool of undifferentiated, self-renewing memory T cells. In addition, Edited by: in an attempt to reduce tissue damage due to chronic inflammation, antigen presenting Alejandra Pera, cells and myeloid components of the immune system activate systemic regulatory and Universidad de Córdoba, Spain tolerogenic programs. Beside these homologies shared between cancer and HIV-1 Reviewed by: infection, the immune system can be shaped differently depending on the type and Vijayakumar Velu, Emory University, United States distribution of the eliciting antigens with ultimate consequences at the phenotypic Tara Marlene Strutt, and functional level of immune exhaustion. T cell differentiation, functionality, cytotoxic University of Central Florida, United States potential and proliferation reserve, immune-cell polarization, upregulation of negative Christoph Neumann-Haefelin, regulators (immune checkpoint molecules) are indeed directly linked to the quantitative University of Freiburg, Germany and qualitative differences in priming and recalling conditions. Better understanding of *Correspondence: distinct mechanisms and functional consequences underlying disease-specific immune Alexandre Harari [email protected] cell dysfunction will contribute to further improve and personalize immunotherapy. In the present review, we describe relevant players of immune cell exhaustion in cancer Specialty section: and HIV-1 infection, and enumerate the best-defined hallmarks of T cell dysfunction. This article was submitted to Immunological Memory, Moreover, we highlight shared and divergent aspects of T cell exhaustion and T cell a section of the journal activation to the best of current knowledge. Frontiers in Immunology Keywords: HIV infection, cancer, lymphocytes, cellular immunity, exhaustion, senescence, anergy, immune Received: 09 February 2020 checkpoint Accepted: 27 May 2020 Published: 30 June 2020 Citation: INTRODUCTION Vigano S, Bobisse S, Coukos G, Perreau M and Harari A (2020) Cancer and HIV-1 Infection: Patterns of The primary function of the human immune system is to protect the host by reacting upon the Chronic Antigen Exposure. encounter of foreign antigens, as well as to prevent autoimmunity through self-recognition. Two Front. Immunol. 11:1350. arms orchestrate the activation of the immune system: the innate response triggered within the doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01350 first hours and the adaptive response mounted over the following days, able to recognize and target Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 1 June 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1350 Vigano et al. Patterns of Chronic Antigen Exposure specific antigens and to generate memory. T cells are the major EMERGENCE OF T CELL EXHAUSTION component of the adaptive immune system consisting of CD4 and CD8T cells (1), being the latter key players in the physical T cell exhaustion was initially described in the mouse model elimination of tumor and virus-infected cells. of LCMV infection (13–16), where, initially functional (17) Most naïve T cells encounter their targets, presented by and then transcriptional analyses led to the identification of professional antigen presenting cells (i.e., dendritic cells, DCs), PD-1 as first and main molecule associated with this status in secondary lymphoid organs (2). Such priming is crucial for (15, 18, 19). Afterwards, high PD-1 levels have been observed determining the acquisition of functional attributes by T cells in Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) infected Rhesus (3, 4). DCs govern the nature of primed T cells via the provision Macaques (15, 20–22) as well as in HIV-1 infected patients of processed antigens in the form of peptide/MHC complexes (23–25) and this was related to T cell impaired function and (signal I) and other important signals, including costimulatory disease progression. In HIV-1 infection, T cell exhaustion is interactions (signal II) and inflammatory cytokines (signal III) caused by antigen persistency and impaired CD4T cell help (5). Once activated, T cells undergo massive clonal expansion, (26, 27). During the acute phase of the infection, CD8 T cell differentiate into potent effectors, and express chemokines responses are generated, but they are incapable of mediating and homing receptors necessary for migration into peripheral complete virus clearance. HIV-1 is, indeed, endowed with a tissues. Effector CD4 T cells produce several cytokines depending high mutation rate capacity that leads to a quick and efficient on the polarization determined by the cognate antigen and escape from immune cells (28, 29). Moreover, lymphoid follicles the extracellular milieu, effector CD8 T cells express cytotoxic have been shown to be enriched in HIV-1/SIV-infected CD4 molecules, such as perforin and granzymes, and produce effector cells, and poorly infiltrated by CD8 T cells during early SIV cytokines. The production of cytotoxic molecules and cytokines infection. Consistently, the frequency of SIV-specific CD8 T cells is needed to help contain the spread of pathogens and tumors. entering the lymphoid follicles is inversely associated with the The fate of naïve CD8T cell differentiation is also determined levels of infected cells, suggesting a new mechanism of viral by interdependent variables such as frequency of contact with persistency (30). While infected cells are not eradicated, T the immunological synapses, epitope antigenicity, T cell receptor cells are continuously exposed to viral antigens, leading to a (TCR) affinity for cognate targets and the presence of CD4 T cell permanent expression of negative receptors and consequently to help (6). After CD8 T cell expansion and antigen elimination, T cell dysfunction (15, 31–34). Of note, beside antigen escape, any further immune activation is prevented by the upregulation HIV-1 preferentially infects HIV-1-specific CD4 T cells (35), and engagement of co-inhibitory molecules such as Cytotoxic leading to profound consequences in the immune-pathogenesis T Lymphocyte Antigen-4 (CTLA-4) and Programmed Death- of the disease (28). HIV-1-specific CD4 T cells expand at high 1 (PD-1). Most effector T cells die by apoptosis (contraction frequency during the early phase of the infection. Later on, phase), but about 5–10% survive and differentiate into memory their number decreases in blood and secondary lymphoid T cells. Different theories for memory T cell development have organs (36), due to killing by HIV-1-specific CD8T cells, virus been suggested (7), but recent findings strongly suggest that long- cytopathic effects and pyroptosis triggered by abortive viral lived memory CD8 T cells would arise from a subset of effector infection (37). In an early stage, CD8T cell responses are T cells through a process of dedifferentiation (8). Memory T also quickly impaired (27, 38–40), nevertheless this loss of cells are then maintained in the absence of antigens (homeostatic function is partially restored in the presence of HIV-1 specific expansion) and can exert rapid effector functions in response to CD4T cells (13, 27), highlighting the importance of CD4T cell previously encountered antigens (1, 9). depletion in determining CD8 T cell exhaustion. CD4 T cells Any disturbance of conventional activation signals may indeed provide help for CD8 T cells by producing supportive drive T lymphocytes to alternative cell fates, i.e., anergy, cytokines including interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-21, which can tolerance and exhaustion. This plasticity has evolved to act directly on the responding CD8 T cells (41–48). IL-2 has constrain autoimmunity and excessive immune responses a pivotal importance during priming of CD8 T cell response, that would otherwise cause undesired tissue damage and in order to generate functional memory cells able to perform immune-pathological conditions. Whereas, anergy is established homeostatic turnover and to mount potent secondary responses during priming, due to the absence of costimulatory signals, (49). IL-21 instead has a major role in sustaining and expanding and senescence is defined as growth arrest after extensive memory CD8 T cells (43, 44). In mice, CD4T cell help has been proliferation, exhausted T cells arise from cells which initially recapitulated by CD27 agonism that enhanced specific CD8T gained effector functions but became gradually dysfunctional cell effector functions in response