Geographic and Political Boundaries in Upper Silesia Author(S): Richard Hartshorne Reviewed Work(S): Source: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol

Home , Autonomy March, Beuthen District, Moravian Gate, Sudetes, Upper Silesia

Geographic and Political Boundaries in Upper Silesia Author(s): Richard Hartshorne Reviewed work(s): Source: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 23, No. 4 (Dec., 1933), pp. 195-228 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of American Geographers Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2560608 . Accessed: 25/08/2012 15:10

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Taylor & Francis, Ltd. and Association of American Geographers are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Annals of the Association of American Geographers.

http://www.jstor.org ANNALS of the Associationof American Geographers

VOLUME XXIII DECEMBER, 1933 No. 4

Geographicand Political Boundaries in UpperSilesia RICHARD HARTSHORNE*

INTRODUCTION Problemsconnected with political boundaries have frequently elicitedthe interestof geographers.In all countrieswith chronic or acuteboundary problems the geographersare drawninto the generaldiscussion, more or less as experts,and in somecases the professionalgeographer has actuallybeen calledupon to assistin the determinationand demarcationof boundaries. The interest of the geographersin thissubject appears to be strikinglyprac- tical ratherthan academic. While almostevery geographer in Europe has concernedhimself at some time in the past twenty years with some particularboundary problem, very few have attemptedany systematictheoretical study of the problemas a whole.' It could easilybe shownthat the practicalcontributions 'The late Professor Sieger (Graz) stimulatedthe most valuable discussion of terminologyin political geography,particularly in referenceto boundaries, both in his teaching and in his scattered publications. The most important referencesin this discussionare listed below, togetherwith other recentstudies of significanceon this subject. An excellent brief analysis of the suggestions of various writers is given by S6lch; the fullest discussionand bibliographyby Maull. Sieger, R.: "Zur politisch-geographischenTerminologie," Zeitsch. d. Ges. f. Erdkunde (Berlin), 1917, pp. 497-529; 1918, pp. 40-70. Articles under various titles, on the same subject in: Oester. Rundschau, 1917, pp. 260-70; Deutsche Arbeit, Dec. 1921; Petermann's Mitteil., 1923, pp. 252-6; 1925, pp. 57ff; Verh. d. XXI Deutschen Georgr.-Tags., (Berlin), 1926. *The fieldwork on whichthis study is based was,made possibleby a Fellow- ship for the year 1931-32,from the Social Science Research Council. 195 196 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec. of geographersto the specificproblems have sufferedgreatly from this lack of academic preparation. For the most part theirwork shows the earmarks of knowledge expert but unorganized; lack of technique,no recognizedterminology, and no means of measure- ment. Hence the pursuit of such vague concepts as "natural boundaries," a term seldom definedand usually meaning some- thingdifferent to each writer,and which Sieger, Maull, and Sdlch have all admirablydemonstrated should be banned from,scientific literature. The purpose of this paper is to suggest a method and some terminologythat mightbe applicable for any borderstudy. Upper Silesia will serve as the specificcase studyto be treated fromthe laboratorypoint of view. This area is a part of the great border belt betweenGermans and Slavs, more specificallya bordercorner where Germans, Poles, Czechs, and Slovaks meet and mix. Divided politicallybefore the war among three empires: Germany,Austria-Hungary, and Russia, it is likewisedivided now, but with,different lines, between Germany,Poland, and Czecho-Slovakia (Fig. 1). Although in manyrespects geographically united, the area has never had political unitywithin itself, but rather was always a peripheral zone subject to the political expansion of neighboringstates. In the course of the latter Middle Ages the various feudal duchiesinto whichSilesia was divided were controlledsuccessively by the kings of Poland, Bohemia, and finally,Austria. The separation of Silesia from Poland dates, for practical purposes perhaps from 1163, formallycertainly from the renunciationof Silesia by Casimir the Great in 1335.2 Prussia entered the area firstin the early Penck, A.: Ueber politischeGrenzen. (Rektoratsrede,Berlin, 1917). Fawcett, C. B.: Frontiers. (Oxford, 1918). Vogel, W.: Politische Geographie. (Leipzig, 1922). - "Zur Lehre von den Grenzen und Raumen," Geogr. Zeits., 1926. Sidaritsch: "Landschaftseinheitenund Lebensraumein den Ostalpen," Peter- mann's Mitteil., 1923, pp. 256-61. S8lch, J.: Die 4uffassungder "natfirlichenGrenzen" in der wissenschaft- lichen Geographie. (Innsbruck, 1924). Maull, O.: Politische Geographie. (Berlin, 1925), pp. 133-45, 601-25. PolitischenGrenzen. (Berlin. 1928). Haushofer,K.: Grenzen in ihrergeographischen und politischenBedeutung. (Berlin-Gruenwald,1927). 2Laubert, Manfred: Die preussischePolenpolitik, 1772-1914. (Berlin, 1921), ch. ix. 19331 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 197 eighteenthcentury when Frederick the Great, by means of the SilesianWars, forcedMaria Theresa to cede him the richlowland of Lower Silesia, togetherwith the then unimportantlowland of Upper Silesia. The highlandareas, togetherwith the Moravian Gate betweenthem, remained however with Austria. Silesia therefore has been separated fromPoland on the east for six or seven

, .POZKXAN IE

o $ s~~~~~I(ORM"FRERRLYRANPLAD

~~~/ - ''_

FI. 1NPlace Map of the Area Symbols: 1. Present internationalboundary 2. Former internationalboundary 3. Provin~cialboundaries 4. County (Kreis) boundariesin Upper Silesia only (not shown in industrial district) 5-8. Cities and towns: 5. Nearly 100,000 populationor more 6. From 25,000to 75,000 7. From 10,000)to 25,000 8. Less than 10,000 Towns underlinedare centersof countiesof the same name 198 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec. centuriesand unitedmore or less.closely, to differentstates, chiefly German, on the south and west. It had no part in the historic divisionsof Poland of the eighteenthcentury, which gave Galicia to Austria, Posen to Prussia, and the area betweento Russia.

NATURAL DEFENSE BOUNDARIES Perhaps because European boundariesare most commonlydeter- minedafter armed conflict,the firstconsideration in drawingthem has usuallybeen theirdefensive character. In the Upper Silesian border area, strongnatural lines or zones of defense are not to be found. The low mountainsof the Sudetes and the Beskides, brokenby manyvalleys, offer but minoraids to defense-in comparison say, with the High Tatra farthereast between Poland and Slovakia. Far mere open is the plain on the north,continuous from Germany into Poland, for the most part sufficientlywell- drainedby theheadwaters of the Oder and theVistula, and offering no obstacles exceptingthe minorones presentedby those streams (Plate A). Likewise forthe purposes of peace-timecontrol of the boundaries -against smuggling,etc-little assistance is, offeredby nature. Only the rivers,where large enough to be uncrossableexcept by bridgeor boat, are of some aid to the borderpatrol, and smuggling flourishesas one of the ordinaryoccupations of the region.

BOUNDARIES MARKED IN NATURE Internationalboundaries, particularlyin well-populatedareas, mustbe clearlyand accuratelymarked. In formertimes boundary commissionsdepended so far as possible on any natural lines that could be used. In some parts of the Sudetes and the Beskides the crest-lineis sufficientlywell-marked to furnishsuch a line, but more commonlyneither crest-line nor watershedis. readilyvisible. This is particularlytrue on the plain, so that thoughthe division therebetween Germany and Poland is roughlythat of the drainage basin of the upper Oder on the one hand, and the Vistula and the Warta on the other, the actual watershed,hardly visible in the landscape, has never functionedin boundarydrawing. Only the streamsoffer this second typeof naturalboundaries, which can betterbe called naturallymarked boundaries, or boundariesmarked in nature.' For thispurpose small streamsare as suitableas large WFromS6lch's "naturgemarkten"or "natur-marken,"corresponding to Sieger's "naturentlehnten." 1933] BOUNDARIES MARKED IN NATURE 199

ones, perhaps even more so because more accurate. The centuries- old boundary between Silesia and Poland utilized such smaller streamsthrough most of its course,whereas the most recentboun- daries largelyignore them. These were drawn in the age in which internationalboundaries are marked with lines of stones each visiblefrom the next. Even then,however, the carelesspedestrian, or child, may unwittinglyfind himself in the wrong countryand be arrestedunder suspicionof smugglingor espionage (Plate B). The discussionso far has treated boundaries from the point of view of the bounding states as space-organismsrequiring a defensive epidermis,so to speak, against undesirable invaders, whether armies, smugglers,or immigrants.4 But this point of view overlooks the original, primary function of boundaries, namely,to bound,i.e. to determinethe limitingline on the earth's surfaceon one side of whichall men and thingsare subjectto the jurisdictionof one state, whereas the momentthat line is crossed everythingis subject to another state. Such a line has therefore enormous effecton the lives of the people whose citizenshipit alone determines. Not merelyunder what governmentthey must live, for what state be ready to fightand die, but even where theymay sell their products,where purchase their supplies,what language their schools must,for the most part, use, what history, literatureand songs their children will be taught, under what national, cultural,and moral influencethey will be broughtup- all of these are determinedfor millions of people by the exact location of an internationalboundary line in such an area as this. The remainderof thispaper, therefore,is based on the assump- tion that where internationalboundaries run through settled areas, it is those areas rather than the bounding states that are most concerned,the inhabitantsof the border regionsrather than those in the internalareas of the states who are most to be considered in studyingor locating boundaries. The proper study of an internationalboundary is, then, pri- marily concernedwith the associations,of all kinds, of the dif- ferentparts of the border area with each of the borderingstates. The geographer in particular is interestedin those associations 4The point of view well expressedin the suggestivepaper read by Mr. S. W. Boggs before the Association of American Geographers at Ypsilanti, Mich., Dec. 21, 1931, "Boundary functionsand the principlesof boundary-making." Abstractin the Annals, March 1932, p. 48; publishedin full in Press Releases, U. S. Dept. of State, Jan. 2, 1932. 200 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec. whichhe observesin the featuresof the landscape,but he may not leave out of considerationother very important associations. In bothcases the associationsare of two kinds:those similar in characterand thosewhich, though perhaps dissimilar, have mutual interests.Each of thesegroups will be studiedin detail.

BOUNDARIES BASED ON AREAS SIMILAR IN LANDSCAPE FEATURES Alongmargins of areas similarin landscapefeatures, "natural boundaries"of a thirdsort can be drawn.Sdlch calls thesechoren

FIG. 2.-Major Landscape Forms of the Upper Silesian Border Area Symbols: 1. Watershed between the basins of the Upper Oder, Warta, Vistula, and March (Danube) 2. Present internationalboundary 3. Former internationalboundary 4. Provincial boundaries 1933] CHOROGRAPHIC BOUNDARIES 201 grenze or chorographicboundaries.5 The map" (Fig. 2) shows six major types of landscape forms. Four are rural landscapes resultingfrom combinationsof two principal contrasts: that between the low mountainsand hill countryon the south, and the level to gentlyrolling plain on the north,and that betweencleared and cultivatedland and extensiveforests-the lattercovering great stretchesof sandy soil on the plain as well as the rougherparts of the highlands.7 Though these differnotably in appearance, they produce no major differencesin interestsuch as would be served by,or of themselvesjustify, separation into differentstates. Quite differentis the case of the miningand industriallandscapes developed on the continuouscoal-field in one small part of the area. Here the populationhas in manyrespects more in common with that of Westphalia, the Black Countryof England, or the Pittsburgharea than with its neighboringrural districts. Something,therefore, might be said for a political separation of the entiremining and manufacturingregion as a separate political unit were it not for the lack of any historicalbasis.8 But certainly the division of the industrialdistrict into differentstates causes constantdifficulties because of the multiplicityof associa- tons that normallytend to develop between adjacent industrial towns. These will require more detailed treatmentlater. Although the rural landscapes offerno major differenceseast and west of the border zone, they do show minor differences in the characterand extentof developmentthat are highlysig- nificantin reflectingdifferences in the social characterof the popu- lations. Some of these are suggestedby the maps and pictures. Fundamental is the marked decrease in accessibilityto both

"Corresponding,in part, to Sieger's "Naturgebietsgrenzen"or Maull's "Struk- turgrenzen." 6The map is drawn fromthe officialGerman maps (Reichsamtsf. Landesauf- nahme, Berlin) chieflythe Top. Karte 1: 200,000. The distinctionbetween plains and hill countryis based on slopes, rather than mere elevation,though the boundaryfollows roughlythe 400-metercontour. 7The classic geographyof the area is Partsch,J.: Landeskundevon Schlesien. (Breslau, 1903). Excellentmaps are to be foundin Wirtschafts-und Verkehrs- geographischeAtlas von Schlesien,Geisler, W., ed. (Breslau, 1932), but these include only the parts of the area now in Germany. 8A small organized movementin 1919-21 for a free-stateof Upper Silesia, to include also Teschen Silesia, met apparentlywith little support. 202 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

roads. There are no paved roads, hard-surfaced roadsare.....

9 ? > > ? ., -zilch. ';. < X ~~DISTANCESFROM RAILROA even the main routes be n the l-get ce ERSLE BRDR AREA

more.thanfield tracks.9 In onsequence rural le is on aN hYLESc ,,_. At-ssS > e * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~FRO 5 TO WE- 10MLE l I.,J {'s,\ 4 cyX * M _~~~~~~~~~~~~~MRETHAN

FIG. 3.- Distances from Railroad, Upper Silesian Border Area

railroads and road, east of the old Polish frontier(Figs. 3 and 4). Even more marked is the differencein the quality of the roads. There are no paved roads, hard-surfacedroads are few, even the main routesbetween the largest citiesare sometimeslittle more than field tracks.e In consequencerural life is on a much more primitivesubsistence basis. While the fields,show the same crops: rye, wheat, oats, hay, and the all-importantpotatoes-lesser care in cultivationand less use of fertilizersare reflectedin notable decrease in crop yields,

9The maps, bolthGerman and Polish, on which the road map is based proved to be veryliberal in designatingroads in Poland that were "passable at all times for motor vehicles." For several days after rains in April, the officialTourist Bureau in Krakow advised against attemptingany of the main routes west to Upper Silesia. 1933] CHOROGRAPHIC BOUNDARIES 203

a. 4

4 4 ~ ~ Ii~

I N am~ ~ Ad~ * ~ a ~ / ~ fi ~ d~ < Gil!

t DISTANCESFROM

SILESANBRER AREA 2 % >;v tX ~~~~~~~~~tB CO~~~~PPER I ME LZ LESS THAN 2 TO 3 8 b XDax ~~~~~, d~~aU~~k7tj1( a AidL > , , a TO zn~oMILES. n n - UI1>3 i ba v ... 3txLkX -- - - 300THERN LIMIT OF PLY |

FPic. 4.-Distances from Surfaced Rolads (anythingother than unimproveddirt roads) as shown on the maps of Polish geographers.'0 Livestock are notably less in importance-the boundary shown on Finlch & Baker's map of swn1 remainsclearly marked today, thoughthe political basis for it has been removed. Farmyards and farm buildingsreflect likewise the more primi- tive stage (Plates C and D). In contrastto the predominating brick or stone houses west of this line are the frame and rough-

10Ormicki,Wiktor: "Mapa intesnywnoscigospodarki rolnej w PoIsce, 1924/5" (La carte d'intensitede la productionagricole en Pologne), in Wiadomosci GeograficznychR. 1929, Nr. 4; "Produktywnoserolna w PoIsce, 1924/5" (Die Agrarproduktivititin Polen, in the same, 1920 Nr. 1; Romer: Atlas of Poland, 1916. "1Finch,V. C. & Baker, 0. E.: Geography of World Agriculture,p. 133. (Washington, 1917). 204 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec. hewn log huts, commonlywith thatchedroofs, that predominate east of this culturaldivide.'2 Similar differencesare seen in the towns. One is impressed, as was De Martonne,13by the frequentlack of sidewalks, by dwellingswhich would not be tolerated west of the divide, the workers' barracks with bare dirt between them, and by the in- completenessof water and sewerage systems,developed only since the war, even in larger centers (Plates E and F). In general all parts of the industrialtowns look like the worst parts of those west of the formerGerman frontier. The total impressionof all these differencesis such that anyone travellingten milesacross thiscultural landscape boundarybetween Silesia and old Poland, feels that he has travelled fartherthan fromChicago to Silesia.

HUMAN BOUNDARIES The boundariesof the differentpopulation groups of the region Germans,Poles, Czechs, Slovaks-have little manifestationin the landscape; are, if you like, non-geographic(though some students includethese also in "natural boundaries"). Even the language seen on the street signs, in the railroad stations, and in otherpublic places, reflectsin many cases not the language of the inhabitantsbut merelythe officiallanguage of the state. Never- theless in studyinga boundaryproblem the geographermust not ignore these factorssince theymay, as in this case, constitutethe very cause of the problem. Race, in the strictanthropological sense, has in this district,as in general in Europe, no geographical, and perhaps no cultural significance.Teutonic and Slavic stocksare hopelesslyintermixed with no more correlationwith present language or nationality groups than blondes and bruettesin England. All the differences in the populationthat are of significancefor the border studyare of cultural,not of biological origin.14 12A map drawn by Ormickishows 75-95% masonrybuildings in Polish Upper Silesia, and 50-95% wooden buildingsin the areas north and east. Ormicki, Wiktor: "Zewnetrzne oblicze wsi polskiej (Physiognomiedes polnischenDor- fes)," in Wiadomosci Geograficznych,R. 1929, Nr. VI i VII. Krakow. 13De Martonne, Emm.: Europe Centrale, 2eme Partie, (Tome IV de la Geographie Universelle), pp. 651-5. 14Even the names of individuals,whatever they may mean historically,are no sure indicationof presentnationality. Thus, of those referredto here, Uhlitz and Lukaschek are the names of importantGerman leaders, Romer that of the patrioticPolish geographer. 1933] HUMAN BOUNDARIES 205

The importantboundaries in this area are those of language, of folk (Volk, as the Germans say) as distinctfrom language, of religion,and of nationality,the last being in large part a product of the others.The religiousboundary, elsewhere on the German-

17'

S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~PLS

ta~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t

FIG. 5.-Languages in the Upper Silesian Area

Symbols: 1. Eastern and southern limit of area in which cities have, or had until recently,German majorities,in rural areas of Polish or Czech majorities 2. Present internationalboundary 3. Former internationalboundary 4. Provincial boundaries 5. Western boundaryof the plebiscitearea 206 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

Polish border zone so important,is hardly found here, as almost the entire area, regardless of nationality,is strongly Roman Catholic.'5 In Upper Silesia, as generallyin Eastern Europe, the language boundary.is exceedinglydifficult to draw (Fig. 5). Except for the definitelyGerman countyof Leobschfitzand the districtof Moravian dialect in Hultchini,the entireplebiscite area of 1921 was a regionof two languages,with predominately Polish or pre- dominatelyGerman communitiesclose together,and with many people using both languages."' Before the division German pre- dominatedin the middle-classurban centers,Polish in the poorer workers'districts, in the coal-miningtowns, and for the most part in the poorer farmingareas. In total, the overwhelmingmajority are the descendantsof Polish-speakingpeasants native in the area, and retain a Polish dialect as theirnative tongue.'7 The German population did not originate from political colonization'8 but rather: first,in small part fromcenturies-old settlements of Mid- dle German farmerswho maintainedtheir language and culture in the midst of the Poles; second, from the middle-classurban population who migrated from other parts. of Germanyinto the growingcities duringthe past centuryand a half, and finally,not least, from the voluntaryGermanization of thousands of Polish workerswho, in moving fromthe countryto the industrialcities, 150nly the county (Kreis) of Kreuzburg has a Protestant majority,practically all the remainderof Upper Silesia is over 90% Roman Catholic. Atlas von Schlesien,op. cit. 16The conclusions for the former German area are based largely on the Prussian Census for 1910 (and previousyears) and the census of ;school-children in 1915. Too much doubt has been cast on the validityof post-warcensuses of languageson eitherside of the new boundaryto permitusing them. The German- Polish language boundaryon the map is based largely on Weber, Paul: Die Polen in Oberschlesien(Berlin, 1913) and Partsch, op. cit.; both the work of German scholars acceptedand used by Polish propagandists. See Weinstein,J.: Upper Silesia, the land of contrasts. (Paris, 1931). Also publishedin French and German. 17That the great increase in populationof the past centurywas not the result of immigrationwas shown by M. Vogt. See Volz, W.: Die wirtschaftsgeog- raphischeGrundlage der obserschlesischenFrage. (Breslau, 1921), pp. 48-54. Also publishedin French, English, and Italian. "8Frederickthe Great did found German, as well as Polish, settlementsto develop Upper Silesia economically,but most of the German settlementsbecame Polonized, adding to the original Polish population. Zimmermann,A. W.: Beitrage zur Reschreibungvon Schlesiesn. (Brieg, 1783). 1933] LINGUISTIC BOUNDARIES 207 took on German language along with cityways. The latter ten- dencywas so marked as to warrant the conclusionin 1915, that the industrialdistrict itself would withinone or two decades show a German m~ajority.19 The Czechish-Germanboundary lies for the most part well withinCzecho-Slovakia so that the westernpart of the province of Silesia in that countryis almost solidly German in language.20 Where the linguisticline crossed north of the pre-warboundary, in the Hultchinidistrict, the politicalboundary was changed,in the Treaty of Versailles, to conformroughly to it-though without consultingthe wishes of the inhabitants,later shownto be opposed to the change.21 But where the language line lies south of the political line, in the Sudetes, no such changes were considered. In Teschen Silesia there is considerablemixture of Polish and Czechish speakingpeoples. The new state boundarydividing the area between Czecho-Slovakia and Poland was drawn somewhat east of the language divide. Most extraordinaryis the case of the cityof Teschen, where all three language groups are present, the German predominating,and which has been split between Poland and Czecho-Slovakia. The Polish spokenin Silesia differsgreatly from standard Polish, as would be expectedin an area separated from Poland for over seven centuriesand ruled by peoples of differenttongues. Some Moravian and manyGerman words are used with Polish endings, and manyold Polish words are foundwhich are obsolete elsewhere (cf. Canadian French). But carefulstudents, including Germans, agree that the differencebetween this so-called "Wasser-polnisch" and standard Polish is no greater than that between Bavarian and High German.22The importantpoint is that whenthe Silesian

19Weber,op. cit., pp. 50-54. 20Czecho-SlovakianCensus of 1921, reproduced in, Oberschall, A.: Die Nationalitdtenfragein der Tschechoslowakei. (Reichenberg,1927). 21In a plebisciteheld voluntarilyunder local auspices, 93.7% of the adult population,it is claimed,voted to remain with Germany. Bollacher, E.: Das HultschinerLandchen in Versailler Friedensvertrag. (Stuttgart, 1930). 22That "Wasser-Polnisch"is not Polish but only a corruptGerman with Polish endingsis a major elementin German propaganda for Upper Silesia. Actually the term is used loosely to cover a wide range of language mixturesso that in certain districtswest of the Oder it is perhaps more German than Polish, but on the otherhand in Teschen Silesia is Polish mixedwith considerableMoravian, but little or no German. The author's conclusionthat it must, on the whole, 208 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

Pole speaks,his, dialect, Poles fromthe outside can, with some diffi- culty,understand and speakwith him, Germans cannot. The essen- tial communityof languagemust therefore be recognizedas one majorfactor connecting most of thepopulation of theregion with Poland. On the otherhand in such elementsof social cultureof the wholepopulation (as distinctfrom, individuals) as education,social characterand standards,living conditions, etc., there is a marked cleavage betweenthe Silesian Poles and those of Galicia and formerRussian Poland. The pre-warfrontier remains as the boundarybetween the area of nearlyuniversal education and that of highilliteracy,23 between the countriesin whichcleanliness is consideredessential and those wheredirt- and insectsare easily accepted,between the areas wheresocial welfareis an important functionof the state and thosewhere beggary is a regularpro- fession. It is 'also the westernboundary of the area in which the large Jewish.population represents, a separate folk or even nationality,speaking their own language,Yiddish, wearing dis- tinctivecostumes, and livingapart from the rest of thepopulation. All thesedifferences, some of whichare manifestedin the cultural landscapeas previouslynoted, are well recognizedby the inhabitantson bothsides of the culturaldivide. They constitute a mainreason for the fightof Polish Upper Silesia (Slask), in- cludingthe Poles, to maintainautonomy within Poland. Certainly in manysuch ways,including the backgroundof literatureand art withinthe area, it can withsome reasonbe maintainedthat Upper Silesia, though Polish in language, is German in culture. Germanwriters commonly assume that this is. the resultof the manycenturies of partial connectionwith the ancientGerman be counted as a Polish dialect is based on the statementsof Germans native to the area, as well as the followingsources: Vogel, Rudolf: Deutsche Presse und Propaganda des Abstimmungskampfes in Oberschlesien,(Beuthen, 1931), p. 14. T-S: "Zur oberschleisicherunterrichtsfrage," in Schles. Prov. Bltter, 1872, pp. 500-1. "Entgegnungdes 'Towarzystwo Oswiaty na Slasku imienia sw. Jacka' auf die Ausfiuhrungendes Herrn KultusministersDr. Schmidtbetreffend das sog. Wasserpolnisch in Oberschlesien,"in Katolik (Beuthen, 0. S.), Mar. 1918. 23Romer,Eugenvisz: Getg-sta-tist.Atlas Polski (Atlas de la Pologne) (War- saw and Krakow, 1916). 1933] NATIONALITY BOUNDARIES 209 empire,but comparison with other sections along the formerPolish- German border of more recent date, and the descriptionsof Upper Silesia when taken over by Prussia fromAustria, indicate that the presentdifferences are largely the result of the century and a half of Prussian rule.24 Most difficultof the human boundaries to determineis that of nationality. No countryof Central Europe has made a reliable count of its nationalities.25Some indicationis given by minority party votes at parlimentaryelections,26 but several of the post- war plebiscitesshowed that such votes were not trustworthy.Per- sonal observationsmust be ruled out, both as inadequate and as unreliable. In Upper Silesia there is the officialrecord of the national views of the inhabitantsrecorded in the plebiscite of March 21, 1921."7 The reliabilityof that vote has been disputed from both sides because of the undeniable pressure brought to bear on the voters by landlords, employers,priests, officials, and terroristicbands. Neverthelessthe fact that over 90% of those eligible to vote actually cast their votes in what was generally admittedto have been a peacefuland secretvote, honestlycounted, appears to justifyaccepting the resultsas fairlyrepresentative of what the population felt at the time. Particularlysignificant is the factthat, in additionto practicallythe entireGerman-speaking population,a large proportion,perhaps 40%, of those speaking Polish likewise professed German nationality28as many even in the now Polish part still do. Geographicallythe results of the plebiscitewere so confused as to make it impossibleto draw a definitenationality boundary (Fig. 6). Simplifyingthe map on the basis of combiningdistricts with importantgeographic con- nectionsbrings out two boundaries (Fig. 7). West of one of these, Germannationality clearly predominates, east of the'other, Polish. But betweenthem is a large rural area witha small Polish majority,and the all-importantindustrial district practically sur- 24Zimmermann,A. W.: Beitrage zur Beschreibungvon Schlesien, (Brieg, 1783), Bd. 2, pp. 200ff. 25The census of native language (Muttersprache) is frequentlymiscalled a census of nationalities. 26The Polish party was listed in Upper Silesia firstin the election of 1893. It reached its highestpercentage of votes in 1907 with 39.4%, in the last pre- war election,1912, was 30.7%. 27"Resultats numeriques du plebiscite," Journal Official de Haute-Silesie, Oppeln, May 7, 1921. Commis. interallieede Gouv. et de Pleb. 28Volz, Wilhelm: op. cit., pp. 56-76. 210 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

'S <18 l : r^ix ?L '. RESULTSOF THE PLEBISCITE IN UPPERSILESIA MARCH20,19Z1 A ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~GERMANPOLISH SI~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~JJ?II FOREST

-- 'K -'3-----* p

Symbols: 1. Limits of the main geographicdistricts (Fig. 7) 2. Eastern limit of area in which every communityof more than 100 voters shloweda marked German majority,and western limit of similar Polish area 3. Internationalboundary ultimately drawn 4. Internationalboundary unchanged 5. Former internationalboundary -6. Western boundaryof plebiscitearea 7. Northern boundaryof districtto be given to Czecho-Slovakia if cut oft from Germany 1933 PLEBISCITE OF 1921 2 11

SUMMARYOF PLEBSCITE

* Setriic Bs E i E *~tirh MA, DUPSLES 1921 ^ ,l~~~~~~t-"-x-N~~~~~~DSTRITBO ARIS FINALBOUNDARY or ','T1 1 l l | 1) X l l ] her r- ~~' [1 :

|~~ ~ ~~~~POLT MAJORITY*

*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 2 3

P, 419

FIG. 7.-Summary of the March Plebiscite in Upper Silesia, by Districts. Figures in circles representthousands of voters, and percentagetotal for the majority. The size of the circles is proportionateto the total numberof voters in each district. Note the strong German majorities in districtsIA and IB, the strong Polish majorities in districtsIV and IIC, the slight majorities for one side or the other in districtshIA, IIB, and III. rounded by Polish areas, but with a definiteGerman majority (54%o). The actual boundaryfinally determined, by recommendationof the Council of the League of Nations, compromisedby splitting 212 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec. the industrialdistrict, although it was not possibleto do so without having a slight German majority in the portion of that district awarded to Poland.29 The central rural area of small Polish majoritywas of necessitythen left to Germany. Another rural district,around Lublinitz, with a slight German majority,was however,quite unnecessarilyawarded to Poland. The new political boundary could not thereforebe claimed to conformto a nationalityboundary. Since the partition there has been considerable change, both in sentimentand in shiftof population.30 The studyof the minority movementof each side indicates,I think,that no district includingboth town and countryon either side of the line could now show a majorityvote for the foreignnationality. In other words, the new political boundaryhas perhaps forced the nationality boundary to conformto it.81

BOUNDARIES OF AREAS ASSOCIATED BY TRADE In determiningpolitical boundariesit is obviouslydesirable, in addition to maintainingthe unityof reorionsof similar character to associate togetherso far as practicable,regions havintyimnor- tant economic interrelations. Thus more significantthan the landscape boundarybetween the plain of S;iesia and the Sudetes hill and mountainregion would be, according to some students, an "organic" or "harmonic" boundary (also held to be a type

29Definedin Minutes of the Special Session of the Council of the Ledguttof Nations devoted to theyQuestion of Utiter Silesia, Aug. 8, Oct. 12, 1921. For the procedureand principlesused to arrive at this decisionsee Bourgeouis,Leon: L'oevre de la Societe des Nations, 1920-23, pp. 247-78. 80The declininginterest of the Polish minorityin German Unper Silesia is shown by the decrease in votes for the Polish partv from over 30% to less than 10,o and by the complaintsof the Polish paper Katolik (Beuthen, 0. S.), quoted in Kuester, Rudolf: Die polnischeiIrredenta in Westoberschlesien(ler- lin, 1931). For the situationin Polish Upper Silesia see Ulitz, Otto: in Das Deutschum in Polnisch Schlesien,Plauen i. Voztl. and Katowice, 1923, p. 251. The politicalchanges in Germanyin the past year have unquestionablylessened the numberof adherentsto German nationalityin Polish Upper Silesia. "1Changedpolitical or economicconditions might change this conclusioncom- pletely. A considerablepercentage of the populationis not as stronglyminded nationallyas socially and economically,so that assurance of much better economic conditionsin one countrymight swing a vote to that country. But the results of every free election (in Poland until 1930, in Germany until 1933) indicatethat the minorityon each side is, in fact, a minority. 1933] TRADFLf NIT BOUNDARIES 213 of naturalboundary) which would include a majorportion of the highlandarea with the plain.32 Likewiseit is claimedthe industrialdistrict should be included withthe countrywith which it was organicallydeveloped on the basis of sourcesof capital,technical equipment and management, and whichprovided, in comparisonwith the presentPoland, the greatermarkets for the coal, iron,and zinc. TABLE. PRE-WAR SHIPMENTS FROM UPPER SILESIA33 Areas Percentageof Total Shipments Coal Iron and Steel Zinc Germany (presentboundaries) ...... 39 -65 perhaps90 Poland (presentboundaries) ...... 25 13 less than 10 Inland exports,south or southeast . 36 12 not known Overseas exports ...... 11 A more significantconclusion, attested by the economicdiffi- cultiesof this,district both beforeand sincethe war, is that no boundarywhich excludes any of the surroundingterritories from the marketarea of Upper Silesia-which,any internationalboun- daryunder present conditions would do-can be calledan "organic boundary." Upper Silesia suffersfrom the fact that it has politicallya peripherallocation with respect to each of the statesconcerned, but in consequenceof its mineraldeposits in the interiorof the continent,it has an industrialdevelopment, a densityof population,and an economicand strategicimportance which can bestbe associatedwith a politicallycentral location. LOCAL ASSOCIATIONS WITHIN THE AREA The more immediatelocal associationsof differentlocalities and districtswithin the border area was studiedfrom several dif- ferentangles. An attemptwas made to!find trade divides based largelyon the road and railroadpatterns (Fig. 8). Natural barriersto trade,34such as that foundfarther east in the High 32Geisler,W.: Schlesien als Raumorganismus. (Breslau, 1932). For a discussion of these terms as used by Sieger, Penck, and Vogel, see S6lch, op. cit., pp. 35-46. 33GlfckAuf, Oct. 1925, pp. 13, 140; Kramsztyk,G.: Upper Silesia in economic relation to Poland and Germany. Similar proportionsfor the years 1908-11 are givenin Kulmitz, P. H.: Das Absatzgebietder schlesischenKohle (in Prob- leme der Woltwirtschaft),(Jena, 1914), p. 10. 84Sblchincludes these with natural defensebarriers under the term "Natur- schranken"or "schrankentreueStaatsgrenzen." 214 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

a X A4.HIGHWAY ANDRAILROAD CROSSINGS OF POLITICALBOUNDARIE5, RIVERSa DIVIDES oe ~~~~~~~~~~16---. UPPER SILESIANBORDER AREA 1- _---21- 7 ,,A, OAO ------O HIGHWAY 4.'at!$ 4 --- 9 --- FERRY

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _ 91r CIT

FIG. 8.-Highway and Railroad Crossings of Political Boundaries, Rivers, and Divides Symbols: 1. Present internationalboundary 2. Former internationalboundary 3. Provincial boundaries 4. Larger rivers (Oder and Vistula only) 5. Trade divide cuttingthe least numberof routes 6. Watershed 7. Single- or double-trackrailroad, as indicated Tatra separating Slovakia from Galicia, are not to be found within this area, since roads and railroads find no impassable obstacles. Neverthelessnatural communicationdivides of a lesser degree of effectivenessare to be noted.5 Thus the crest-linesof 85Judged by the numbersof crossings,rivers such as the Oder appear to be a formof such natural communicationdivides, as in a limitedand very local sense they are. But the crossing points, unlike those over hill crests or political divides, are each centers of concentrationof many routes from both sides, in several cases constituteimportant trade centerswhose tributaryarea is always on both sides of the river. In addition,of course, the importantriver traffic (below Cosel) is of mutual interest'to both banks. 1933] TRADE DIVIDES 215 the Sudetes,the Beskides, and the Tatra, coincidingfor the most part with the watershed between the streams of the northern plain and those of the Danube Basin, appear as well-marked, thoughnot complete,trade divides. But where the low mountains break down in the Jesinky(Gesenke) and disappear entirelyin the Moravian Gate no such divide is found. On the plain the originalpoverty of Upper Silesia east of the Oder, togetherwith the mere factorof distance,led early to the developmentof all of eastern Upper Silesia as a dividing zone between the areas in- fluncedfrom Breslau on the one hand or Krakow on the other. The moderndevelopment, particularly in the industrialarea, has tended to break down the separating force of this zone, but a strongremnant remains followingthe pre-warfrontier. This formerPolish frontier,one of the oldest boundaries in Europe, is still one of the strongestdivides on the map. Fewer roads and railroads cross it than almost any other divide in this part of Europe, outside of the high mountains. This is true not merelyin respect to the numberof roads and railroads crossing the line, even to-day,but also in the amount of trafficon them. The force of long establishedconnections, together with the in- fluenceof the marked social differencesalready noted on either side of this line are strongerthan the newer forces for national economicunity. Somewhatsimilar is the case of the formerRus- sian-Austrianfrontier, so that two of the strongestdivides on the map (F ig. 8), which may be called "antecedentboundaries," are no longer used for internationalfrontiers, but are includedwithin the territoryof Poland. Far less effectiveis the boundarywhich formerly divided Silesia between Prussia and Austria, now the frontierof Germanyand Czecho-Slovakia. This is a "subsequent boundary" drawn less than two hundredyears ago as a compromisebetween the sword of Frederickthe Great and the diplomacyof Maria Theresa, passing throughpreviously developed and unitedareas. Probably few boundariesin Europe show as little relation to the road pattern. Local trade areas of principalcenters are artificiallylimited and farmersforced to trade in more remote towns; highwaysin several places are cut by salients of the other country;even villages are cut in two. (Compare this line on Figure 9 with the road divide drawn southwestof it, notably in the westernpart of the area, centeringon Freiwaldau, indicated by "F.") 216 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

FIG. 9.-Local Trade Routes in Relatioia to the Czecho-Slovakian Boundaries in Silesia Symbols: 1. Highways 2. Railroads 3. Watershed 4. Present internationalboundary 5. Former internationalboundary 6. Provincial boundaries 7. Local trade divide This boundarywas changedby the peace treatiesin two places. For linguisticreasons the Hultchini districtwas separated from Germanyand added to Czecho-Slovakia. This improvedthe situa- tionof Troppau and Ostrava but at the expenseof Ratibor (which was likewise damaged by the new Polish boundaryon its other side). Unfortunatewas the additional salient in the boundary seriouslyinterfering with the shortesttrade routes from several small villages to the market center of Ratibor.3' The conflict mFrom Steuberwitz and R6ssnitz in Germany the short route to Ratibor throughZauditz, now in Czecho-Slovakia,is still used in spite of the handicap and occasional complicationsresulting from passing through customs stations twice each way. The inclusion of this salient with the HuItchini area was apparentlyan accidentof the boundarydefinition in the Versailles Treaty, as the two villages includedin it are claimed to be German in language in contrastto the Moravian dialect used in the rest of the district. 1933] THE NEW BOUNDARY AND TRAFFIC 217 betweenPoland and Czecho-Slovakiaover Teschen Silesia resulted in dividingthat area and splittingthe town of Teschen in two along the small river flowingthrough it. Although the road pattern appears largely unaffectedby the boundary,the trafficof course is greatly hindered by the tariff walls, customsand pass stations. The change since the war at the formerAustrian stations from German-speakingofficials to Czechish has intensifiedthe hindrancesby introducinga narrow language barrier where, for the most part, none existed before. Along the new German-Polishfrontier there are, to be sure, few such extremeinstances, but the actual disruptionis far greater because of the importanceof the industrialdistrict through which the line passes (Fig. 10 and Plate G). In its curious doubled

/ INDUSTRIALAREA UPPER SILESIA a MINES FACTORIES

~ 4a -nl * /v t}VA

FIG. 10.-The Industrial Area of Upper Silesia Symbols: 1. Coal mine 10. Steel mill 2. Zinc mine 11. Iron or steel fabricatingplant 3. Lead mine 12. Electric power plant 4. Iron mine (very small) 13. Chemical industry 5. Zinc washery 14. Main water pumpingstation (wells) 6. Coke oven 15. Other industrialplant 7. Zinc roaster and furnace 16. Boundary of total industrialdistrict 8. Zinc rollingmill 17. Boundary of inner industrialdistrict 9. Blast furnace 218 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

course throughthis districtthe boundarycrosses surelymore lines of transportationthan any other equal stretchof international boundaryin the world (Fig. 11). Althougha few of those shown

W p1 HIGHWAYAND RAILROADCROSSINGS X / ofPRE5ENT & FORMER INTERMTN BOUNDAR1ES

*s 8? IN INDUSTRIALAREA oF UPPER 5ILESIA 4.-4t-) RAILROAD - I TRACK X I 4* RAILROAD - 2 OR MOE TRACKS NARROW GUAGE FREIGHT RAILROAD -HIGHWAY - HIGHWAY WITH STREET-CARS PRESENT BOUNDARY ac-PRL-DWAR DARY

G H I. KM.

H~~~~~~~~~

I). ~~~~S

FIG. 11.-Highway and Railroad Crossings of Present and Former Inter- national Boundaries in the Industrial District of Upper Silesia.

on the map-one railroad and six or seven roads-have been closed, the general pattern remainsunchanged and the traffic,on the roads at least, although certainlyless. than before, is vastly greater than that passing even now across the abandoned, antecedentboundary. In addition to the dense networkof roads and railroads the economicunity of the industrialtriangle in the formerlyGerman area was strengthenedby a narrow-gaugefreight line connecting the mines and factories, an interurbanelectric system,electric power systems,and water supply systemscovering, in each case, almost the entire district(Figs. 12 and 13). All of these were inevitablyseriously affected by the new boundary cuttingacross them,breaking the street-carlines at fivepoints, each of the other systemsat about a dozen points. In each case the separate parts 1933] THE NEW BOUNDARY AND COMMUNICATION 219 have been reorganizedon eitherside of the line and manyof the connectionspermanently broken, but a large measure of connec- tion and interrelationstill remains,particularly across the peninsula of German territoryat Beuthen. On the other hand, of all these systemsonly one has developed any connectionsacross the old frontier,the interurbanline to Sosnowiec and the Dombrowa area (Fig. 11). Unique is the relationof the new boundaryto the miningopera- tions (Figs. 14 and 15). Propertylines in this area are inde- pendentat three differentlevels: on the surface,in the overlying zinc-lead formations,and in the lower coal measures. In conse- quence it was impossibleto avoid cuttingmany miningproperties. by the new boundary. Many workingshave been definitelyclosed at the line, except for vital water and air connections;in nine coal mines and four zinc-lead mines mininghas continuedacross the line underground,under special agreement,terminating in

I TX R ELECTRIC19- POWER SYSTEM INRELATION TONEW BOUNDARY UPPERSILESIA

5.0

FIG. 12.-The Electric Power System of Upper Silesia in Relation to the New InternationalBoundary. Symbols: 1. Folrmerpower lines 2. New lines made necessaryby the boundarychanges 3. Former divisionbetween areas served from Zaborze and Chorzow power stations 4. Eastern limit of the Polish area receivingits power from Chorzow but across the Beuthen (B on the map) salient 5. Power station 220 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

W jWATER SUPPLY l Adolf SYSTEM :s i dt t j INRELATION TONEW BOUNDRY UPPERSILESIA

3--- --6?--

I~~ ~ 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M\K t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~m ~~~~~~~~~e

FIG. 13.-Water Supply in Relation to the New Boundary Symbols: 1. Water mains carrying water that has not crossed the boundary 2. Mains receiving (in 1922) water from sources in the other country 3. Mains receiving water from sources in the same country, but brought across territory belonging to the other country 4. Southern limits of areas reserved from mining in order to protect the water supply 5. Eastern and southern limit of Polish area still -receiving water through mains crossing Germany at Beuthen (B on the map) 6. Former international boundary

COAL MINES CUT 'PREENT BOUNDARY ------BY NEW BOUNDARY --- FORMER' <5BOUNDARY \/ UPPER SILESIA ______! ______

Im 5 m -||HL

FIG. 14.-Coal Mines Cut by the New Boundary 1933] THE NEW BOUNDARY AND MINING 221

NEUHOF SlEU - NV N

C,\~ ZINC& LEADMINES CUT BEUTHEN BY NEWBOUNDARY UPPER SILESIA

6 J - -- PRESENT BOUNDARY 2 : C7.k: FORMERS [ / BOUNDARY

FIG. 13.-Zinc and Lead Mines Cut by the New Boundary Symbols: 1. Zinc-lead mine, main shaft 2. New zinc-lead mine resulting from boundary change 3. Main water shaft pumping water that formerly drained underground from mines on both sides of the boundary 4. Southern limit of area in which all lead produced is the property of the Prussian (or now Polish) state 5. Unworkable because of important surface features, or already worked out when boundary was drawn 6. Not yet reached by underground workings 7. Mining operations on the German side from a mine in Poland 8. Mining operations on the Polish side from a mine in Germany 9. M\ining operations formerly carried on across the boundary, but dis;con- tinued after construction of a new mine

1937; and two new mines,one coal and one zinc mine,though eco- nomicallyquite superfluous,have been constructedat a cost of several million dollars, in order that importantcoal and zinc de- posits mightbe retained for Germany. The mines and factoriesin the formerGerman industrialdis- trictwere closelytied togetherin major units,both verticallyand horizontally,throughout the entiredistrict, while therewas almost

Symbols for Figure 14: 1. Unworkable because of important surface features 2. Not yet reached by underground working; will presumably be sold or exchanged 3. Mining operations in Germany from mine in Poland 4. Mining operations in Poland from,mine in Germany 5. Operations planned for the near future 6. Main shaft 7. New mine constructed because of alteration in boundary 222 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec. no connectionwith those in the Dombrowa and Krakow districts across the old border. In the iron and steel industryadjustments to the new boundaryhave led to almost completeseparation, in operationsas well as ownership,of the plants on the now Polish side from those on the German side, but little or no connections have been made with individual plants across the former international, now merelyprovincial boundary. In the zinc industry, however,the fact that all the furnaceshappen to be on the Polish side while some of the mines, washeries, and rolling mills, and nearlyall of the markets,are located in Germanyhas caused this industry,even though divided corporately,to continuethe move- ment of commoditiesback and forth across the new boundary (Fig. 16). For the individualinhabitants of this almost continuousurban districtcountless connections have been disrupted. Thousands of workers in mines and factoriesbecame foreignerswith no rights of citizenshipin the places of their work, and obliged to pass border inspectiondaily on their way to and from their homes (Plate H). Thousands of related familiesliving in neighboring towns,or in townand country,found themselves likewise separated from each other by the restrictionsof the new boundary. The childrenof two such families are more or less forced to receive education in differentlanguages, and taught to hate or despise each other's country. The conclusionwith referenceto local associations is obvious. The formerfrontier, as an antecedentboundary, conformed to an extraordinarilystrong and clearlymarked divide, which has been but little altered after ten years; the new subsequentboundary was drawn across a great complexof intimateassociations, many of whichstill remain. The old line separated locally, districtsand peoples who were in many, though not all, importantrespects! differentfrom each other,whereas the new line throughthe industrial districtconformed to no geographicalor human boundaries. The forceof this boundary,as builtup by the tariffwall, by-pass- port and other governmentalrestrictions, make it, in spite of the ameliorationsof the Geneva Treaty, extraordinarilydisruptive to local associations. With the terminationof that agreementin 1937, the boundarywill presumablybe greatly strengthenedas a barrier. 1933] A DIFFUSED BOUNDARY ZONE 223

N.V.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

1-4as iniae on th iga

5.* FRAbadoEdin whl ri atbcueoonaycag 6. TRLGMoveenof comodtis litl hne

7I. Movmen Discamontnebpecauseg Cofnnewton bcostheoundaryo

W.4Seeal ricaeng mill dinagermanymosdrbywetohsae

B. S. The new Blei-Scharleymine built because of the new boundary Recent consolidationof the Neue Victoria washerywith the Neuhof washery is omittedto avoid confusion CONCLUSION Upper Silesia, to summarize,is a border area in which the various geographicand humanboundaries significant to states, in- stead of convergingclosely, diverge over a wide marginal zone whichincludes within it a major industrialdistrict of dense popu- 224 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec. lation. The political boundaries, representingdiplomatic com- promises,add to the confusion,geographically, by neglectingfor the most part any one geographicboundary, and therebydevelop- ing a new one, and, in particular,by cuttingthrough the verytype of cultural landscape least suitable for boundarylocation. 1933 CHARACTERISTIC BOUNDARIES 225

_ _ E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. PLATE A.-The Oder River a few miles above Ratibor where the new German- Polish boundaryfollows it. A "naturally marked boundary" hut not an important "natural defense boundary."

PLATE B.-A "Green Boundary." The internationalboundary runs along the edge of the grain field; a boundarystone can be seen in the backgroundat the left. The woman kept carefullyon her (German) side of the line, but let her two cows crop the grass on the Polish side as well. 226 HARTSHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A_

PLATE C.-A Russian Polish Farmyard, a few miles east of the former German boundary.

PLATE D.-Gallician Polish Farmhouses,a few miles east of the formerGer- man boundary. 1933] SCENES IN THE TOWNS 227

PLATE E.-Workers Dwellings in the Dabrowa Industrial District, former Russian Poland.

PLATE F.-The Market Place of a Town in formerRussian Poland. 228 HARTSIHORNE-UPPER SILESIA [Dec.

j I7 _

PLATE G.-The New German-Polish boundary in the Industrial District. The line follows the small ditch,between the parallel freightrailroads, between a mine and workers' houses, and is crossed by an electric power line.

PLATE H.-Workers goingthrough pass inspectionat a bordergate on the new German-Polishboundary in the industrialdistrict.