The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and the Environment The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and the Environment explores and critically evaluate the debates and controversies inherent to tourism’s relationship with nature, especially pertinent at a time of major re-evaluation of our relationship with the environment as a consequence of the environmental problems we now face. It brings together leading specialists from range of dis- ciplinary backgrounds and geographical regions, to provide state-of-the-art theoretical reflection and empirical research on this complex relationship and future direction. The book is divided into five inter-related parts. Part 1 evaluates the philosophical basis, rationale and complexity of what is meant by the term ‘environment’ considering the major influences in the construction of how we understand our surroundings and the types of values we place upon them. Part 2 evaluates the types of ecosystems that are used as natural resources for tourism and the negative and positive impacts upon them. Part 3 evaluates relevant envir- onmental policy and management mechanisms for the impacts of tourism on the natural environment. Part 4 focuses on the changing tourism–environment relationship, and types of tourism that have become established in the tourism industry, market and policy. Part 5 analyses contemporary and future issues of the tourism–environment relationship, based on themes of environmental and social welfare. This timely book will provide an invaluable resource for all those with an interest in tour- ism’s relationship with the natural environment, encouraging dialogue across disciplinary boundaries and areas of study. The book is international in its focus, emphasising that issues of tourism and the natural environment are not only localised but transcend national boundaries that sometimes require both international and global responses. This is essential reading for students, researchers and academics of Tourism as well as those of Geography, Environmental Studies and Development Studies. Andrew Holden is Professor in Environment and Tourism at Bedfordshire University, UK. David Fennell teaches and researches in the areas of ecotourism and tourism ethics at Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario, Canada. The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and the Environment Edited by Andrew Holden and David Fennell First published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Andrew Holden and David Fennell The right of the editors to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Holden, Andrew. The Routledge handbook of tourism and the environment / Andrew Holden and David Fennell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Tourism–Environmental aspects–Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Sustainable tourism– Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Ecotourism–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Fennell, David A., 1963- II. Title. G155.A1H65 2012 338.4'791–dc23 2011044795 ISBN: 978-0-415-58207-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-12110-8 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Taylor & Francis Books Contents List of illustrations x List of contributors xii Acknowledgments xii PART 1 Scientific realities and cultural constructs of the environment 1 1 Introduction 3 Andrew Holden 2 The natural science ontology of environment 6 Michael Hall 3 Social science ontology of environment: Challenges to human exceptionalism 19 Bryan Grimwood 4 Religious views of the environment: Sanctification of nature and implications for tourism 31 Dallen Timothy 5 Tourism and Indigenous reverence: The possibilities for recovery of land and revitalisation of life 43 Keith Hollinshead 6 ‘Prophets of nature’: Romantic ideals of nature and their continuing relevance for tourism today 54 Diana Barsham and Michael Hitchcock 7 The importance of the aesthetic 65 Cain S. Todd v Contents 8 Viewing nature politically 75 Adrian Franklin 9 Using complexity theory to develop understanding of tourism and the environment 84 Nancy Stevenson 10 Tourism and romantic myths of nature: The evolution of a discursive relationship 94 Tony Seaton PART 2 Ecosystems and impact issues 115 11 Introduction 117 David Fennell 12 Nature bites back: Impacts of the environment on tourism 119 Carl Cater 13 Biodiversity and tourism 130 David Mercer 14 ‘Tourism into the wild’: The limits of tourism in wilderness 145 Jarkko Saarinen 15 Freshwater systems and tourism 155 Kay Dimmock, Jessica Taplin and John Jenkins 16 Marine systems and tourism 170 Mark Orams and Michael Lück 17 Mountain environments and tourism 183 Catherine Pickering and Agustina Barros 18 Orchids: An example of charismatic megaflora tourism? 192 Catherine Pickering and Mark Ballantyne 19 Island tourism 200 Godfrey Baldacchino vi Contents PART 3 Environmental policy, resource governance and management 209 20 Introduction 211 Andrew Holden 21 The Brundtland Report (Our Common Future) and tourism 213 David Telfer 22 Framework conventions for climate change 227 Debbie Hopkins and James Higham 23 The vulnerability of tourism to climate change 241 Daniel Scott and Christopher Lemieux 24 Demand management for the sustainability of tourism 258 Patrizia Modica 25 Zoning, land-use planning and tourism 266 Peter Mason 26 Protected areas and tourism 276 Andrew Holden 27 Limits of Acceptable Change and tourism 285 Stephen McCool 28 Sustainable tourism certification 299 Xavier Font 29 Lessons learned: knowledge management and tourism development 307 Alan Clarke, Ágnes Raffay and Peter Wiltshier PART 4 Terminology and types of tourism 319 30 Introduction 321 David Fennell 31 Ecotourism 323 David Fennell 32 Nature-based tourism 334 Alexandra Coghlan and Ralf Buckley vii Contents 33 Wildlife tourism 345 David Newsome and Kate Rodger 34 Agri-tourism: In between rural change, tourism restructuring and environmental imperatives 359 Theodosia Anthopoulou and Yorgos Melissourgos 35 Slow travel 371 Janet Dickinson and Les Lumsdon 36 Responsible tourism: Whose responsibility? 382 Richard Sharpley 37 Pro-poor tourism and local economic development 392 Harold Goodwin and Adama Bah PART 5 Contemporary and future issues 401 38 Introduction 403 David Fennell 39 Climate change and tourism 406 Peter Burns and Lyn Bibbings 40 Climate policy and tourism 421 Stefan Gössling 41 Water and tourism 435 Michalis Hadjikakou, Jonathan Chenoweth and Graham Miller 42 Community-based ecotourism as indigenous social entrepreneurship 447 Trisia Farrelly 43 Tourism’s wasteful ways 460 David T. Brown 44 Fair Trade in tourism: Critical shifts and perspectives 494 Angela Kalisch 45 Resiliency and uncertainty in tourism 505 Tazim Jamal viii Contents 46 Tourism and CSR 521 Ralf Buckley and Fernanda de Vasconcellos Pegas 47 Environmental security and tourism 531 Kevin Hannam 48 Adaptive co-management: A new frontier for nature-based tourism 541 Ryan Plummer, Samantha Stone-Jovicich and Erin Bohensky 49 Measurement of corporate social performance in tourism 556 Danuta de Grosbois Index 567 ix Illustrations Tables 2.1 Ontologies of ecology 11 16.1 The Spectrum of Marine Recreation Opportunities SMARO 174 21.1 Required elements in the pursuit of sustainable development 218 21.2 Contradictions or paradoxes in sustainability 218 21.3 Weaknesses of sustainability in the context of tourism 219 23.1 Climate change vulnerability of tourism regions 251 24.1 Indicators of tourism seasonality in destinations 261 24.2 Occupancy rate trend after the introduction of revenue management 263 24.3 Revenue per person rate of change 263 26.1 Costs and benefits of tourism to national parks 282 27.1 Brief description of the steps involved in the LAC planning framework 289 33.1 Wildlife sighting opportunities and activities: some examples 347 33.2 Wildlife viewing opportunities in the Kruger National Park, South Africa 349 33.3 Potential negative impacts of tourism on the daily activities of wildlife 355 33.4 Ecological, environmental, operational assessment framework 356 35.1 Analysis of GHG emissions by mode of transport for trips to and within the Ardèche Gorge area 379 36.1 Characteristic of responsible tourism 384 36.2 Guiding principles for environmental responsability 384 37.1 GiG Produce: sources by weight in kg 397 37.2 GiG Produce: sources by value in dalasi 397 39.1 Estimated emissions from global tourism (including same-day visitors) 2005 416 40.1 Contribution of tourism to CO2 emissions and radiative forcing, 2005 423 40.2 Emission reduction targets and suggested action in aviation 425 40.3 Mitigation action in selected OECD member and non-member countries 428 43.1 Common sources of wastewater at