BABESCH 91 (2016), 69-85. doi: 10.2143/BAB.91.0.3175644

The Natural History of a Caeretan

John K. Papadopoulos

Abstract

One of the most extraordinary renderings of various sea creatures is the well-known and often-published Caere- tan hydria now in the Niarchos Collection. In contrast to the accurately rendered seal, which is rare in Greek art of all periods, , and dolphins, the central creature that dominates the scene is usually considered as an imaginary sea monster, a ketos. The purpose of this paper is to suggest that the central creature is no sea monster, but a fairly accurate representation of one of the most elusive creatures of the sea: an oarfish, of the family Regalecidae.

For Jaap Hemelrijk

One of the most remarkable illustrations from as Boardman notes, for all its charm, the Phokaia- Classical antiquity of sea creatures on a single mermaid story has no authority.7 object prior to the Roman period is the celebrated Despite these disparate labels, there was con- Caeretan hydria now in the Stavros S. Niarchos sensus in the fact that the threatening creature Collection (fig. 1a-b).1 Often published, the vessel that dominates the scene, and which calls for a is attributed to the Eagle Painter, at least the pri- hero of the likes of Herakles or Perseus to deal mary figures.2 The hydria has been given many with, if not dispatch, was a sea monster: a ketos in names, in accordance with its iconography: Hans Greek.8 The terrifying nature of this monster is Peter Isler referred to it as the ‘Perseushydria’, in well related by Hemelrijk: ‘The painter has tried his belief that the primary scene depicted Perseus his utmost to make the monster truly horrible; and the sea monster. John Boardman concluded with a multitude of dorsal crests, coloured fins that the human protagonist was Herakles, even and other kinds of red or white details; there is though this was no normal Herakles, but in later even a fine flame-like thing on its forehead, rem- publications he referred to the hero as ‘anony- iniscent of the hole through which a whale throws mous’; whether Herakles or Perseus, the absence up fountains of water. His teeth are formidable, of a Hesione or Andromeda is noteworthy.3 Jaap and his wide-open muzzle is menacing enough Hemelrijk first named the as the ‘Zurich Mon- with its sixteen sharp, white teeth.’9 ster’, but finally settled on the ‘ Phoke’, The purpose of this paper is to suggest that the after the singular representation of the seal (phoke) central creature is no sea monster, but a fairly accu- at the far left of the primary scene and the fact rate representation, in all but one detail, of one of that the vase, at least for a while, was physically the most elusive creatures of the sea: an oarfish, of located in Athens.4 He was the first to doubt that the family Regalecidae. Before delving into the natu- the hero was Perseus or Herakles and that the ral history of this remarkable hydria - and fish - it scene refers to a lost myth in which the city- would be useful to describe the vessel and recap the of Phokaia - the name-princess of ‘Seal- little that is known of its provenance. town’, as he refers to her - was ‘nearly eaten by a monster, but was changed just in time into a THE HYDRIA phoke, when, happily, the great hero arrived to save her.’5 He adds that the sickle-shaped The hydria was first published by Isler as part of weapon, the , wielded by the hero in one the Hirschmann Collection of Greek in 1982, hand (in the other hand is a white stone) was and more fully the following year in the Jahrbuch probably meant for cutting out the tongue of the des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, though it sea monster and he goes on to cite Heraclides had been noted in passing by Jaap Hemelrijk and Ponticus, who derives the name of the city of Stella Lubsen-Admiraal in the late 1970s.10 The Phokaia from the founder Phokon, and from the vessel is said to be part of a grave group found in sighting of a seal, phoke, which came onto land.6 Italy, together with another Caeretan hydria and This suggestion has not appealed to all scholars: a Caeretan of Nikosthenic form, but these

69 reports are unconfirmed.11 The vessel stands to a to as a monster. To the far left is the seal, almost height of 40 cm (40.4 including the small projec- vertically rendered, attempting to look over the tion above the rim of the vertical handle); the central creature toward the hero; Isler notes ‘the diameter of the base is 17 cm, the rim 19.7.12 The inquisitive look of the seal is particularly well shape of the vase and its subsidiary decoration caught’ and Hemelrijk describes the same animal has been well described elsewhere and need not as a ‘human looking baby-seal.’14 Elsewhere he be repeated here.13 notes ‘the seal on our hydria with its naïve and The primary figurative scene shows the name- melancholy eyes is so astonishingly true to life less hero fighting the sea creature normally referred that an intimate knowledge of the animal cannot be doubted.’15 And he goes on to note that Phoka- ians would have had such knowledge of seals. Lila Marangou states: ‘Confident incisions on the neck and head give the seal a troubled expression, as if worried about the outcome of the man’s struggle with the monster.’16 Two dolphins and an octopus are dispersed around the central crea- ture. These are not the only sea creatures in the work of the Eagle Painter. In dealing with the crab pinching with its claw one of the ankles of Herakles on the hydria once in London and now in Malibu (fig. 2), Hemelrijk writes: ‘The Eagle Painter excels in the portraiture of animals. This crab is one of his greatest achievements….Our crab demonstrates the power of observation so typical of Greek artists. I am told that not all the details are exactly true to nature, but the devia- tions are slight and not very important.’17 The figurative scene on the reverse of the vase, in the zone below the vertical handle, depicts a bearded hunter wearing what is normally described as a short white chiton, accompanied by his dog. Armed with a spear raised in his right hand, he chases a dappled stag and a mountain goat (fig. 3). Although the front half of the spear is straight, the back portion is depicted as a wavy line, ‘like

Fig. 1a-b. Caeretan hydria, Private Collection, with detail (dating to the last three decades of the 6th century BC).

70 mals is their naturalistic rendering. The painter is equally at home representing creatures of the sea, as he is in representing land animals. As already noted, the hydria is attributed to the Eagle Painter, at least the figurative scenes. First identified as the Knee Painter by Hemelrijk in 1956 - after the characteristic stylization of the human knee - he later renamed the painter after his most impressive scenes depicting eagles hunt- ing hares or deer.19 But Hemelrijk goes on to note that the hydria is not the work of a single hand. According to his analysis, the figures are painted by the Eagle Painter, the subsidiary ornaments by the Busiris Painter. The Eagle and Busiris Painters are the two master painters, often cast as brothers, who, together with putative assistants, account for Fig. 2. Detail of Caeretan hydria showing the crab bit- the production of all Caeretan hydriae. As Board- ing at Herakles' ankle in a scene depicting Herakles, man dutifully notes, however, ‘there are those accompanied by Iolaos, fighting the Lernean Hydra. J. who continue to believe that one man may be Paul Getty Museum in Malibu (Acc. no 83.AE.346). responsible for them all.’20 Whether one or two Photo courtesy museum. artisans, all Caeretan hydriae can be readily accom- modated within the last three decades of the 6th century BC.21 Whatever the name of the vase painter, as early as 1928, T.B.L. Webster, in his attempt to reconstruct the life of the artist, wrote: ‘He was an Ionian living in Etruria, acquainted with, if not himself a painter of, the pictures in Etruscan tombs.’22 What is noteworthy is that whoever painted the Caeretan hydriae wrote in east Ionic Greek.23 The names δις, Αια[ς], Νεστωρ, on a Caeretan hydria in the Louvre were certainly by someone who wrote in east Ionic epichoric.24 For Hemel- rijk, the evidence taken together, not least the phoke on our hydria, was unequivocal: the two ‘master-painters’ left East Greece, most probably from the city of Phokaia, traveled via , where they perhaps stayed for a little time, and sometime around 530-525 BC set up a workshop in Caere or, perhaps more likely, at its harbor Pyrgi.25

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HYDRIA

As several scholars have stressed, the vase painter who decorated this hydria was well-versed in rendering creatures of the land, sea, and air, and it is this aspect of the hydria that forms the focus of this paper.

Fig. 3. Detail of reverse of Caeretan hydria The seal (fig. 4) shown in fig. 1. Seals belong to the group generally referred to as a loosely coiled, very large cork-screw.’18 With pinnipeds, which is derived from the Latin pin- details picked out in added red and white, together nipes for ‘winged- or fin-footed’; members of the with incision, what is noteworthy about both ani- family Phocidae - referred to as true or earless seals

71 mer Yugoslavia south, extending throughout the Mediterranean, with the largest colony at the Cabo Blanco Peninsula on the west Saharan coast.30 An interesting feature of Mediterranean Monk Seals is that, like all Phocidae, they cannot rotate their hind-flippers under their bodies to walk. Consequently, on land they use their fore-flippers to pull themselves along, while their hind-flip- pers trail passively behind.31 This is precisely what is depicted on the Caeretan hydria. In Greek, the seal -  φκη - appears as early as Homer. In 4.404 when , the , comes forth, he lies down to sleep in the hollow caves; ‘and around him the seals, the brood of the fair daughter of the sea (μφ δ μιν φκαι νπδες καλς λσδνης θρ αι ε!δυσιν), sleep in a herd coming forth from the gray water, and bitter is the smell they breathe of the depths of the sea.’32 This passage captures at least one behavioral aspect of Mediterranean Monk Seals: although the animals can haul out on sandy beaches, they much prefer sea caves along rocky coastlines.33 At 4.447, the passage reads: ‘π#σαν δ’ $%ην μνμεν τετλη τι θυμ& φκαι' δ’ () λ*ς +λθν λλες’ (‘So all the morn- ing we waited with steadfast heart, and the seals came forth from the sea in throngs’).34 That of the Classical period had close Fig. 4. Detail of Caeretan hydria shown in fig. 1. encounters with seals is also suggested by two passages in Aristophanes, where the joke depends because they lack external ear flaps - include 19 spe- on the foul smell of seals, and other living crea- cies in 13 genera.26 The body of our seal is black, tures. In enumerating the boasts of Kleon, Aris- its belly white, with details of the head and neck tophanes, in Peace 758, writes: ‘φκης δ’ ,σμ-ν, picked out by incision. The mammal on the Caere- Λαμ%ας δ’ 0ρ1εις πλτυς, πρωκτ*ν δ2 καμ-λυ’ tan hydria is a classic example of a Mediterranean (‘the smell of a seal, the unwashed balls of a Monk Seal, Monachus monachus (Hermann, 1779), Lamia, and the arsehole of a camel’).35 The same with a long and slender body, short fore-flippers, language is incorporated, almost verbatim, in a small flattish forehead, and broad snout, with Wasps 1030-1037. The Greeks were not the only nostrils that face upward.27 Monk Seals can grow people familiar with seals. In describing the inhabit- to a maximum length of 2.4 m, with a maximum ants of the Araxes River (3 4Aρ5)ης), and especially weight of 300 (female) to 320 kg (male). Adult its tributary, the Gyndes (3 Γνδης), Herodotus males are usually dark brown to black over most (1.202) speaks of men whose food is raw fish, and of the body dorsally, with a white abdominal patch their customary dress sealskins ((ν νθρπυς around the umbilicus that extends about halfway κατικσθαι λγυσι 81θ9ς :μ;ς σιτεμνυς, up the sides. Adult females are counter-shaded, (σθτι δ2 νμ%<ντας 1ρ#σθαι φωκων δρμασι). uniformly dark brown dorsally and lighter on the The Araxes River winds its way through the Cau- belly, chest, throat, and sides of the face.28 The casus, flowing into the Kura River and eventually Mediterranean Monk Seal is among the most draining into the Caspian Sea. Consequently, the endangered pinnipeds in the world. The species sealskins that Herodotus speaks of are not of was declared extinct in Italian waters in the mid- Mediterranean Monk Seals, but of Caspian Seals, 1980s, though vagrant non-breeding seals have Pusa caspica (Gmelin, 1788).36 occasionally been observed; historically, Mediter- As is so often the case in Greek literature, one ranean Monk Seals ranged into the Black Sea, but of the fullest accounts of seals is provided in Aris- none have been seen there since the early 1990s.29 totle’s Historia Animalium. There he describes the Their range and habitat is currently from the for- various external parts of the mammal (487b23,

72 Fig. 5. Electrum coin of Phokaia, ca 550 BC, showing seal, swimming to right, no 593 obverse); photo courtesy of Hirmer Verlag GmbH.

492a26, 498a31, b14, 567a2, 12, 595a4), its generation The octopus (fig. 1) and rearing (540a23, 566b27-567a14), internal parts (497a7, 501a22, 506a23, 508a27, 566b32, 567a9), as The curvilinear space formed by the central sea well as comments on the general mode of life of creature, near its tail, is occupied by an octopus, seals (487b23, 489b1, 498a31, 521b24, 566b27, 567a7, rendered in added red, with a black crescent fram- 594b30, 608b22). Aristotle (567a10) also notes that ing the inner edge of each eye.41 The arms are it ‘is difficult to kill a seal by using force, unless rendered in wavy lines in an attempt to show the you strike it on the temple, because its body is suction cups on the other side. The octopus is a fleshy’ (‘πκτε=ναι δ2 φκην 1αλεπ*ν >ια%ως, cephalopod mollusk of the order Octopoda (Leach, (?ν μ- τις πατ5)@η παρ? τ*ν κρ ταφν' τ* γ?ρ 1818). There are two suborders in the standard σμα σαρκδες αBτς (στιν’).37 classification of Octopoda: Cirrata and Incirrata: What is perhaps most remarkable about the the octopus on the Caeretan hydria belongs to the rendering of the seal is its accuracy in light of the suborder Incirrata.42 It has two eyes and four fact that this is the only representation in all of pairs of arms, as they are referred to, and is bilat- Greek art - outside of the coinage of Phokaia - of the erally symmetric.43 The octopus has no internal phoke. Moreover, the coinage of Phokaia depicting or external skeleton, but it does have a hard beak, the seal is comparatively rare. As Barclay Head with its mouth at the center point of the arms. noted in 1892, ‘To the town of Phocaea itself there There are some 300 species, which account for is at present only one stater which can be certainly over one-third of all known cephalopods. There attributed. It has on the obverse a seal, the type are various species that inhabit the Mediterra- ,(parlant of the city, together with the letterݪ (= Φ) nean, including the Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797 beneath it….’38 Made of electrum, the coin depicts the Octopus defilippi (Verany, 1851), the Octopus a seal swimming toward the right and is dated to macropus (Risso, 1826), the Scaeurgus unicirrhus ca 550 BC (fig. 5).39 Additions to the type, includ- (Orbigny, 1840), also known as the Octopus unicir- ing very similar seals, whether swimming toward rhus, the Pteroctopus tetracirrhus (Dell Chiaje, 1840), the right or left, are known especially on silver the Eledone cirrosa (Lamarck, 1798), and the Ele- coins of Phokaia, but they are relatively uncom- done moschata (Lamarck 1798).44 I assemble a few mon, especially the electrum series.40 For all their of these on figure 6. charm - to paraphrase Boardman - the seals on Of the various types of octopus that inhabit the the coins of Phokaia are but a pale reflection of Mediterranean, the most common, and certainly the life-like phoke on the Caeretan hydria, which the most exploited of the species by humans, is borders on photo-realism. the Octopus vulgaris, which is found in temperate

73 Fig. 6a-b. Drawings of some of the more common octopus species inhabiting the Mediterranean (dorsal views), from left to right: a) Octopus vulgaris; b) Pteroctopus tetracirrhus. After Roper et al. 1984, 211, 217. and tropical waters worldwide, but is inactive in water 7o C or colder; its diagnostic features, geo- graphical distribution - which occurs from the coast- zil), as well as the Indian Ocean from the Arabian line to the outer edge of the continental shelf (at Peninsula to Burma.48 The species is, however, little depths of 0-200 m) - habitat and biology are well known, normally occurring on sandy to muddy sea outlined by Clyde Roper, Michael Sweeney, and bottom from 6 to 60 m, though it is occasionally Cornelia Nauen.45 But the form of the octopus on reported down to 200 m. As with the other sea the Caretan hydria does not agree with that of the creatures shown on our hydria - the seal, dolphins, Octopus vulgaris or the closely related Octopus and oarfish - the Octopus defilippi is usually caught macropus.46 The long arms of the octopus on the only as a bycatch and, in the modern era at least, Caeretan hydria, together with its comparatively was never commercially exploited. The form of small and slender mantle, and the manner in the other species of Mediterranean octopus is not which the eyes bulge slightly from the head, are in keeping with the drawing of the octopus on all features that are in keeping with the Octopus our vase.49 defilippi (fig. 7). The diagnostic features of this Probably the fullest account of the octopus - 3 type of octopus are ‘Mantle relatively very small, ,κτ5πυς - in Greek is Aristotle’s Historia Anima- smooth-skinned, no pigmented ocellus, spot, or lium. In addition to general information on the ring. All arms very long, slender, asymmetrical.’47 creature (490a1, 525a1 3, 534b25, 541b1, 622b5), In fact, it is only the last feature - the asymmetri- we learn of the octopus’s many predilections, as cal arms - that is not rendered by the Eagle well as human uses, including its colour-change Painter on the hydria (the third arm on each side (622a8-14), copulation (524a5, 541b1, 8), feeding of this octopus species is short, the others long). habits (590b1 4, 591a1, 622a8); as food (534a25, The geographical distribution of the Octopus 590b1 8, 591a5), generation (525a2, 544a6,550a3, defilippi is the Mediterranean Sea, the eastern b1, 607b7, 622a1 7), habitat (621b1 7, 622a32), Atlantic Ocean from Morocco to Angola, the head (524b28, 541b5, 544a11), ink sac and its dis- Cape Verde Islands, the Western Atlantic (Baha- charge (524a9, 13, 22, 621b30), intelligence (622a3- mas, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea down to Bra- 14, 18), lifespan and condition (622a14-b1), suck-

74 ers (523b28, 541b9), and tentacles (524a3, 18, 33, 531b3, 541b3, 550b6, 591a5). Elsewhere, Alexander of Tralles, writing in the 6th century AD, refers to the octopus only once in his treatise on medicine (Book 7.1) in his discussion of the diseases of the gastro-intestinal tract and with reference to his

Fig. 7. The Octopus defilippi (dorsal view), the Fig. 8. Late Minoan IB Marine Style species that is most probably represented on the from Palaikastro, ca 1500-1450 BC in the Caeretan hydria. After Roper et al. 1984, 197. conventional chronology.

Fig. 9. Octopus as shield device on a fragmentary red-figure Type B cup attributed to Epiktetos by Beazley (ARV2, 1624.24 bis) and dated 510-500 BC. J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, Acc. no 86.AE.306 (photo courtesy museum).

75 therapy for what he refers to as τς δι? θερμDν are often difficult to see when dolphins are bow δυσκρασ%αν σθενσης καθεκτικς δυν5μεως.50 riding, as they are here.52 As with the other figures on the vase, the Eagle As members of the Delphinidae, dolphins Painter provides us with a realistic rendering of form the largest cetacean family and are com- the octopus (Octopus defilippi). Given its ubiquity monly referred to as ‘ocean dolphins’, despite the in the Mediterranean and especially in the fact that some are called ‘whales’, and others are Aegean, the octopus is among the most-often not solely confined to oceans but also inhabit rivers depicted creatures of the sea in Greek art, from and lakes.53 A succinct description of the features spectacular representations in Late Minoan IB common to most, if not all, delphinid species, is Marine Style (fig. 8) to shield devices provided by Randall Reeves and his collaborators, serving heroes (fig. 9).51 that is worth quoting in full: ‘Like other toothed whales, they have a single blowhole situated on the The dolphins (fig. 1) top of the head, slightly left of center. Their teeth, although variable in number and size, are generally In the space formed by the curves of the central conical and undifferentiated. Most have a dorsal fin sea creature, to the right of the octopus, are two at approximately the center of the back. Their flukes dolphins: one above the central creature’s back, are always cleaved on the rear margin by a pro- the other below its throat. Both are painted black, nounced notch. The length and width of the beak with white belly, the eyes picked out with added is highly variable among species and genera, white and an incised circle; incision also defines with some having a well-defined beak and others the flippers, tail, and beak, the latter enlivened no beak at all. Delphinid coloration can be boldly with added red. Perhaps the only details of the patterned in black and white, with or without Eagle Painter’s dolphins that are wanting is that intermediate gray or tan patches; all dark brown the dorsal fin of both of his dolphins, and espe- or black; evenly gray; spotted or speckled; and cially that below the throat of the central creature, occasionally almost completely white.’54 are placed too far forward, and on one dolphin As a group, the ocean dolphin family includes the flippers are omitted altogether, though these several subfamilies, 17 extant genera, and at least

Fig. 10. The Short-beaked Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis (Linnaeus, 1758), photo by dolphins-world.com.

76 33 species. As a number of authorities have high- long beak, a tall dorsal fin, and moderately large, lighted, however, systematics have disagreed tapered flippers. The colour pattern is relatively about how to classify the group, especially with complex: the entire dorsal surface from the front regard to subfamilies and genera.55 In going through to well behind the dorsal fin is very dark gray to Pieter Folkens’ magnificent illustrations of dol- black; the belly is white. What is also characteristic phins and comparing them to the Eagle Painter’s - and this is not depicted on the Caeretan hydria - is dolphins, the mammals depicted on the Caeretan that the dark dorsal coloration dips low onto the hydria can belong to a small number of species.56 sides in a V-shaped ‘saddle’ configuration, result- Among these, the Common Bottlenose Dolphin ing in an ‘hourglass’, for want of a better term, or (Tursiops truncatus, Montagu, 1821) and the Short- crisscross pattern on the sides.62 Although the beaked Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis, Lin- species is widespread in tropical and temperate naeus, 1758) stand out (fig. 10).57 The pronounced waters, especially of the Atlantic and Pacific beak of the dolphins on the Caeretan hydria, cou- Oceans, it is common in the Mediterranean and pled with their coloration and, especially, their Black Seas; they are among the most active of the size, suggest that the species the Eagle Painter dolphins at the surface.63 had in mind was most probably the Short-beaked As for the Striped Dolphin (fig. 11), the intro- Common Dolphin.58 Male Common Bottlenose ductory paragraph by Reeves et al. is worth quot- Dolphins have a maximum length of 2.45-3.8 m ing: ‘It is often assumed that the classical Greek (females 2.4-3.7 m), whereas the Short-beaked and Roman reverence for dolphins came from Common Dolphin is considerably smaller, reach- contact with local bottlenose or common dol- ing a maximum length of 2.7 m for males (2.6 m phins. Yet, as early Mediterranean seafarers ven- for females).59 Another species that certainly inhab- tured farther and farther from land, they would its the Mediterranean, has a pronounced beak, is have begun to encounter large schools of Striped comparatively small (maximum length 2.65 m for Dolphins. This species is still the most common males, 2.4 m for females), but is differently coloured, cetacean in the Mediterranean Sea (even though that may well be what is represented on the Caere- more than 1,000 individuals died of a disease out- tan hydria, is the Striped Dolphin (Stenella coeruleo- break in 1990-1992). This active, gregarious, and alba, Meyen, 1833) (fig. 11).60 Other species, such beautifully marked dolphin is widespread and as the Long-beaked Common Dolphin (Delphinus reasonably abundant in tropical and temperate capensis, Gray, 1828), the Clymene Dolphin (Stenella regions of the world’s oceans. The specific name, clymene, Gray, 1850), and even the Spinner Dolphin derived from the Latin caeruleus for “sky blue” (Stenella longirostis, Gray, 1828), are precluded as and albus for “white”, refers to its striking colora- they do not inhabit the Mediterranean.61 tion.’ And they go on to note: ‘The colour pattern Since I cannot clearly distinguish between the is a striking combination of bluish gray and Short-beaked Common Dolphin and the Striped white, but the boldness of the markings varies Dolphin, it would be useful to enumerate, albeit regionally and individually. The beak, append- very briefly, the primary features of both. The ages, and back are gray; the throat and belly are Short-beaked Common dolphin (fig. 10) is sleek, white. There are two narrow black stripes on handsomely marked, and gregarious. The slender each side of the body. They begin as a single body is evenly proportioned, with a moderately stripe from the beak to the eye that diverges, one

Fig. 11. The Striped Dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyen, 1833).

77 branch going from the eye to the flipper and the Among more scientific writers, pride of place other continuing along the side from the eye to belongs, once more, to Aristotle’s Historia Anima- the anal region.’64 If anything, their range and lium. In addition to general comments on the dol- habitat is even greater than that of the Short- phin (489b2, 506b5, 557a30, 598b1, 631b1), Aristotle beaked Common Dolphin.65 describes the dolphin’s blow-hole (489b3), bones Indeed, Striped Dolphins are the species most (516b1 2), breasts and milk (504b21, 521b23), char- likely to be confused with Short-beaked Common acter and mode of life (489b3, 589a31-590a2, 631a8, Dolphins and with the Common Bottlenose Dol- b1), feeding (591b9, 25), generation (540b22, 566b2), phin. As Reeves et al. elaborate: ‘The combined genitals (500b1, 509b10, 510a9), lifespan (566b23), distribution of the two common dolphins greatly lungs (536a2, 589b6), mouth and tongue (536a3, overlaps that of the Striped Dolphin, and all three 591b27), senses and sleep (492a26, 534b7, 537a31, species occur in fairly dense schools.’66 When 566b15), swimming (602a30, 631a22-32), voice and poring over images of dolphins bow riding, the snoring (535b32, 537b3, 566b15, 589b9), as well as species that perhaps comes closest to the two dol- the hunting of dolphins by humans (533b10, 534b7, phins on the Caeretan hydria is the Short-beaked 589b7). A more intriguing account of the dolphin is Common Dolphin.67 found in Oppian’s Halieutica (1.648), where, in The dolphin - 3 δελφ%ς (later δελφ%ν), δελφ=νς - attempting to come to grips with the nature and is among the most ubiquitous of sea creatures in intelligence of dolphins, the author writes: ‘Now all Greek literature. In describing the terror that Achil- the viviparous denizens of the sea love and cherish les struck in the hearts of the Trojans at the begin- their young but diviner than the dolphin is nothing ning of Book 21 of the , Homer compares the yet created; for indeed they were aforetime men great hero to a δελφ=νς μεγακ-τες: ‘And as and lived in cities along with mortals, but by the before a monstrous dolphin other fishes flee and fill devising of Dionysos they exchanged the land for the recesses of some harbor or fair anchorage in the sea and put on the form of fishes; but even now their terror, for greedily does he devour any he the righteous spirit of men in them preserves catches, so cowered the Trojans in the streams of human thought and human deeds.’73 the dread river beneath their banks’ (emphases Just as they are ubiquitous in Greek literature, mine).68 In his evocative description of Skylla in dolphins are a mainstay of Greek art, both in the the Odyssey (12.96), Homer uses the dolphin not prehistoric and historic periods.74 as a creature of power and rage, but as mere prey: ‘Up to her middle she is hidden in the hol- The oarfish low cave, but she holds her head out beyond the dread chasm, and fishes there, eagerly searching As we have seen, the Eagle Painter has both an around the rock for dolphins and sea dogs and ability and predilection to illustrate creatures of whatever greater beast she may happen to catch…’69 the land and sea. The representations of the seal, Archilochus (74.7), writing in the 7th century BC, octopus, and dolphins on the Niarchos hydria, was no stranger to sea-travel; in describing the despite the fact that they are not photo-realisti- power of , he writes: ‘Let not one of you cally perfect in every respect, are depicted with a marvel, nay, though he see the beasts of the field sound knowledge of the living creatures they exchange pasture with the dolphins of the illustrate. The seal is noteworthy for the fact that deep….’70 And Pindar, born toward the end of representations of the mammal in Greek art are the 6th century BC, in Pythian 2.51, also mentions rare. In the case of both the octopus and the dol- the dolphin in writing about the power of god: phins, the renderings are such that a strong case ‘God fulfilleth every purpose, even as he desireth, can be made for identifying the actual species, god that not only overtaketh the winged eagle, something that is very rarely possible in the corpus but also surpasseth the dolphin of the sea….(θε ς, of contemporary Greek art. It is against such a E κα πτερ εντ’ α8ετ*ν κ%1ε, κα θαλασσα=ν backdrop - of a vase painter who borders on a παραμε%>εται δελφ=να….).’71 Herodotus, writing natural historian - that we should consider the in the 5th century, relates the story of Arion, who, central, serpent-like, and threatening creature having sung his song to the wretched Corinthian with its red crest and dorsal fin. crew heading from Taras toward Corinth, threw The description of the long creature in the pri- himself into the sea: ‘but a dolphin (so the story mary zone between the two horizontal handles is goes) took Arion on his back and bore him to well set forth by Marangou: ‘The elongate sea Tainaron’ (‘τ*ν δ2 δελφ=να λγυσι Fπλα> ντα monster occupies almost the entire zone, its black, ()ενε=και (π Τα%ναρν’).72 undulating, pisciform body terminating in a large

78 wolverine head with wide-open mouth. Its eye they seem to feed mainly on pelagic crustaceans. and teeth, denoted in white, heighten the impres- Apparently, they normally maintain themselves sion of a hideous, threatening figure. Its ventral in the water column in a vertical position, which area is shown in white, while the spiny dorsal crest enables them to see their prey silhouetted against is in bright red. Likewise in red is the monster’s the downstreaming light.’79 tongue, barely visible between the teeth of the The brief entry in Joseph Nelson’s Fishes of the lower jaw. The anatomical details of the head, World is worth quoting in full; it reads: neck and body are finely incised.’75 In describing what he refers to as an exceptional representation ‘Family REGALECIDAE - oarfishes. Marine; all on an exceptional vase, Boardman defines the oceans. creature in the following terms: ‘By far the finest Scales absent; no anal fin; pelvic fin very elon- and most colourful of all our ketea, it swims in a gate, slender, with one ray; dorsal fin very sea otherwise occupied by two dolphins, an octo- long, originating distinctly behind tip of snout, pus, and a friendly seal. It has no legs but big with 260-412 rays, the first few being elongate flipper-like gills and a flipper-like ear….’76 In his and bright red; eye small; no teeth; swim blad- discussion of sea monsters, Boardman distin- der absent; vertebrae 143-170. Regalecus glesne guishes two types - which gradually conflate - ‘a (oarfish or king-of-the-herring) has 40-58 gill doggy leonine’ one and another with a pointed rakers; Agrostichthys parkeri (streamer fish) has muzzle; the latter ‘has a very pointed muzzle, 8-10 gill rakers. This group is probably respon- more like a fish or shark than a snake’.77 The leo- sible for many sea-serpent stories. Maximum nine and pointed muzzle aspects of the creature length up to about 8 m, attained in R. glesne. on the Caeretan hydria are heightened by the Two monotypic genera, Regalecus and Agrost- added red nose, a feature more at home on crea- ichthys.’80 tures of the land rather than the sea. As frightening as this creature rendered by the A schematic rendering of the oarfish is illustrated Eagle Painter is, my contention is that this is no on figure 12. Oarfish are reputedly the longest of fabulous, mythical, or imagined sea monster - all fish and are often listed as the longest of the ketos - but a fairly accurate representation, in most bony fish. Although authoritative publications note details but one, of one of the largest fish inhabit- that they can grow to 8 m in length, they have been ing the Mediterranean: Regalecus glesne (Ascanius, documented to grow up to 11 m in total length, and 1772), commonly known in English as the oarfish. even larger specimens - up to 17 m - have been Oarfish belong to the order Lampriformes and reported, though such lengths remain unconfirmed the family Regalecidae. In describing the Lam- (for a comparison of a massive oarfish in relation pridiformes as a group, Peter Moyle and Joseph to the height of an average human being, see fig. Cech note that: ‘This order contains a bizarre mix- 13). Its distribution and range is considerable, ture of large, often brightly colored pelagic fishes. Most species apparently live at depths between 100 and 1000 m and so are rarely seen, despite broad, often worldwide, distribution patterns. Their diversity of form is indicated by the fact that seven families are recognized, but only 19 species. Most of these species lack many of the “typical” percomorph characteristics…..The mouth is highly protusible, because not only the pre-max- illa but also the maxilla can be pushed outward…. Most have an elongate dorsal fin. In body shape they range from extremely deep-bodied (Lampri- dae, Veliferidae) to extremely elongate (Lophoti- dae, Regalecidae).’78 In dealing specifically with the Regalecidae, Moyle and Cech state: ‘These fish are extremely attenuated, reaching lengths of 8 m; the anterior rays of the dorsal fin are modi- fied into a peculiar red “cockscomb” over the head, and the pelvic rays are modified into long fila- Fig. 12. Schematic drawing of an oarfish, ments. Their mouth and eyes are quite small, and Regalecus glesne.

79 Fig. 13. The oarfish, Regalecus glesne, showing details of the head and its comparison to the size of an average human. widely occurring in the Atlantic Ocean, including rhenian Sea, as well as coastal southern Spain.82 the Mediterranean, the Indo-Pacific, and the eastern The label ‘king-of-the-herring’ is something of Pacific Ocean from southern California to Chile.81 a nickname that appears to derive from the once- The smaller crested oarfish, Lophotus lacepede held belief that oarfish swam in front of herring (Giorna, 1809) - referred to as λφιψ5ρι in Mod- shoals, as if leading them.83 The name Regalecus ern Greek - was recently sighted in the north does derive from the Latin for royal, and glesne, Aegean, which adds to its recorded distribution after Glesnæ, a farm at Glesvær, near Bergen, Nor- throughout the Mediterranean, in southwest Tur- way, where the type-specimen was first taken.84 As key, the northern Adriatic (several sightings), early as 1898, David S. Jordan and Barton W. coastal Sicily and south Italy, the northern Tyr- Evermann, in their description of oarfish, noted:

80 Fig. 15. Oarfish (described as 12 foot long and weighing as much as 650lbs) caught by hand-line by Keith McRae (far left), Sydney harbor, June 1954.

of the world quickly reveal numerous similari- ties. I assemble three such stranded creatures in figure 14, all recently washed up on Los Angeles area beaches in southern California, and another oarfish, caught by hand-line by Keith McRae in Sydney harbor in June, 1954 (fig. 15). The points of similarity are many, not least the length of the creature in relation to the hero, seal, octopus, and dolphins, the distinctly red-coloured crest and dorsal fin, and the fact that Regalecus glesne, like the specimen on the Caeretan hydria, has no scales. As for the head, the characteristic protrud- ing, snout-like mouth of oarfish is not unlike the leonine or pointed muzzle that Boardman describes for the creature on the Caeretan hydria. The one feature of the mouth of the creature on the Caeretan hydria that is not shared by real oarfish are the teeth, and in this, the Eagle Painter may well have exercised a little artistic license. As for the eye of oarfish, Nelson describes it as small, whereas Maurice Burton and Robert Burton Fig. 14. Three different standings of oarfish on the describe it as large.88 The eye on the Caeretan southern California coast near Los Angeles. hydria oarfish is a little larger than the eyes of real Regalecus glesne, but the difference is not sig- ‘the great size, undulating motion and projecting nificant. Another detail of difference, though it is mane causing them to be taken for sea serpents.’85 hardly prominent, is that the Eagle Painter’s crea- In a similar vein, Moyle and Cech write: ‘Because ture has an articulated fish tail, albeit a very small oarfish are only rarely seen on the surface, the one for a creature of this magnitude, whereas the appearance of a “monster” oarfish in a coastal tails of oarfish taper toward a point. Despite these area is likely to arouse a considerable amount of differences, and the intentionally frightening aspect attention.’86 Oarfish were at one time considered of the creature, the Eagle Painter has managed to rare, but the species is now thought to be com- provide a more than passable representation of paratively common, although sightings of healthy Regalecus glesne, perhaps the only one we possess specimens remain unusual.87 in all of ancient art. Comparisons of the Eagle Painter’s creature with stranded or caught oarfish in various parts

81 CODA for the oarfish, the rarity of sightings of living spec- imens would argue against his (assuming the Eagle The all-encompassing character of the sea in Greek Painter is a male) viewing one of these fish alive in tradition has been well captured by Speros Vryonis, the sea. What is much more likely is that he saw, while the blatancy of the Mediterranean in deter- and was inspired by, a washed up creature, such as mining the trajectories of the cultures that bordered the three shown on figure 14, or one accidentally it has been ably discussed by Peregrine Horden and caught, like the 1954 example from Sydney harbor Nicholas Purcell, David Abulafia and, most recently, (fig. 15). Indeed, the fact that Keith McRae was able Cyprian Broodbank, building on the pioneering to catch such an oarfish using a simple hand-line work of Fernand Braudel.89 Natural historians like indicates that even average or moderately large Aristotle, and later Pliny, among others - the fore- examples of oarfish could be caught. bears of Carolus Linneaeus and Charles Darwin - Whichever way the Eagle Painter observed the enquired into the nature, habitats, and characteris- creatures he depicted he was an able illustrator, tics of a variety of creatures of the land and sea. As with a keen eye and able hand, a progenitor to nat- we have seen, Aristotle spared no detail in writing uralists and painters like John James (Jean-Jacques) about several of the species discussed above: the Audubon, whose illustrations remain to this day seal, octopus, and dolphin. Stories of large and fab- some of the finest renderings of animals ever under- ulous animals inhabiting the Mediterranean taken. By depicting a seemingly fabulous and ter- inspired a rich oral and literary tradition from rifying creature together with fairly accurate repre- Homer to Procopius and beyond, Ovid and Vergil, sentations of other creatures of the sea, the vase the Old Testament and the earlier Ugaritic mytho- painter who painted our hydria had a sense of logical texts.90 These stories were to develop into a humor, for rather than imagining a creature that rich iconographic tradition, extending from prehis- would give pause to a Herakles or Perseus or who- tory to Late Antiquity and into the modern era. But ever the hero illustrated is, he simply added teeth as Deborah Ruscillo and I have shown the literary to a toothless oarfish, making the scene even more and iconographic traditions of sea monsters in the terrifying by rendering a creation after nature, albeit Greek world and the Mediterranean ‘were not with a some artistic license. As Emily Vermeule totally human creations that inhabited an imagi- noted so well, the power of the sea to swallow and nary realm: they were very much the product of a conceal a human completely and the numerous fascination with living creatures of the sea.’91 Sev- flesh-eating creatures under the surface - stealthy eral of the mammals, like the dolphin, and cepha- and voiceless hunters, like the creature on our pot lopods inhabiting the Mediterranean were a main- - made the sea a focus for poetic death in Greek stay of Aegean prehistoric art, appearing on palace tradition.93 If Hemelrijk’s biography of the Eagle walls and even gracing the surfaces of Late Minoan Painter - as an Ionian from Phokaia (‘Seal-town’) IB Marine Style pottery. In a number of recent who traveled to Etruria by sea, perhaps via Egypt papers, Ina Berg has quibbled that the analysis of - has any truth to it, then the vase painter was no some of this imagery demonstrates that, if painters stranger to the power of the sea and the many crea- had any true knowledge of the species, they chose tures that inhabit it. As a natural historian of sorts, not to show it, despite the fact that, as she states: what the Eagle Painter provides us with is arguably ‘….the painted octopus bears some resemblance to the earliest representation of Regalecus glesne we the wild creature,” and “the patterning of shells is possess. depicted with some accuracy.’92 Berg, however, cogently distinguishes between inhabitants of the NOTES sea, such as shells that are washed up, as opposed to the living creatures in their habitats. 1 For remarkably accurate representations of creatures of To what extant the Eagle Painter’s knowledge of the sea, see the mosaic from , Reg. VIII.2.16. now in the Museo Archeologico in Naples, conveni- sea creatures was based on his observation of living ently illustrated in Pevnick 2014, 94, 103, fig. 61; also species or hapless animals washed ashore, we may Kunisch 1989, 138, fig. 23. I am grateful to a number of never be certain. But, on the basis of his illustra- friends and colleagues for assistance with various tions, not least of the seal, octopus, and dolphins on aspects of this paper, especially Rupert Burgess, Doug- our vase, together with the crab on the Caeretan las McCathy, Myles Chykerda, Seth Pevnick, David hydria now in Malibu, a strong case may be put Saunders, Stelios Vasilakis, Thomas Wake, and the two anonymous BABESCH referees. My thanks, too, to Lily forward that he did witness these animals as living Schaafsma for all her work on the manuscript. creatures; I also suspect that he may well have 2 The vessel has been published on numerous occasions; enjoyed numerous meals of octopus and crab! As see, among others, Isler 1982, 24-27; Isler 1983, 19-23,

82 figs 1-9; Hemelrijk 1984, 45-46, no 29, pls 13, 17, 103- 29 Reeves et al. 2002, 151. 105, 133d, 138c, 154d; Boardman 1987, 80, pl. XXIV, 14; 30 Reeves et al. 2002, 150-151. Kunisch 1989, 66, fig. 10; Marangou 1995, 124-333; 31 Reeves et al. 2002, 53. Boardman 1997, 732, no 26; Papadopoulos/Ruscillo 32 Translated A.T. Murray. 2002, 217-218, fig. 28, with note 160; Hemelrijk 2009, 33 Reeves et al. 2002, 151. 54-56, pls 10c-d; 11-13. Now in the Stavros S. Niarchos 34 Translated A.T. Murray. Collection, the pot sold for an unprecedented price of 35 Translated J. Henderson. £2,000,000 in 1993, at the time the largest sum ever paid 36 For which see Reeves et al. 2002, 131-133; farther east, for a Greek vase. in Siberia, the world’s smallest true seal, the Baikal Seal 3 Boardman 1987, 80: ‘This is surely Herakles;’ else- (Pusa sibirica), inhabits Lake Baikal (see Reeves et al. where, Boardman (1989, 191), repeats that the figure 2002, 134-137). should be Herakles, and brings into the discussion 37 Translated A.L. Peck. This is the manner in which mod- Herakles’ cleansing of the seas of monsters, alluded to ern fur seals were, until fairly recently, killed in the in Pindar (Nemean 3.20-26 and Isthmian 4.73-79). As Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere. Boardman (1989, 191) notes: ‘in establishing the Pillars 38 Head 1892 [1981], xxi; the coin was first illustrated in of Herakles at the Straits of Gibraltar the hero cleared Head 1875, pl. X, no 6; and is conveniently illustrated in the seas of inimical monsters.’ For the anonymous Kraay/Hirmer 1966, 178, no 593, and in Kraay 1976, pl. hero, see Boardman 1998, 221-2; for the absence of Hes- 70. There are specimens of other extant early coin types ione or Andromeda, see Boardman 1997, 732. of Phokaia, for which see Bodenstedt 1976, 1981. For the 4 In 1995 the Niarchos Collection was on display at the main series of Phokaian coinage depicting the personified N.P. Goulandris Museum of Cycladic Art in Athens; bust of Phokaia, see Langlotz 1975, pl. 2, nos 14-16, pl. 3, see Marangou 1995. nos 1-12, pl. 4, nos 1-3. For the later coinage of Phokaia, 5 Hemelrijk 1984, 142; Hemelrijk 2009, 55-56. depicting the personified Phokaia standing with another 6 Hemelrijk 1984, 142, 215, notes 288-9; Hemelrijk 2009, goddess, see Vollkommer 1994, 395-396. 55-56; see further Marangou 1995, 130-1; the association 39 Kraay/Hirmer 1966, 355, pl. 178, no 593. of the phoke to Phokaia goes back to Isler 1983, 46. 40 E.g., Bodenstedt 1981, pl. 1, no 1 (Ph 1.3); pl. 42, various 7 Boardman 1989, 191. examples. For the silver series, see further van Alfen/ 8 For an account of kete and especially whales in Greek Bransbourg 2013, 10-11, with fig. 12. For the electrum tradition, see Papadopoulos/Ruscillo 2002. series, see Weidauer 1975, 38-9, pl. 21, nos 188-189 9 Hemelrijk 2009, 55. (both with a seal swimming toward the right). One of 10 Isler 1982, 1983; Hemelrijk/Lubsen-Admiraal 1977-1978, the most magnificent examples that has surfaced recently, 12 (under the sub-heading ‘Comment’); Marangou 1995, is a seal with an octopus in its mouth on an electrum coin 124-133. recently displayed in the Jerusalem Museum, see Konuk 11 Isler 1982, 24-33 lists the three vessels together as coming et al. 2012, 39-41 (with Φ superimposed on the narrow from the same tomb group; see further Isler 1983, 17; see end of the seal, before the flippers). also Marangou 1995, 124. 41 Cf. Hemelrijk 1984, 46. 12 Marangou 1995, 124. 42 Roper et al. 1984, 4, fig. 1. 13 See Hemelrijk 1984, 45-6, 94-5, 99-101, 110-112, 114; see 43 The various components of any octopus are the arms, also Isler 1983, 19-23; Marangou 1995, 124-33. the head (i.e., what is immediately above the arms and 14 Isler 1982, 24; Hemelrijk 1984, 46. in the area surrounding the eyes), and the mantle, the 15 Hemelrijk 1984, 174. rounded bag-like body above the head proper, see 16 Marangou 1995, 127. Roper et al. 1984, 7, fig. 3; for the body parts of cepha- 17 Hemelrijk/Lubsen-Admiraal 1977-1978, 6, 20, fig. 15 lopods and their terminology, see Norman 2000, 14-15. for a detail of the crab; the Caeretan hydria formerly in 44 Roper et al. 1984, 197, 204, 211-212, 215, 217-218, 220. the Seilern Collection in London, is now in the J. Paul 45 Roper et al. 1984, 211-212. Getty Museum in Malibu (inv. 83.AE.346); see, most 46 For a good representation of what must be an Octopus recently, de Puma 2000, 25-9, pls 494-8. vulgaris, or Octopus macropus, on a Paestan red-figure 18 This type of spear is discussed by Hemelrijk (1984, 183), , see Kunisch 1989, pl. XII. with Etruscan and other examples cited. 47 Roper et al. 1984, 197. 19 For the Knee Painter, see Hemelrijk 1956; the painter was 48 Roper et al. 1984, 197. renamed in Hemelrijk/Lubsen-Admiraal 1977-1978, 1. 49 The arms and mantle of the Octopus macropus and Octopus 20 Boardman 1998, 221. vulgaris are stouter and larger, not to mention that both 21 Hemelrijk 1984, 157-159; 2009, 63-69. are spotted. The form of the remainder is too different to 22 Webster 1928, 205. that of the octopus on the hydria for direct comparison. 23 Hemelrijk 2009, 1. 50 Puschmann 1963 [1879], 251 (7.1). 24 Hemelrijk 1984, 1; Jeffery 1990, 339; Devambez (1946, 60), 51 Among many such representations, I illustrate only tentatively ascribed the letters to an Ephesian potter, but one, a fragmentary red-figure Type B cup attributed to as Jeffery (1990, 339) notes, this is uncertain. Epiktetos by Beazley (ARV2, 1624.24 bis) and dated 510- 25 Hemelrijk 1984, 160; 2009, 76. 500 BC; the fragments are fully published in Moore 26 Reeves et al. 2002, 49, 53, where it is also stated (49): 1998, 13-14, pl. 397: 2, 4-6 (especially 4). ‘Although formerly classified in their own separate 52 See especially Reeves et al. 2002, 390, which illustrates order, the Pinnipedia, the consensus now is to consider Short-beaked Common Dolphins bow riding. pinnipeds as belonging to three closely related families 53 Reeves et al. 2002, 326. within the order Carnivoria: Otariidae (the “eared” seals), 54 Reeves et al. 2002, 326. Odobenidae (the Walrus), and Phocidae (the “true” seals), 55 Reeves et al. 2002, 326. with a total of more than 30 species.’ 56 Illustrated together and to scale in Reeves et al. 2002, 27 Reeves et al. 2002, 56-57, 150-153. 330-331. 28 Reeves et al. 2002, 150-151. 57 For the former, see Reeves et al. 2002, 358-361; for the lat-

83 ter 388-389. The Common Bottlenose Dolphin, as Reeves BIBLIOGRAPHY et al. 2002, 358, state, ‘is the archetypal dolphin, well known to the ancient Greeks and Romans because of its com- mon nearshore presence throughout the Mediterranean Abulafia, D. 2011, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Sea. Today it has achieved world-wide exposure as the Mediterranean, New York/Oxford. star of the television series (and later film) Flipper and Berg, I. 2011, Towards a Conceptualisation of the Sea: Arte- as the main attraction in many oceanariums [sic].’ facts, Iconography and Meaning, in G. Vavouranakis 58 What characterizes the Common Bottlenose Dolphin is (ed.), The Seascape in Aegean Prehistory, Interprative a robust body with short to medium-length beak and Approaches to the Archaeological Remains of Human a coloration that is basically gray and muted. In contrast, Agency, Athens, 119-38. the Short-beaked Common Dolphin has a more pro- Berg, I. 2013, Marine Creatures and the Sea in Bronze Age nounced beak, a dark dorsal area, with a light gray or Greece: Ambiguities of Meaning, Journal of Maritime yellowish patch on the sides forward of the dorsal fin, Archaeology 8, 1-27 (DOI 10.1007s11457-012-9105-x). and light gray (off-white) flanks and caudal peduncle. Boardman, J. 1987, ‘Very Like a Whale’- Classical Sea 59 Reeves et al. 2002, 359, 389. Monsters, in A.E. Farkas/P.O. Harper/E.B. Harrison 60 For which see Reeves et al. 2002, 380-83. (eds), Monsters and Demons in the Ancient and Medieval 61 For these species, see Reeves et al. 2002, 374-379, 392-394. Worlds: Papers Presented in Honor of Edith Porada, Mainz 62 My description is based on Reeves et al. 2002, 388. am Rhein, 73-84. 63 Reeves et al. 2002, 389-390. Boardman, J. 1989, Herakles at Sea, in H.-U. Cain/H. 64 Reeves et al. 2002, 380. Gabelmann/D. Salzmann (eds), Festschrift für Nikolaus 65 Reeves et al. 2002, 380-381. Himmelmann, Mainz am Rhein, 191-195. 66 Reeves et al. 2002, 381. Boardman, J. 1997, Ketos, in LIMC 8, 731-738. 67 Compare and contrast, for example, the photographs Boardman, J. 1998, Early Greek Vase Painting, London. of the Common Bottlenose Dolphin (Reeves et al. 2002, Bodenstedt, F. 1976. Phokäisches Elektron-Geld von 600-326 360), with those of the Striped Dolphin (382-383), and v. Chr.: Studien zur Bedeutung und zu den Wandlungen the Short-beaked Common Dolphin (390-391). einer antiken Goldwährung, Mainz am Rhein. 68 Iliad 21.22-26. Translated A.T. Murray, revised by W.F. Bodenstedt, F. 1981, Die Elektronmünzen von Phokaia und Wyatt. Mytilene, Tübingen. 69 Translated A.T. Murray, revised by G.E. Dimock. Braudel, F. 1949. La Méditerranée et le monde Méditerranéen 70 Translated J.M. Edmonds. à l’epoque de Philippe II, Paris. 71 Translated Sir John Sandys. Broodbank, C. 2013, The Making of the Middle Sea: A History 72 Translated A.D. Godley. of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Emergence 73 Oppian, Halieutica 1.646-652, translated A.W. Mair. of the Classical World, Oxford. 74 Among many other references, see Czernohaus 1988; Burton, M./R. Burton. 2002, Oarfish, in M. Burton/R. Bur- Kunisch 1989, 25, fig. 6; 64-65, figs 7-9. ton (eds), International Wildlife Encyclopedia, 3New York, 75 Marangou 1995, 126. 1767-1768. 76 Boardman 1987, 80. Czernohaus, K. 1988, Delphindarstellungen von der minoi- 77 Boardman 1987, 79. Adrienne Mayor (2000, 157-162, schen bis zur geometrischen Zeit, Göteborg. with figs 4.1-4.2) cogently suggests that one of the ear- de Puma, R. 2000, Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum, U.S.A., liest representations of the ’Monster of Troy’, with Her- Fasc. 34, the J. Paul Getty Museum, Fasc. 9: Etruscan akles and Hesione, on a Corinthian of ca 550 BC Painted Pottery, Los Angeles. and now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (63.420 = Devambez, P. 1946, Deux nouvelles hydries de Caeré au Boardman 1987, 79, pl. 24, fig. 10) is not a poorly-drawn Louvre, MontPiot 41, 29-62. sea monster, but a monstrous animal fossil skull poking Head, B. V. 1875, Metrological Notes on the Ancient Elec- out of a cliff-side. Mayor goes on to compare the Corin- trum Coins Struck Between the Lelantian Wars and the thian representation with the fossil skull of, among other Accession of Darius, NC 15 (n.s.), 245-297. paleontological curiosities, Samotherium, a giant Miocene Head, B.V. 1892 [1981], A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the giraffe found on Samos (see Mayor 2000, 161, fig. 4.3). : Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Ionia, London. 78 Moyle/Cech 1996, 301. Hemelrijk, J.M. 1956, De Caeretaanse Hydriae, PhD thesis, 79 Moyle/Cech 1996, 301, with reference to Pietsch 1978. 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Isler, H.P. 1983, Drei neue Gefässe aus der Werkstatt der 90 Papadopoulos/Ruscillo 2002, 223. Caeretaner Hydrien, JdI 98, 15-56. 91 Papadopoulos/Ruscillo 2002, 223. Jeffery, L.H. 1990, The Local Scripts of Archaic Greece: A 92 Berg 2013, 13; Berg 2011. Study of the Origin of the Greek Alphabet and its Develop- 93 Vermeule 1979, 179-209, esp. 184-185; see further Papa- ment from the Eighth to the Fifth Centuries B.C., revised dopoulos/Ruscillo 2002, 215-216. ed. with a Supplement by A.W. Johnston, Oxford.

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