Kannen koko: 173 x 246, selkä 24 mm Over the current decade, it has become commonplace to consider women intrinsically less prone to corruption than men, and design development interventions and poverty reduction strategies accordingly. This study analyses the linkages between corruption and poverty, and summarizes the relevant debate on gender and corruption. It is based on academic literature and relevant public documents, supplemented with interviews and first-hand observations in both urban and rural areas in Nicaragua and Tanzania. The study supports the hypothesis that corruption and non-delivery of services have gender-specific poverty consequences. Corruption can be seen as a mechanism that produces and perpetuates social and economic inequality; it constitutes a regressive redistribution of resources from the poor to the non-poor. In the case of basic public services such as healthcare and primary education, the impact of corruption is felt disproportionately by women and the poor, who are most dependent on public Gender and Poverty Corruption, services. Corruption is a serious symptom of the lack of a closed network of social capital on the national level. The problem of the formation of negative, bonding social capital in the practice of corruption is an important element that has so far been neglected in anticorruption strategies. There is a gendered opportunity structure to be able to use corrupt practice for one’s own benefit, and corruption can also be seen as a social activity field where gender roles are performed and gender role expectations fulfilled. While bringing more women into politics and public office is important for advancing gender and social equity concerns, what matters is not the simple access of women to power, but the means of their access and the nature of the institutions in which they function. Development Policy Information Unit Street address: Kanavakatu 4 a, 00160 Helsinki Postal address: Box 176, 00161 Helsinki Maaria Seppänen and Pekka Virtanen Telephone: + 358 9 1605 6370 Telefax: + 358 9 1605 6375 Exchange: + 358 9 16005 E-mail: keoinfo@formin.Þ Corruption, Internet: http://formin.Þnland.Þ/developmentpolicy Poverty and Gender With case studies of Nicaragua and Tanzania Maaria Seppänen and Pekka Virtanen Corruption, Poverty and Gender With Case Studies of Nicaragua and Tanzania MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AffaIRS The ideas, opinions and conclusions expressed in this report are those of the authors only, and do not necessarily represent the views of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. Erweko Painotuote Oy, 2008 ISBN 978-951-724-666-8 Contents Foreword .........................................................................................6 Executive Summary .......................................................................8 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ..........................................11 Corruption, Poverty and Gender With Case Studies of Nicaragua and Tanzania 1. Introduction ...............................................................................13 1.1 Objectives of the study .............................................................................. 13 1.2 Methods and framework .......................................................................... 13 2. Theoretical Insights into Corruption ......................................15 2.1 Definitions and types of corruption ........................................................... 15 2.2 Corruption and social capital ................................................................... 16 2.3 Corruption as an open network ................................................................. 19 2.4 Corruption and poverty ........................................................................... 20 2.5 Corruption and gender ............................................................................. 21 3. Corruption in the Nicaraguan and Tanzanian Contexts .......25 3.1 Development of corruption in Nicaragua ................................................... 25 3.2 Development of corruption in Tanzania .................................................... 26 3.3 Decentralisation and accountability ......................................................... 27 3.4 Corruption in service delivery and the consequences for poverty ................... 29 4. Government Strategies and Donor Support ..........................33 4.1 Government strategies in Nicaragua ......................................................... 33 4.2 Government strategies in Tanzania ........................................................... 35 4.3 Donor support to good governance ............................................................. 36 5. Conclusion and Recommendations .......................................39 5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................. 39 5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................... 41 6. References ................................................................................46 Corruption, Poverty and Gender: The Case of Nicaragua 1. Introduction ...............................................................................52 2. Poverty and Inequality in Nicaragua .......................................54 2.1 Development policy and the economy......................................................... 54 2.2 Human development ................................................................................ 56 2.3 Inequality ................................................................................................ 58 3. Gender Profile ...........................................................................60 3.1 Women in Nicaraguan society ................................................................... 60 3.2 Gender as a legal and policy issue .............................................................. 62 3.3 Women in public life ................................................................................ 64 4. Corruption Profile .....................................................................66 4.1 Perception of corruption in Nicaragua ....................................................... 66 4.2 Characterisation of corruption .................................................................. 67 5. Anti-corruption Strategies .......................................................70 5.1 Anti-corruption and governance actions at the levelof the State ................... 70 5.2 Donor support to anti-corruption strategies ................................................ 72 6. Sectors under Study ................................................................76 6.1 Nicaraguan healthcare system ................................................................... 76 6.2 Municipal government ............................................................................. 79 7. Corruption in Public Healthcare and Local Government in Nicaragua .............................................82 7.1 Description of corrupt practices by category ................................................ 82 7.2 Impact of corruption on poverty ................................................................ 89 7.3 Gender and corruption ............................................................................. 93 8. Conclusions and Recommendations .....................................96 8.1 Limitations to the anti-corruption strategy ................................................. 96 8.2 Recommendations for Finnish support ....................................................... 98 9. References ..............................................................................101 Corruption, Poverty and Gender: The Case of Tanzania 1. Introduction .............................................................................110 2. Poverty Profile ........................................................................111 2.1 Development policy and the economy....................................................... 111 2.2 Human development .............................................................................. 113 3. Gender Profile .........................................................................116 3.1 Women in Tanzanian society................................................................... 116 3.2 Gender as a legal and policy issue ........................................................... 117 3.3 Women in politics .................................................................................. 120 4. Corruption Profile ...................................................................122 4.1 Corruption in Tanzania ........................................................................ 122 4.2 Corruption as accountability failure ........................................................ 124 4.3 Corruption in service delivery ................................................................. 127 5. Anti-Corruption Strategies ....................................................129 5.1 Government anti-corruption strategies in Tanzania .................................. 129 5.2 Donor support to anti-corruption strategies .............................................. 130 6. Corruption in Primary Education Services ..........................133 6.1 The education system in Tanzania ........................................................... 133 6.2 Gender equality in the education sector ................................................... 135 6.3 Corruption in the education