International Journal of Management and Applied Science, ISSN: 2394-7926 Volume-2, Issue-10, Special Issue-1, Oct.-2016 IS MODERN TURKISH IDENTITY COMPATIBLE WITH EUROPEAN IDENTITY
YASIN KEREM GUMUS
The Faculty of Management, Sakarya/Türkiye E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract- The paper asks the question whether social background of Turkish identity allow Turkish to be Europeanized in a short term. The paper will be based on a pessimistic hypothesis as to the research problem: Modern Turkish identity, be constituted mainly by Islamic and national notions is now incompatible with European identity. For this purpose, the paper will reflect two suppositions. First, the differences between Turkish and European identities are important especially in terms of “othering”. The second, Turkey has different political and cultural identities assume different attitudes against the European Union integration process of Turkey.
Keywords- Turkish Identity, European Identity, Othering, Islam, the EU
I. INTRODUCTION four different identities: Islamist, Nationalist, Westernised and Kemalist. Turkey’s possible membership of the EU is now Islamist identity is the most dominant of the four. being hotly debated. The political and economic This is no surprise when you take into account that criteria have been met, but the question of wider 99% of the Turkish population is Muslim. But the compatibility, i.e. the ‘other’ factor, remains. Turkey perception of Islam in Turkey has a different is now trying to persuade Europe that it is no longer a characteristic to that of Islam in the Arab world, for threat to them. This struggle dates from the 19th two reasons. Firstly, the interpretation of Islam in century, when Turkey embarked upon a Turkey goes back to the time of the Ottomans and ‘westernisation process’, the aim of which was to Seljuks, where Turks believed in the cultural catch up with Europe both economically and elements of Shamanism, prior to their conversion to politically (İnaç, 2004; 34). But more is needed. Islam. Secondly, the Ottomans were subject to Supporters of European integration believe that significant immigration from different parts of the Turkey needs to internalise western political cultures region, such as Rumelia, the Caucasus, Iraq, Syria and social values. They argue that this would be a and Crimea between 1832 and 1914. This caused a way to develop good cross-cultural relations, between rise in the population of Anatolia by 42% and the West and the East, Islam and Christianity. triggered a cultural change that increased the number Detractors argue that Turkey and Europe are of interpretations of Islam and Islamic identity, for incompatible from a cultural, religious and historical example Shiite Muslims, Alawites, Turkmen, standpoint (Daǧi, 2000). The aim of this paper is to Circassians, Kurds, etc. This identity was largely consider both arguments and see if the modernists in based on religion and is likely to be associated with Turkey will be successful in helping their compatriots anti-secularism. to interiorise the EU and its identity. Kemalist ideology can be described as an alternative to Islamic identity. It came on the scene after the 1. What is the ‘Other’ Turkish Republic was founded in 1923 and was led The concept of the ‘other’ can be examined from four by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of Modern perspectives: (1) how Turks identify themselves; (2) Turkey. This identity is mainly associated with how Turks see Europeans; (3) how Europeans see patriotism, secularism and the rejection of Ottoman Turks; and finally (4) how Europeans identify identity. themselves (Bulaç, 2001). This paper intends to focus Nationalist identity emerged after World War II on the first of these two perspectives. (Hortaçsu and Cem-Ersoy, 2005:109), and was started by the political elite. Its main emphasis is on How Turks Identify Themselves military supremacy, ancient morals and Shamanic Turkey’s modernisation process has resulted in socio- Turkish culture, but still within an Islamic context. political divisions, impacting on how Turks now The fourth and final identity is Westernised identity. identify themselves. In their studies, Hortaçsu and Thanks to modernisation and globalisation, ‘Western’ Cem-Ersoy (2005) looked at Turkish university or ‘Citizen of the World’ identity emerged among students’ values, identities and opinions of the social educated and urbanised families (Hortaçsu and Cem- structures of the European Union. These showed that Ersoy, 2005). It is associated with secularism and youth identities in Turkey have strong bonds with the acceptance of the European Union. values of ethnocentrism, nationalism and secularism. There is a strong bond between political parties and Hortaçsu and Cem-Ersoy (2005) claim this indicates these identities. For instance, the Republican People’s
Is Modern Turkish Identity Compatible With European Identity
94 International Journal of Management and Applied Science, ISSN: 2394-7926 Volume-2, Issue-10, Special Issue-1, Oct.-2016 Party (CHP), which was the first party established by European Union insists on opening the ports to South the founders of the Republic to spread the revolution, Cyprus what should Turkey do” (USAK, 2006, p.27), identify themselves as ‘Kemalists’ or ‘Leftists’. The 70% of the participants supported Turkey stopping Justice and Development Party (AKP), founded in negotiations with the European Union. 2002 and holding most of the seats in the National These studies show that the number of supporters of Assembly, is associated with Islamic identity, despite Turkey becoming a member of the European Union is their claims of being ‘Conservative Democrats’ (AKP decreasing. Party Programme, 2002). Nationalist identity is most closely represented by the Nationalist Action Party 2. How the Different Identities View (MHP), which was founded by veterans and has Europeanisation strong links with the soldiers that fought against As mentioned before, Turkey has different political Kurdish separatists in East and South East Anatolia. and cultural identities. It is normal for these identities They associate themselves with ancient morals and to show different attitudes towards the European Shamanic Turkish culture. It is hard to define Union integration process of Turkey. We will Westernised identity, other than by classifying consider the relationship between the current political political proponents as ‘Liberals’. parties and the various socio-cultural identity units.
How Turks see Europe The Leftist Identity’s Perception of the European The process of European Union membership will be Union affected not only by opinions from within the EU, but The Leftist identity is pessimistic about European also by the views of Turks themselves. However, Union membership, in matters relating to sovereignty unless Turks take active part in the process, it is and economic independence (Alpay, 1993). Some bound to fail. (Güvenç, 1995) leftist politicians believe that EU integration should This section provides some figures about public be rejected because of the EU imperialistic and supra- opinion on European membership. It is based on data national character. Moreover, the left’s discourse is from the International Strategic Research driven by supporting modernisation without Organisation (USAK), as well as on Sadiye Kocabaş westernisation and the decline of the western s’ work on Turkish university students’ perceptions economic model (Keyder, 1993). of the European Union and European identity. The criticism of European integration basically Kocabaş’s work considers the historical and cultural depends on the perception of western culture. For the background, as well as geographic factors. It Leftists, western culture is identified with capitalist, indicates that students from the Aegean (Western modernist and globalist ideas, resulting in Europeans region of Turkey) perceive their identity to be closer being perceived as arrogant and hegemonic over the to that of the Europeans, while students from Eastern rest of the West (İnaç, 2004). Anatolia and the Black Sea region, which are more Belge, a leftist intellectual, argues that EU conventional and conservative areas, have the highest membership is a “formal issue, which means nothing level of ‘othering’. Her study also clarifies cultural unless Turkey reaches the democratic maturity and negativity in the Turkish perception of Europeans. tolerance as a result of natural process” (Belge, 1989, For example 50.5% of those asked thought Turkey p.80). Hanioğlu agrees but goes further to stress the should not join the EU because they could not count difference in mentality and political culture between on Europeans. And 35.6% cited reasons of cultural the EU and Turkey. As such, he believes that the only background and religion as to why Turkey should not alternative is “to integrate into the European Union join the EU. 37.3% of respondents to Kocabaş’s by keeping our differences and the distinctive survey thought Turkey would not be accepted into the attributes of Turkish identity” (Hanioğlu, 1989, pp EU because it is a Muslim country, and 31.5% 52-53). thought that this was down to a different cultural background (Kocabaş, 2003). The Rightist Identity’s Perception of European Union Other studies conducted by USAK in 2004 and 2006, The Rightists associate joining the EU with the loss indicate that the number of supporters of the of national sovereignty and of identity. According to European Union decreased sharply from 75% in 2004 its founder, the Nationalist Act Party (MHP) is to 50% in 2006. The survey was carried out in six of opposed to the European Union membership because the biggest cities in Turkey (Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, it is considered to be “a Christian Club which will Bursa, Adana and Konya) and 1,100 people were ruin our national sovereignty and national values” questioned. 81% of the participants said “No” to the (Turkes, 1989, p.12). question “Do you think EU is sincere to Turkey”; Furthermore, the Rightists claim there are significant 54% of the participants didn’t think that Turkey will similarities between “the imperialistic demands of the be a member of European Union in the next 15-20 Western powers” in the efforts to divide the Ottoman years (USAK, 2006); and 38% of the participants Empire in the 19th century (Bulaç, 2001, p.104). They didn’t think that Turkey would ever become a view the European Union membership process as member of European Union. To the question “If the principally EU attempts to improve the social,
Is Modern Turkish Identity Compatible With European Identity
95 International Journal of Management and Applied Science, ISSN: 2394-7926 Volume-2, Issue-10, Special Issue-1, Oct.-2016 political and economic circumstances of the non- convince society of its merits. It is clear that such Muslim minority in Turkey, through forced efforts should be supported by strong policies and adherence to western systems such as the good cooperation between all sides. Without this, the Copenhagen Criteria similar to what occurred in prospect of the Turkish people interiorising the the westernisation of the Ottoman Empire two European Union and its identity is slim. centuries ago. REFERENCES The Islamist Identity’s Perception of the European Union [1]. Alpay, Ş. (1993)’Journalists: cautious Democrats. In Turkey Islamists oppose Turkey’s membership of the and the West-Changing Political and Cultural Identities’, ed. M. Heper and R. Oncu and H. Kramer, London and New European Union. They believe the EU intends to York. I.B. Tauris &Co Ltd. 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