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AMONG the First Literary Genres to Be Published In Rewriting the Captivity Narrative for Contemporary Children: Speare, Bruchac, and the French and Indian War sara l. schwebel MONG the first literary genres to be published in the A English New World, the captivity narrative holds a special place in the American canon. Its central themes— identity and belonging, civilization and savagery, “purity” and miscegenation—weave their way through the origin stories of the United States. Because questions of possession and nativity animate tales of both captivity and the nation’s birth, captivity narratives perform the cultural work of nation building particu- larly well. Who rightfully owns the land, they ask? Holds the key to “correct” living? Commands the moral high ground? It is to be expected, then, that captivity narratives proliferated during the early republic, gained new life as western adventure stories during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and continue to be produced and circulated in children’s literature today, even 1 as the United States embraces a multicultural ideal. Captivity narratives have continually evolved to meet the needs of readers. Although James Fenimore Cooper’s master work The Last of the Mohicans has lost favor among twentieth- and twenty-first-century Americans, in part because of its 1 Historical novels centered on captivity and its aftermath have long been popular in children’s literature. Well-known examples include French and Indian War stories— Lois Lenski’s Indian Captive: The Story of Mary Jemison (1941), Conrad Richter’s The Light in the Forest (1953), Sally M. Keehn’s IAmRegina(1991), and Scholastic’s Dear America title, Standing in the Light: The Captive Diary of Catherine Carey Logan (1998), and Deerfield stories—Mary P. Wells Smith, The Boy Captive of Deerfield (1904) and Caroline B. Cooney’s The Ransom of Mercy Carter (2001). A number of children’s books have also featured captivities in the nineteenth-century west. The New England Quarterly,vol.84,no.2 (June 2011). C 2011 by The New England Quarterly. All rights reserved. 318 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/TNEQ_a_00091 by guest on 03 October 2021 REWRITING THE CAPTIVITY NARRATIVE 319 long-winded, passive-voice prose style, children’s books bor- rowing from Cooper’s themes, transforming his characters, and offering decidedly new messages about gender, culture, and 2 race are still widely read. The endurance of such stories in children’s fiction is not surprising. From their inception, cap- tivity narratives have served a didactic purpose. The genre ap- peals to adults today for much the same reason it did in the past, because the books contain messages about staying true to parental and church teachings while at the same time clarify- ing those values traditionally deemed “American.” Another key to the genre’s success, however, is the fact that captivity nar- ratives fascinate young readers. Since at least the eighteenth century, children have found the stories’ awful violence and terrifying suspense titillating. For twentieth- and twenty-first- century readers, moreover, captivity narratives present resilient young protagonists who model competencies long lost but still 3 much desired. Finally, the genre’s malleability for address- ing issues of identity makes it attractive for authors seeking to engage questions about national character and “American”—or “American Indian”—identities. The novels of Elizabeth George Speare (1908–94) and Joseph Bruchac (1942–) are illustrative. Falling within a web of texts linked by a common cast of char- acters (Abenaki, British, and French), geographic setting (the Woodlands region stretching between the Connecticut and St. Lawrence Rivers), and historical backdrop (the French and Indian War, 1754–63), Speare’s Calico Captive (1957)and Bruchac’s The Winter People (2002) rethink and recast their 2 See, e.g., Richter’s The Light in the Forest (1953), which echoes Cooper’s argu- ment that blood determines destiny, meaning that a white man can never become an Indian, even through adoption, and Elizabeth George Speare’s The Sign of the Beaver (1983), in which a thieving white trapper appears as a foil to friendly In- dians. For a more extensive discussion of this topic, see my Child-Sized History: Fictions of the Past in U.S. Classrooms (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, in press). 3 On the history of captivity narratives’ appeal to—and marketing toward—the young, see Alexander Medlicott Jr., “‘For the Instruction of the Young’: The Deer- field Captivity Narratives,” Children’s Literature 12 (1984): 25–46; Paul Neubauer, “Indian Captivity in American Children’s Literature: A Pre–Civil War Set of Stereo- types,” Lion and the Unicorn 25.1 (2001): 70–80; and Lorrayne Carroll, Novel Guides: Captivity Narratives (Detroit: Thomas Gale, 2006). Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/TNEQ_a_00091 by guest on 03 October 2021 320 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY literary models to ask new and interesting questions about na- tionhood, heroism, and personal choice. The Eighteenth-Century Captivity Narrative as Source Text The historical taking of Anglo-American captives to the mis- sion town of St. Francis (in modern-day Quebec) and the retaliatory burning of that Indian village in 1759 serves as the point of departure for both Elizabeth George Speare’s and Joseph Bruchac’s novels. The 1796 account attributed to Susanna Johnson, A Narrative of the Captivity of Mrs. Johnson, containing an account of her sufferings, during four years, with the Indians and French, structures Speare’s narra- tive and informs Bruchac’s revisionist interpretation. Kenneth Roberts’s Northwest Passage (1936), a bestselling novel and later Hollywood film based on the same historical event, serves as an additional model, particularly for Bruchac, who incor- porates (and revises) plot details of Roberts’s novel in much the same way that Speare incorporates (and rarely revises) plot 4 details of Johnson’s. Like Roberts, Bruchac places the conflict between Anglo and Indian at the center of his tale. But whereas Roberts’s novel, a blending of the adventure western and cap- tivity narrative, traces the making of an Anglo soldier, Bruchac’s traces the remaking of Native community in the midst of violent conflict and attempted genocide. North American captivity narratives—stories of white peo- ple taken captive by Indians—date to the seventeenth century. The earliest among them were shaped by the Puritan ministry, who sought to exploit white New Englanders’ fears of scalp- ing, torture, and forced captivity to address wider social issues. For leaders such as Increase and Cotton Mather, the threat of captivity helped draw congregants back from sprawling settle- ments whose distance from the disciplining arm of the church, 4 A Narrative of the Captivity of Mrs. Johnson, containing an account of her suf- ferings, during four years, with the Indians and French (1796; New York: n.p., 1841) is the work of multiple authors, but I use the shorthand “Johnson’s Narrative”in subsequent discussions for ease of reference. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/TNEQ_a_00091 by guest on 03 October 2021 REWRITING THE CAPTIVITY NARRATIVE 321 the pastors believed, put them in spiritual as well as physical danger. At the same time, ministers turned survivors’ tales of their experience in captivity to good effect as they both admon- ished parishioners for their lack of faith and comforted them that in providing such tests of endurance, God demonstrated 5 the community’s election as a body. In the eighteenth century, as agricultural settlements dispersed, captive taking intensified. Indian tribes, their populations devastated by warfare and disease, saw in the nearly ongoing warfare between the English and French opportunities to leverage power in European political al- liances. Captive taking enabled them both to replenish their numbers by assimilating Anglo settlers and to increase their 6 financial security by collecting bounties on those “redeemed.” In each succeeding European confrontation in North Amer- 7 ica, then, the number of captives multiplied. As political realities shifted, so did ministers’ interpretations of captiv- ity. Outlying settlements, which functioned as strategic mili- tary buffers, were essential to the preservation of the colony, so ministers began interpreting the trials of captivity not as 5 There is a vast literature on both the historical experience of colonial cap- tivity and the literary form of captivity narratives. See, e.g., Tara Fitzpatrick, “The Figure of Captivity: The Cultural Work of the Puritan Captivity Narrative,” American Literary History 3.1 (1991): 1–26; Kathryn Zabelle Derounian-Stodola, “The Indian Captivity Narratives of Mary Rowlandson and Olive Oatman: Case Studies in the Continuity, Evolution, and Exploitation of Literary Discourse,” Studies in Literary Imagination 27.1 (1994): 33–46; John Demos, The Unre- deemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America (New York: Vintage Books, 1994); Gordon M. Sayre, Les Sauvages Americains:´ Representations of Native Americans in French and English Colonial Literature (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); and Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Vintage Books, 1998). 6 On scalp bounties, see James Axtell and William C. Sturtevant, “The Unkindest Cut, or Who Invented Scalping,” William and Mary Quarterly 37.3 (1980): 451–72. On the French market for British captives, see Stephen
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