COMICS FOR GIRLS? A STUDY OF SH ŌJO AND AMERICAN GIRLHOOD CULTURE A Thesis by SARAH KORNFIELD Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS May 2009 Major Subject: Communication COMICS FOR GIRLS? A STUDY OF SH ŌJO AND AMERICAN GIRLHOOD CULTURE A Thesis by SARAH KORNFIELD Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Approved by: Chair of Committee, Srividya Ramasubramanian Committee Members, Leroy Dorsey Anne Morey Head of Department, Richard Street May 2009 Major Subject: Communication iii ABSTRACT Comics for Girls? A Study of Sh ōjo and American Girlhood Culture. (May 2009) Sarah Kornfield, B.A. Wheaton College Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Srividya Ramasubramanian American entertainment often presents heroines who still conform to the confining stereotypes of passivity, docility, sexual objectification, and ultimate dependence on the hero, offering patriarchal narratives in popular culture. This thesis investigates American girlhood entertainment – a subset of popular culture – in comparison to the newly popular genre of Japanese comics, sh ōjo manga , which also targets a girl audience. By focusing on gender issues – power distribution, agency, and gender roles – and utilizing a mixed methodology of rhetorical and quantitative analysis, my research explores the rhetorical devices and narrative structures that empower or constrain heroines, structure power distributions, and assign gender roles. To better understand sh ōjo’s recent popularity among teenage girls, this research provides 1) a close critical analysis of sh ōjo texts to examine the messages and rhetorical devices featured in these narratives, and 2) an analysis of audience reception through a participant survey and an analysis of audience-generated message boards. This research participates in Girlhood Studies, Intercultural Studies, and Narrative Criticism as I analyze narratives that target an American girl audience and enact entertainment iv globalization. My analysis suggests that sh ōjo develops from feminist motives, encourages a pro-feminist reality, and successfully markets itself to an audience of American girls, who form parasocial relationships and wishfully identify with the heroines because of their empowered characteristics and the portrayal of equality within romantic relationships. v DEDICATION For Leaf – and those like her – courageous, individualized, selfless and whimsical in the face of darkness, judgment, and misunderstanding. For my heroines, real and otherwise, who make sense of this world. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply grateful to my committee chair, Dr. Srividya Ramasubramanian whose patience, careful consideration, and thoughtful guidance supported and directed this research. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Leroy Dorsey and Dr. Anne Morey for their insight and guidance. I also need to thank Brad, my friend and colleague, who rescued me when the numbers and databases turned against me. And Kristin, who let me think aloud and offered intelligent considerations accompanied with a cup of coffee. Finally, I offer my thanks to the A-kon administrators, Laura and Meri, who kindly opened their listserves to my research, facilitating the audience survey portion of this thesis. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................... xi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS SH ŌJO?.............................................. 1 Sh ōjo Manga: An Overview........................................................... 2 Focus of Present Study............................................................. 2 Sh ōjo in Connection to Girlhood Theories .............................. 4 Sh ōjo in Connection to Intercultural Theories ......................... 4 Sh ōjo Manga’s Historical and Cultural Context ............................ 5 Manga Genres and Gender Role Stereotypes........................... 8 Justification for Text Selection...................................................... 10 Organization and Scope of Thesis Project..................................... 12 II AMERICAN GIRLHOOD ENTERTAINMENT................................ 16 Common Girlhood Entertainment Themes.................................... 16 Exploration of Sexuality and Dating........................................ 17 Patriarchal Hierarchies............................................................. 21 Inscribed Femininity – Body Sculpting................................... 23 Girl Power: Mean Girls............................................................ 25 Consumerism: Fandom & Girlhood......................................... 28 American Mainstream Entertainment and Shōjo Manga......... 30 Fantasy Girlhood Entertainment.................................................... 31 Buffy the Vampire Slayer .......................................................... 35 Kim Possible ............................................................................. 43 Twilight ..................................................................................... 49 viii CHAPTER Page Fantasy Texts as Feminist(?).................................................... 55 Research Questions........................................................................ 58 III METHODOLOGY............................................................................... 60 Feminism: Power and Agency....................................................... 60 Feminism: Gender Performance..................................................... 61 Narrative Criticism......................................................................... 62 Comics as Narrative ................................................................. 63 Archetypes and Narratives....................................................... 65 Audience Reception of Feminist Texts.......................................... 66 Wishful Identification .............................................................. 67 Parasocial Relationships........................................................... 69 Audience Survey...................................................................... 71 Audience-Generated Message Boards ..................................... 76 IV SH ŌJO’S MASTER NARRATIVE..................................................... 78 Overview of Texts.......................................................................... 80 Portrait of the Pro-Social Heroine.................................................. 82 Pro-sociality ............................................................................. 82 The Every-Girl Heroine............................................................ 86 Range of Control...................................................................... 88 Heroine’s Tragic Past............................................................... 90 Bi-Gendered Heroines.............................................................. 91 Cross-Cultural Archetypes....................................................... 92 Feminist Narrative Structure.......................................................... 93 Power Distribution ................................................................... 94 Love-Triangles: Agency in Action........................................... 98 Autonomy and Absent Parents................................................. 98 Equitable Love ......................................................................... 101 Limitations and Areas for Improvement........................................ 102 Sexually Objectified Men......................................................... 102 Femme Fatales and Kawaii Heroines....................................... 103 Stereotypical Strengths............................................................. 103 A Feminist Master Narrative.......................................................... 104 V GENDER BENDERS AND AMERICAN GIRLHOOD..................... 106 Contextualizing Gender Benders.................................................... 107 Gender Bending and the Japanese............................................ 109 Gender Bending in Western Literary Consciousness............... 110 ix CHAPTER Page Brief Summary of Texts................................................................ 114 Analysis of Gender Benders........................................................... 115 Recurring Features within Gender Benders............................. 117 Significant Differences within Gender Benders....................... 128 Conclusion and Discussion ............................................................ 138 VI SH ŌJO AUDIENCE ANALYSIS ....................................................... 142 Sh ōjo Survey Results ..................................................................... 142