Progressive Jazz

Southwestern Ontario. ’ In Folk Music, Traditional were commissioned to write scores for this ensemble. Music, Ethnomusicology: Canadian Perspectives, References to the style, however, should be more Past and Present, eds. Anna Hoefnagels and Gor- inclusive. don E. Smith. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Progressive jazz developed as the jazz fi eld began Scholars Publishing, 187 – 200. to fragment into a variety of styles towards the end Powers, William K. 1990. War Dance: Plains Indian of the swing era. It developed parallel to, and along Musical Performance . Tucson, AZ: e University with, bebop (the most important development of the of Arizona Press. same period), and the distinctions between progres- Scales, Christopher A. 2002. ‘ e Politics and Aes- sive jazz and cool jazz, West Coast jazz and the ird thetics of Recording: A Comparative Canadian Stream are yet to be clearly defi ned. Consequently, Case Study of Powwow and Contemporary Native these styles are inter-related and, to various degrees, American Music. ’ e World of Music 44(1): are mutually infl uential. 41 – 60. Scales, Christopher. 2004. ‘ Powwow Music and the Roots and Emergence Aboriginal Recording Industry on the Northern e roots of progressive jazz can ultimately be Plains: Media, Technology, and Native American traced back as far as the 1920s and the ‘ symphonic Music in the Late Twentieth Century. ’ Unpublished jazz ’ of Paul Whiteman (1890 – 1967), together with Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana- the extended, jazz-infl uenced works by George Ger- Champaign. shwin (1898 –1 937, for example, Rhapsody In Blue Scales, Christopher. 2007. ‘ Powwows, Intertribalism, (1924)) and Ferde Grof é (1892 –1 972, for example, and the Value of Competition. ’ Ethnomusicology Grand Canyon Suite (1932)). Whiteman ’ s commis- 51(1): 1 – 29. sioning of works by Gershwin and Grof é were early Tulk, Janice Esther. 2008. ‘ “ Our Strength is Our- attempts to incorporate classical music into jazz. selves ” : Identity, Status, and Cultural Revitalization While his experiment was relatively short-lived, its Among the Mi ’ kmaq in Newfoundland. ’ Unpub- modernist aesthetic set the stage for later experiments lished Ph.D. dissertation, Memorial University of and helped to pave the way for the progressive jazz Newfoundland. movement ’ s incorporation of a wider compositional vocabulary. Discography If symphonic jazz contained some elements that Black Lodge Singers. Watch is Dancer! Canyon would mature into progressive jazz, it was in the swing Records, CR-6429. 2 007 : USA. era, with its reliance on the big band as its primary Blackstone Singers. Back in the Day. Canyon Records, ensemble, that the composer-arrangers who would be CR-6373. 2 004 : USA. fundamental to progressive jazz fi rst came to promi- Northern Cree. Honor the Eagle Feather. Canyon nence. Big bands served as demanding and produc- Records, CR-6269. 1 998 : USA. tive composition and arranging workshops, and many Southern Boyz. Can ’ t Get Rite. Matoska Trading Com- of these writers ’ compositional ambitions grew along pany, Inc., 2410-171-282. 2 005 : USA. with their experience. In addition, many of these com- 2008 Gathering of Nations Powwow: 25th Annual posers and arrangers also had experience and educa- World Celebration . GON 25. 2008 : USA. tion in the fi eld of Western art music. Young Bird. Memories . Canyon Records, CR-6390. e swing era also had its own versions of the 1920s ’ 2006 : USA. attempt to fuse jazz and classical music. ese can be A N NA H OEFNAGELS seen in works written for Artie Shaw (1910 – 2004) by, among others, Alan Shulman (1915 – 2002; for exam- Progressive Jazz ple, ‘ Mood in Question ’ and ‘ Rendezvous for Clarinet ‘ Progressive jazz ’ generally refers to a school of jazz and Strings ’ (1949)), and Paul Jordan ( ‘ Evensong ’ [aka composition and arranging from the mid-1940s to ‘ Dusk ’ ], 1941), as well as Woody Herman ’ s (1913 – 87) the mid-1950s, though this period could easily be commissioning of a work by Stravinsky ( Ebony Con- extended back to the late 1930s and on through the certo ). But as other swing era composers and arrang- late 1950s. Works of this genre were most commonly ers began successfully, and less self-consciously, to composed for big band, but were written for smaller incorporate advanced compositional resources into ensembles as well. e term is o en associated with jazz arrangements – as opposed to creating hybrid Stan Kenton and his various big band confi gura- compositions – they became a more direct infl uence tions, as many of the important writers of the genre on the emergence of progressive jazz.

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Eddie Sauter (1914 – 81) was important in this works such as ‘ Confl ict ’ and ‘ Mirage ’ (1950), Bob regard. His early pieces for Goodman such as ‘ Moon- Graettinger ’s ‘ ermopylae ’ (1947) and City of Glass light on the Ganges ’ (1940) and ‘ How Deep is the (1951), Bill Holman ’ s (b. 1927) ‘ Invention for Guitar Ocean ’ (1941) exhibit a harmonic freedom that was and Trumpet ’ (1952) and Bill Russo ’ s ‘ Improvisation ’ rare for the period. Sauter also wrote important works (1951). for Red Norvo (1908 – 99) and Artie Shaw. Norvo ’ s It should be noted that the bands discussed in this own ‘ Dance of the Octopus ’ (1933) is a standout from entry are primarily white bands from this period, the swing era in terms of compositional content with though some were integrated at times (for example, its use of a wide harmonic and melodic palette, as well Boyd Raeburn, Charlie Barnett, Benny Goodman and as a free approach to meter. Artie Shaw). African-American big bands during this e Woody Herman band was important in the same period were of course performing their own early stages of progressive jazz, exemplifi ed by Ralph exciting, groundbreaking compositions and arrange- Burns ’ s (1922 – 2001) four-part S ummer Sequence ments. Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn set the (1946), a seminal work in the lineage of progressive standard for jazz composition and orchestration, and jazz. Jimmy Giu re (1921 –2 008), who wrote for Her- Ellington ’ s three-movement extended work, Black, man during this same period (for example, ‘ Four Brown and Beige (1943) holds a crucial place in the Brothers, ’ 1947), also went on to be an important lineage of jazz composition. Count Basie is gener- composer in the genre. George Handy (1920 –9 7) is a ally considered to have led the hardest-swinging big crucial fi gure in the early stages of the movement, and band, and one of his most prolifi c arrangers was Neal his works for the Boyd Raeburn Orchestra, such as He i (b. 1922), who also composed and arranged ‘ Dalvatore Sally, ’ ‘ Gray Suede, ’ ‘ Special Maid ’ and ‘ Hey for Kenton. Jimmy Mundy ’ s (1907 – 83) ‘ Futile Look – I ’ m Dancing ’ (all 1946), are some of the most Frustration ’ (1947), written for Basie, would have fi t infl uential in the development of progressive jazz. into any progressive jazz band ’ s repertoire. Follow- An interesting example of successfully combining ing his work with the bands of Billy Eckstine and Earl elements of progressive jazz with a highly commer- Hines, Dizzy Gillespie ’ s short-lived bebop-infl uenced cial concept can be found in the works of Gil Evans big band employed such important progressive writ- (1912 – 88) for Claude ornhill (1909 – 65), such as ers as Chico O ’ Farrill (1921 – 2001), George Russell ‘ Arab Dance ’ (1946) and ‘ e Troubadour ’ (1947), (b. 1923), Gil Fuller (1920 – 94) and Tadd Dameron both reworkings of classical themes. Evans ’ s writing (1917 –6 5). In addition, important jazz composers had a distinctive harmonic sensibility, and his use of such as Charles Mingus (1922 – 79) and J.J. Johnson orchestral color was masterful and unique. Evans ’ s (1924 –2 001) were members of this progressive jazz style strongly infl uenced the cool school of writing, community in terms of their compositional output, exemplifi ed by the 1949 recordings by Capitol, fea- yet they are generally not associated with the bands turing Miles Davis, subsequently issued (1957) as the typically linked to the movement. album e Birth of the Cool . While the music of these African-American bands e symbiosis between bandleaders and composer- and composers was every bit as progressive, the pro- arrangers was a crucial relationship in the develop- gressive jazz bands and composers have traditionally ment of progressive jazz. Some leaders, Stan Kenton been given their own sub-genre. e reasons for this for example, actively commissioned a wide range of have been little discussed, perhaps because the ques- important composers, such as Pete Rugolo (b. 1915), tion reaches deeply into controversial issues regard- Bob Graettinger (1923 – 57), Gerry Mulligan (1927 – ing race and cultural infl uences. at the category is 96), Bill Russo (1928 – 2003), Shorty Rogers (1924 – 94) drawn along racial lines is unfortunate, however, and and Johnny Richards (1911 – 68), specifi cally to stretch does not do justice to any of the composers or bands, the boundaries of jazz writing. Others, such as Boyd as many of these writers and organizations were, in Raeburn (1913 – 66), found themselves at the forefront their own way, striving to break down racial barri- of the development of the genre when writers such as ers, though perhaps with limited success. at being George Handy and Johnny Mandel (b. 1925) began said, the term has survived, and does have a gener- contributing exciting and progressive arrangements ally accepted connotation, as well as associated bands, and compositions, and were wise enough to appreci- writers and repertoire, as suggested above. ate and foster these composers ’ talents and abilities. Stan Kenton played a major role in the development Common Characteristics of the movement. Outstanding examples from this Progressive jazz encompasses a variety of styles orchestra, among many others, include Pete Rugolo ’ s and involves both the arrangement of standard tunes

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and original compositions. Because of its breadth, the the composers ’ e orts to reconcile and incorporate term defi es attempts to defi ne it, but there are char- their experiences that range from the academy to the acteristics that are common to works in this genre. school of one-night stands. In addition, because jazz Perhaps the most important concept is that the writ- is more associated with improvisation than composi- ers in this style broadened the compositional and tion, progressive jazz ’s emphasis on the latter, o en at orchestrational palette of jazz, largely through their the expense of the former, is sometimes perceived as incorporation of techniques that are more com- a negative. monly associated with classical music than with For these reasons, among others, progressive jazz jazz. e notion of extended composition, and the has traditionally been marginalized within the jazz incorporation of advanced compositional resources fi eld. e bands that were performing it were doing such as centricity in place of tonality, atonality, met- so in the declining years of the big bands, so it was rical sophistication and experimentation with form not particularly viable commercially, and even the are all elements that are borrowed from the classical most successful bands were relatively short-lived. Out tradition. Another crucial defi ning characteristic is of necessity, bands mixed the more progressive com- the expansion of instrumentation to include, among positions into a larger repertoire that included more other instruments, woodwinds, horn, tuba, strings, commercially oriented music. In fact, it is safe to say harp and a variety of percussion. Improvisation is that this music has generally been more popular with o en incorporated, though its role is smaller than in musicians than with the general public. other jazz styles. While this music has compositional ambition that George Handy ’ s composition ‘ e Bloos ’ (1946) is stretches or perhaps exceeds the genre of jazz, it is one of the most successful compositions of the genre, certainly jazz-based, and swing is generally an essen- exemplifying the use of virtually all of the techniques tial element. In the hands of technically profi cient listed above. e work was written for standard big players that do not possess the experience to make band plus a small chamber orchestra. In place of a this music swing as intended, it can become sti and song format, the work employs a number of themes consequently may sound overblown in its ambition in a variety of tempos and meters. ree percussion- and pompous. In the hands of the bands that it was ists play a battery of percussion instruments includ- written for, however, progressive jazz composition ing timpani, xylophone and razzer, and the standard was a powerful and important music that advanced drum kit is eschewed. In addition, celeste and harp the fi eld of jazz composition. Many composers and make important contributions. ough not atonal, arrangers from this movement had great infl uence the work does not have a key, and juxtaposed triads on popular culture, as writers such as He i, Rugolo, and polytonality are important harmonic elements. Burns, J.J. Johnson and Johnny Mandel went on to e work, though just under fi ve minutes in length, set the standard for fi lm and television scoring, and has the feeling of a longer composition. dominated Hollywood writing for decades. Writers associated with this genre also led the way into today ’ s Critical Reception music world where the term ‘ crossover ’ has a positive Common criticisms of progressive jazz are that it connotation. is pretentious, does not swing, is overly dense and e infl uence of progressive jazz can be seen today does not manage to confl ate successfully its artistic in composers of various generations. e long-es- and commercial ambitions. is criticism, at least in tablished composer-trombonist Bob Brookmeyer (b. part, perhaps stems from the fact that the composi- 1929), a veteran of many progressive jazz bands, car- tional style of the genre is o en associated with the ries on the tradition by writing extended works for Western art music tradition, as opposed to being per- large, mixed ensembles. Maria Schneider (b. 1960) ceived as rooted in the blues. is is partially respon- maintains her own large jazz ensemble for which she sible for both a negative reaction (for example, the composes colorful, extended compositions. By defy- music does not swing and the writing is pretentious) ing categorization, both of these composers, along and a positive one (a broadening of compositional with many others, continue to expand the notion of elements furthers the art of jazz composition). e progressive jazz. criticism is understandable, as reconciling the roots of jazz and the incorporation of compositional resources Bibliography associated with contemporary Western art music has Bierman, Benjamin. 2006a. ‘ George Handy ’ s Bloos . ’ been the greatest challenge for composers in this style, Institute for Studies in American Music Newsletter and the successes and failures of this style both refl ect 26(1) (Fall): 1 – 2, 12.

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Bierman, Benjamin. 2006b. ‘ e Music of George Teachout, Terry. 2000. ‘ Jazz and Classical Music: To Handy. ’ Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, e Grad- the ird Stream and Beyond. ’ In e Oxford Com- uate Center of the City University of New York. panion to Jazz , ed. Bill Kirchner. New York: Oxford Feather, Leonard. 1984. e Encyclopedia of Jazz. Lon- University Press, 343 – 56. don: Quartet Books. Ulanov, Barry. 1952. A History of Jazz in America . Gitler, Ira. 1985. Swing to Bop . New York: Oxford Uni- New York: e Viking Press. versity Press. Goia, Ted. 1997. e History of Jazz . New York: Oxford Discographical References University Press. Basie, Count. ‘ Futile Frustration. ’ (Jimmy Mundy, Harrison, Max. 1977. A Jazz Retrospective . New York: comp-arr). RCA 20 -2529. 1947 : USA. Crescendo. Davis, Miles. e Birth of the Cool. Capitol T792. Harrison, Max. 2000. ‘ Swing Era Big Bands and Jazz 1957 : USA. Composing and Arranging. ’ In e Oxford Com- Ellington, Duke. (Excerpts from) Black, Brown and panion to Jazz , ed. Bill Kirchner. New York: Oxford Beige . RCA Victor DC 39. 1 944 : USA. (Version featur- University Press, 277 – 91. ing Mahalia Jackson, Columbia 64274, 1958: USA.) Harrison, Max. 2001. ‘ Progressive Jazz. ’ In New Grove Goodman, Benny. ‘ How Deep Is the Ocean. ’ (Eddie Dictionary of Music and Musicians , eds. Stanley Sauter, arr.). Columbia 36754. 1941 : USA. Sadie and John Tyrell. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. Goodman, Benny. ‘ Moonlight on the Ganges. ’ (Eddie Kirchner, Bill. 1980. ‘ Eddie Sauter Oral History. ’ Sauter, arr.). Columbia GL523. 1940 : USA. e Institute for Jazz Studies (Rutgers University- Handy, George. ‘ e Bloos. ’ Clef MGC674. 1946 : USA. Newark), e Oral History Project. Herman, Woody. ‘ Four Brothers. ’ (Jimmy Giu re, Lee, William F. 1980. Stan Kenton: Artistry in Rhythm . comp-arr.). Columbia 38304. 1 947 : USA. Los Angeles, CA: Creative Press of Los Angeles. Herman, Woody. Summer Sequence. ’ (Ralph Burns, Lees, Gene. 2000. Arranging the Scope: Portraits of the comp-arr.). Colombia CL6026. 1 947 . USA. (First Great Arrangers . New York: Continuum. releases: Parts 1 and 2, Columbia 38365, 1946; McCarthy, Albert. 1977. Big Band Jazz . New York: Part 3, Columbia 38367, 1946.) Berkley Publishing Corp. Kenton, Stan. City of Glass. (Bob Graettinger, comp- Oja, Carol. 2000. Making Music Modern: New York in arr.). Capitol H-353. 1 951 : USA. (First releases: 1st the 1920s . New York: Oxford University Press. Mvt., Part 1, ‘ Entrance Into the City, ’ Capitol 28062, Ramsey, Doug. 2000. ‘ Big Bands and Jazz Composing 1951; 1st Mvt., Part 2, ‘ e Structures, ’ Capitol and Arranging A er World War II. ’ In e Oxford 28063, 1951; 2nd Mvt., ‘ Dance Before the Mirror, ’ Companion to Jazz , ed. Bill Kirchner. New York: Capitol 28063, 1951; 3rd Mvt., ‘ Refl ections, ’ Capitol Oxford University Press, 403 – 17. 28062, 1951.) Schuller, Gunther. 1989. e Swing Era . New York: Kenton, Stan. ‘ Confl ict ’ / ‘ Mirage. ’ (Pete Rugolo, comp- Oxford University Press. arr). Capitol 28002. 1 950 : USA. Schuller, Gunther. 2001. ‘ ird Stream. ’ In New Grove Kenton, Stan. ‘ Improvisation, ’ (Bill Russo, comp-arr.) Dictionary of Music and Musicians , eds. Stanley Cornell Rhythm Club. 1951 : USA. Sadie and John Tyrell. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. Kenton, Stan. ‘ Invention for Guitar and Trumpet, ’ Schuller, Gunther. 2002. ‘ Arrangement. ’ In New Grove (Bill Holman, comp-arr.). Capitol EAP2/H/L/T- Dictionary of Jazz , ed. Barry Kernfeld. 2nd ed. Lon- 383. 1952 : USA. don: Macmillan. Kenton, Stan. ‘ ermopylae, ’ (Bob Graettinger, comp- Simon, George T. 1971. Simon Says: the Sights and arr.). Capitol 908. 1 947 : USA. Sounds of the Swing era, 1935 – 1955 . New Rochelle, Norvo, Red. ‘ Dance of the Octopus. ’ Epic/CSP NY: Arlington House. JEE22009. 1933 : USA. Simon, George T. 1981. e Big Bands. 4th ed. New Raeburn, Boyd. ‘ Dalvatore Sally. ’ (George Handy, York: Schirmer Books. comp-arr.). Savoy MG15012. 1 945 : USA. Strunk, Steven. 2002. ‘ George Handy. ’ In New Grove Raeburn, Boyd. ‘ Gray Suede, Special Maid. ’ (George Dictionary of Jazz , ed. Barry Kernfeld. 2nd ed. Lon- Handy, comp-arr.). V-Disc 677-B. 1 946 : USA. don: Macmillan. Raeburn, Boyd. ‘ Hey Look - I ’ m Dancing, ’ (George Sultanof, Jerry. 2000. ‘ Jazz Repertory. ’ In e Oxford Handy, comp-arr.). V-Disc 677-A. 1 946 : USA. Companion to Jazz , ed. Bill Kirchner. New York: Shaw, Artie. ‘ Evensong. ’ (Paul Jordan, comp-arr.). Oxford University Press, 512 – 21. Victor 28-0405, EPA599. 1 941 : USA.

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Shaw, Artie. ‘ Mood in Question ’ / ‘ Rendezvous for banda style, ‘ banda sinaloense , ’ named a er the state Clarinet and Strings (Alan Shulman, comp-arr.). of Sinaloa in which it originated. Technobanda was Columbia 55048. 1949 : USA. created in Guadalajara, state of Jalisco, and popular- Stravinsky, Igor. ‘ Ebony Concerto. ’ (For Woody Her- ized in Los Angeles, California, in the early 1990s man Orchestra). Columbia 7479M. 1946 : USA. among recent Mexican and Central American immi- ornhill, Claude. ‘ Arab Dance. ’ (Gil Evans, arr.). grants. e music-dance phenomenon was also Columbia 37065. 1946 : USA. fueled by large numbers of Mexican-American resi- ornhill, Claude. ‘ e Troubadour, ’ (Gil Evans, arr.). dents who felt alienated by California ’ s conservative V-Disc 790-A (Lang-Worth transcriptions). 1947 : politics and anti-immigrant rhetoric prevalent at the USA. time. e basic q uebradita step is based on a two-step pattern consisting of rocking back and forth between Discography the le and the right foot in time with the bass and City of Glass – Rugolo, Marks, Graettinger/Schuller, percussion. Dancers may combine the basic pattern Ebony . Channel Crossings CCS6394. 1994 : e with a variety of turns, spins and breaks. Quebradita ’ s Netherlands. characteristic gesture, as the dance ’ s name suggests, Evans, Gil. e Complete Instrumental Charts for is the ‘ little break ’ in which the male dancer dips his Claude ornhill, 1942– 1 947. Masters of Jazz partner with a sudden but controlled movement into MJCD154. 1 999 : France. a backward bend. For fast-paced pieces that are not Graetinger, Robert. e Music of Robert F. Graettinger: danced as a pair, skilled dancers perform highly com- Live at the Paradiso (Performed by the Ebony Big plex footwork, borrowing from traditional Mexican Band). Channel Crossings CCS 13198. 2003 : e dance steps such as the zapateado , a heel and toe step- Netherlands. ping dance, and from ballet folkl ó rico (staged folkloric Herman, Woody. Blowin ’ Up a Storm: e Columbia dances). Quebradita combines various dance styles Years, 1945 – 1947 . Columbia/Legacy C2K 65646. from di erent regions of Mexico, in particular from 2001 : USA. the North and Northwest, with simplifi ed steps and e Jazz Scene . Verve MGV 8060. 1 994 : USA. gestures from folkló rico dances and with steps from Kenton, Stan. e Innovations Orchestra. Capitol CDP contemporary popular Latin dances such as cumbia 7243 8 59965 2 8. 1 997 : USA. and salsa . Raeburn, Boyd. e Legendary Jubilee Performances In the mid-1980s a g rupo version of the acous- Hep CD 1. 1 994 : UK. tic banda sinaloense was recorded by Fonorama, a recording studio in Guadalajara. is fusion became Printed Scores known as technobanda or simply b anda (consisting Gershwin, George. 1924. R hapsody In Blue. (Original of electric bass, keyboard synthesizer, saxophone, Ferde Grof é orchestration for Paul Whiteman). trumpets, drums and vocalist). In 1992, a er working New York: Harms.(Facsimile edition, Los Angeles, out a US distribution agreement with the Mexican CA: Warner Bros., 1987). label MCM with whom the leading technobanda Grof é , Ferde. c 1932. Grand Canyon Suite . New York: from Jalisco, Banda Machos, had signed, Fonovisa EMI Robbins Catalog. Records released the group ’ s fi rst albums north of the Handy, George. 1981. e Bloos . New York: Associ- border. Based on the growing number of sales hits, ated Music Publishers. Billboard declared 1993 as ‘ the banda year. ’ Carried Stravinsky, Igor. 1945. Ebony Concerto . London: and supported by large numbers of recent immi- Boosey & Hawkes. grants from Mexico and Central America, the ‘ banda BENJA MIN BIERM A N movement ’ that swept Southern California quickly spread to other parts of the United States and back Psychedelic Rock, see Psychedelic Rock (Volume XII, to Mexico. International) Like other dance crazes, the quebradita came along Punk, see Punk (Volume XII, International) with a characteristic style of dress: the vaquero (cow- boy) attire. e pioneering technobanda ensemble, Quebradita and Technobanda Vaquero ’ s Musical, was also trendsetting in matters of e term quebradita ( ‘ little break ’ ) refers to a dance clothing. e nine ‘ cowboys ’ appeared on the cover of style associated with technobanda ( tecnobanda in their fi rst cassette (Vaquero ’s Musical, 1985) dressed Spanish), a modernized version of a regional Mexican in a plain, dark-brown, three-piece suit, white shirt,

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