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HISTORY OF

JAN RYPKA

HISTORY OF IRANIAN LITERATURE

Written in collaboration with

OTAKAR KLIMA, VERA KUBICKOvA, FELIX TAUER, nIH BECKA, nIH CEJPEK, JAN MAREK, I. HRBEK AND J. T. P. DE BRUUN

Edited by

KARL JAHN (University of Leyden)

D. REIDEL PUBLISHING COMPANY

DORDRECHT-HOLLAND DEJINY PERSKE A TADZICKE LITERATURY First'published by Nakladatelstvi Ceskoslovenske akademie ved, Praha 1956 Translated from the German by P. van Popta-Hope, and enlarged and revised by the authors

© 1968. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1968 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without permission from the publisher

ISBN-13: 978-94-010-3481-4 -ISBN-13: 978-94-010-3479-1 DOl: 10.1007/978-94-010-3479-1

Frontispiece: The Prophet, seated on Buraq, passing over the Ka'bah at Mecca on his miraculous night-journey. From Or. 6810, a copy of the Khamseh of Ni'l'iimi dated 900/1494-5, which bears autograph notes of the Mughal Emperors Jahiingir and Shah Jahan. (By courtesy ofthe Trustees ofthe British Museum.) OTAKAR KLIMA

AVESTA. ANCIENT PERSIAN INSCRIPTIONS LITERATURE FOREWORD

Some justification seems to be necessary for the addition of yet another History of Iranian Literature to the number of those already in existence. Such a work must obviously contain as many novel features as possible, so that a short explanation of what my collaborators and I had in mind when planning the book is perhaps not superfluous. In the first place our object was to present a short summary of the material in all its aspects, and secondly to review the subject from the chronological, geo• graphical and substantial standpoints - all within the compass of a single volume. Such a scheme precludes a formal and complete enumeration of names and phenom• ena, and renders all the greater the obligation to accord most prominence to matters deemed to be of greatest importance, supplementing these with such figures and forms as will enable an impression to be gained of the period in question - all this is far as possible in the light of the most recent discoveries. A glance at the table of contents will suffice to give an idea of the multifarious approach that has been our aim. We begin at the very first traces of evidence bearing on our subject and continue the narrative up to the present day. Geographically the book embraces and its neighbouring countries, while it should be remarked that Iranian literature in its fullest sense also includes Indo-Persian and Judeo-Persian works. The absence of a section on modem literature must be compensated by the works of H. J. de Dianous and A. Gerasimova and G. Girs (cf. Bibliography, B VIII). New substrata of our subject are laid bare in the extensive contribution on and in that on folklore, though in respect of the former it must be admitted that works on the subject have not been taken into account. New, in relation to the German version of our book, is the separate section on scholarly literature. Another feature that may be regarded as an innovation consists in the references to Iranian (mainly modem studies), Russian and Soviet sources. It cannot be denied that this has been done before in the West, but such references are mostly rare and in• adequate. The result of this omission in other works has been that important factual v FOREWORD material and a multitude of valuable opinions have been lost to the reader unacquaint• ed with these spheres of learning. Of course one must not censure unjustly, for it must be borne in mind that in the meantime the measure of in the country itself and in the Soviet-Union has increased out of all proportion compared with the achievements of former times. This advance is indeed highly gratifying. The present version of the History ofIranian Literature differs from its predecessors in various and in some cases special ways. As can be seen from the Bibliography (B I) it resembles most closely the second Czech edition (1961) which, however, in its turn varies considerably in compass and detail from the original edition (1955) and the German version (1959). It is clear that a work of this kind requires constant revision and emendation in order to bring it up to date, not to mention the rectification of the errors that are bound to creep into an opus covering such a wide field, however conscientiously the authors endeavour to avoid them. It lies in the nature of things that a History of this kind can never be regarded as being definitively concluded. Moreover a considerable period of time was required before the manuscript was ready for the press. This lapse of time, together with the distance separating those engaged on the work, could not but have some disadvantages. Some of the authors, prompted by experience, even completely altered the arrangement of their contributions. In view of the years that have passed since the publication of the original edition, it is not surprising that many a reversal of opinion has taken place, and it has unfortunately been impossible to incorporate all of these in the present volume. In certain cases, however, they are mentioned in the notes. Many of these revised views may be accounted for by the appearance of numerous new publications and reports of recent investigations, the results of which we have also regrettably been obliged to omit. An extensive use has therefore been made of this material in the Bibliography. The latter, though only providing a selection of titles, occupies an unusually large amount of space and has been acclaimed with enthusiasm by the critics of the former editions. The object of this Bibliography was obviously not only to present a collection of works, but as it were to expand the range of the book itself, for it enables the reader to pursue his interests further in any given direction. In order to facilitate orientation, an alphabetical list is given of the special subjects included in the Bibliography, arranged according to the individual poets and prose-writers, only very occasionally according to the works themselves in cases where they are better known than their authors. Learned prose, as such instantly recognizable, has already been assembled in the relevant section of the Bibliography, always under the name of the author in question. Amphilologica1 figures such as ', and others, are dealt with, as is fitting, both in the section on polite literature and in that on scholarly prose. Textual or note references to a passage in the Bibliography are made by means of a special capital letter for each section. The zeal demonstrated by Iranian scholars for research and composition, which has found valuable support in the activity of the native publishing houses, added to vi FOREWORD the large amount of specialized study being carried on outside Iran, has obliged the authors of the History of Iranian Literature to exercise the utmost restraint in their choice of works to be enumerated. The stream of new publications has waxed and is still waxing to such an extent that it seems to be boundless. Quality, up-to-dateness and importance have had to be the decisive factors for selection. In order to keep pace with this tumultuous advance, and at the same time to confine the size of the Bibliography to reasonable limits, some sort of compromise had to be sought: some of the titles appearing in previous editions have to our great regret been dropped so as to make way for new ones. Older titles of special significance have of course been retained. It should be mentioned that in recent years Iranian bibliography has flour• ished exceedingly thanks to the efforts of men such as Afshar, to whom one cannot be adequately grateful. Further particulars are to be found in our Bibliography (B I). An excellent supplementary source to our own selection for tlIe non-Persian works is J. D. Pearson's Index Islamicus, published in the years 1906-1955, 1956-1960 (see Bibliography, B I). In consequence of an alteration in the date of publication of Volumes 7-9 (1343-1344 A.H. = 1964-1966 A.D.) of Rdhndma-i kitdb, it has alas been impossible to make use of this excellent bibliographical periodical to the extent we should have liked. On the other hand we have been able to enlarge the section dealing with the classical period by the addition of a selection of good Georgian works, albeit only such as were provided with a summary in Russian. The term 'New Persian' (or 'Neo-Persian') is usually denoted by 'Persian'; similarly, for the sake of brevity, by 'verse' is to be understood 'distich' or 'couplet'. As regards the indication of dates according to the solar Hijra system, it has been deemed suffi• cient to omit the 'A.D.' equivalent since a simple calculation, x+ 621 (e.g. 1343 solar + 621 = 1964 A.D.) will remove any doubt. On the other hand it was considered im• perative to quote lunar dates next to those of the Christian era throughout. If here or there an error has crept in despite the extremely careful revision that has been carried out, we may perhaps be excused in view of the very large number of dates given and of the general uncertainty as to their accuracy. This foreword cannot be brought to a close before mention has been made of all those persons who have given us tlIeir advice and assistance. Their number is however so great that it is alas impossible to give them their due by alluding to tlIem all by name. We must therefore appeal to our friends in East and West to be content with this general but no less heartfelt assurance of our most sincere gratitude. NevertlIeless it would not be right to OInit mentioning certain persons who have expended an immense amount of time and trouble in the preparation of this English edition. First and foremost we should like to offer our warmest thanks to Professor Dr Karl Jahn of Leyden University for the disinterested enthusiasm he has brought to bear on the work. After making the acquaintance of the first (Czech) edition of tlIe History of Iranian Literature, he at once conceived the plan of having tlIe book translated into English. Through unavoidable circumstances several years elapsed vii FOREWORD between the completion of the translated text and the actual going to press. And again it is thanks to the untiring efforts of Professor Jahn that the production of the book has now been entrusted to the well-known firm, D. Reidel Publishing Company of Dordrecht, Holland. Nor should his supervision of the be underestimated, for his expert knowledge of the subject has many a time stood the translator in good stead in the solution of knotty problems. Mter some initial hesitation, Mrs. P. van Popta took on the extremely arduous and difficult translation of the major part of the book and the revision of the remaining sections. Our hearty thanks are due to her for the successful accomplishment of this task, and also for the countless hours oflabour involved in the reading of the proofs - not to mention the patience she exhibited in respect of the many alterations and addi• tions made to the text during the course of the translation, which frequently necessi• tated a recasting of whole portions of the manuscript. For the adaptation of the Bibliography and the genealogical tables to the require• ments of the Anglo-Saxon world, as well as for assistance at other stages of the work, we are deeply indebted to Mr. J. T. P. de Bruijn. Our thanks are also due to Mr. J. P. H. Bosman who compiled the Index, and to Mr. A. H. Nauta who gave invaluable assistance with the revision of the proofs. We should therefore like to take this oppor• tunity of expressing our great appreciation of the punctilious manner in which these exacting portions of the work have been carried out. During the period when the completed English manuscript was no longer in our hands, a number of new facts and opinions came to light which it seemed a pity not to include. These have been printed separately at the end of the book and are referred to in the text by means of marginal asterisks. Finally we must not omit to mention the willing and reliable co-operation we have received from the publishers during the production of the book, especially from Mr. H. J. Lek, head of the editorial department. It now only remains for us to offer our best wishes to the History ofIranian Literature on its new flight to far-off lands, in the hope that it will contribute to the spreading of a knowledge of and love towards one of the most glorious literatures of the world.

JAN RYPKA

Any effort on my part to help towards the realization of this English edition of Professor Rypka's History ofIranian Literature is amply repaid by the knowledge that it has been expended with the aim of increasing the circle of readers of what will surely become a standard work by one of the most shining lights among modem orientalist scholars, whose erudition will never cease to be an inspiring example to his former pupils - not least to the undersigned. KARLJAHN

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxi

GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION xxv

OTAKAR KLIMA: . ANCIENT PERSIAN INSCRIPTIONS. MIDDLE

I. ANCIENT EASTERN-IRANIAN CULTURE 3 A. The Beginnings of Iranian Culture 3 B. The First States 4 C. Zarathushtra 5 D. Avesta 7 I. The Giithtis 7 2. Yasna, Visprat 8 3. The Yashts 9 4. Videvdiit 12 5. Minor Texts 15 6. Traditions regarding the Origin of the Avesta 16 7. Beginnings ofIranian Philology. Significance of the Avesta I7

II. THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT MEDES AND 18 A. The Medes and Persians 18 B. The Achaemenids. Character of their Government and of their Realm 19 C. The Inscriptions of the Achaemenids 20 ix TABLE OF CONTENTS D. Traces of the Lost Literature 23 E. Learning in Europe 23

III. THE MIDDLE PERSIAN ERA 25 ~~k~~ ~ I. , the Seleucids, the Parthians 25 2. The Literature of the Parthian Era 26 3· The Earliest Records of Middle Iranian Literature 27 4· Middle Iranian Dialects 29 5· Inscriptions from Arsacid Times 29 6. Coins of the Pre-Sasanian Period 30 B. The Sasanians 30 I. Inscriptions 30 2. Other Records. Seals, Gems, Coins, Documents 32 C. Middle Persian Book-Literature 34 I. Pahlavi Literature 34 2. Middle Persian of the Avesta (Zand) 35 D. Religious Pahlavi Literature 35 I. Religious Texts 35 2. The Andarz Books. Moralising, Apocalyptic, and Eschatological Literature 37 3. Collections of Traditions and Polemic Treatises 39 E. Secular Literature 43 I. Historical Belles-Lettres 44 2. Instructive Works on Political Affairs 45 3· Legal Writings. Papyri 47 4. The Frahangs 48 5. in the Middle Persian Period. Lyrical Poetry and Music 49 6. Foreign Influences in Middle Persian Literature 53 7. Persian Influences on other Literatures 54 8. Literature of the last Century of the Sasanian Era 55 9. Literature of the Sectarians and Dissenters. Zurvanism. 59 ro. Middle Iranian Manuscripts 60 F. Discoveries in 61 I. Manichaean Documents 61 2. Sogdian Literature 63 3. Remains of Khvarezmian Literature 64 4. Sakian Literature 65

IV. THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION TO NEW PERSIAN LITERA TURB (The Advance of and the Beginnings of New Persian) 66 x TABLE OF CONTENTS JAN RYPKA: HISTORY OF PERSIAN LITERATURE UP TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY 69

I. INTRODUCTION 71 A. The Persian () 71 I. The Arabising of Persian 73 2. The Relation of Dialects to Persian Literature 74 3· The Script 74 B. National Individuality 76 1. The Conception of Unity and its Reverse - Regionalism 76 2. Religious Elation and its Nature 77 3. The Shi'a 78 4. The Tolerance of Persian Poetry 78 5· Adaptability and late Europeanisation 79 6. Artistic Perceptibility, Nature, and inborn Disposition for Poetry 80 7. The Spirit of Islam 81 8. The Relationship between Poetry and Prose. Problems of Literary History 81 9. The Influence of ~iifism 82 10. Lack of Humour. The 'Satire' 83 11. The Influence of Despotism and Feudalism 84 12. Extravagance 84 13. Eros and its Expression: Allegory and Symbolism. Abstract Character of the Lyric. Homosexuality 85 C. Conservatism and Convention in Persian Literature 87 1. The Connection with Feudalism 87 2. Official Islam as a restraining Factor 88 3. Conservatism of the Oriental Conception of the Relation between Word and Thought 88 4. The Difficulties of the Westerner in Comprehending Persian and other Oriental Authors 89 5. Men of Genius and Epigones: The European School 90 D. Poetry and its Forms 91 1. The Outward Form 91 a. Fundamental Concepts 91 b. Metrics 92 c. Rhyme in Relation to Form 93 (1) Forms of 94 (2) Substance of Lyrical Forms 97 (3) The Form of the Epic and Didactic Poem 98 d. Strictness of Form. Efficiency of the System 98 xi TABLE OF CONTENTS

e. Takhal1u~ 99 2. The Inward Form of the Poetry 99 Characteristic Embellishments. Excess of Rhetoric 100 b. Prerequisites for the Poet 101 c. Peculiarities in the Train of Thought 102 d. Craftsmanlike Modelling of the Form 103 e. The Attitude of the Older Orientallsts 103 f. Applicability of the Old Forms to Modern Life 103 g. Exclusive Nature of the Poetry 104 h. The Nature of Poetical Experience 104 j. The Specific Nature of Persian Poetry 105 k. Poets' Centres and the Division of Poetry into Periods 108 E. Prose 108 I. The Range of Persian Literature 110 2. Styles of Poetry as interpreted by M. Bahiir and S. NafIsi 112 3. The Development of Literature in Political-historical Sequence I 15 4. Mu\lammad Bahiir's Classification of Prose into Periods according to Style 117 5. Zarre's Division into Periods 118 6. Sources for the History of Persian Literature 119

II. THE BEGINNINGS OF PERSIAN LITERATURE 126 A. The Arab Occupation 126 I. The Ancient Culture and its Continuation 128 2. The Existence of a Middle Persian Poetry 132 3. The First Specimens of Persian Verse. Continuity of Middle and New Persian Verse 133 B. The Poets of the Tahirid and Saffarid Periods 135 C. Continuous Flow of Literature. Persian Writers in Literature (750-850) 136 m. THE SAMANIDS (Middle of 3rd/9th century to end of 4th/loth) 139 A. Literature in the Samanid Period 140 I. Points of Contact between Persian and Contemporaneous Arabic Poetry. Character of the Latter. Fundamental Traits of the Earliest Period in Persian Poetry 141 Some Names 143 3. , (), Kisa'i 144 4. Provincial Poets at the Courts of the Al-i Mu\ltaj in Chaghiiniyan, Ziyarids and Buyids 146 5. General Characteristics of the First Period 147 xii T ABLE OF CONTENTS B. The Earliest Monuments 148 I. The Earliest Poetry and Prose, including the Works of Avicenna and Al-Diriini 149 C. The Epic Tradition ofIran 151 D. Daqiqi 153 E. Firdausi 154 F. Epic Poems connected with the Shdh-ntima 162 G. Persian Authors in (850-1000) 166

IV. THE GHAZNAVID PERIOD (5th/lIth century) 172 A. Yaminu'd-Daula Mal).miid of Ghazna 172 B. Mal).mud's Attitude to Culture 173 C. The Panegyric Poets under Mal).mud and his Successors 174 D. The Romantic Epic 177 E. Avicenna - his Importance and his Influence 179

V. THE SELJUQ PERIOD (5th/lIth to 6th/12th century) 183 A. The Rise of Panegyrism under Sultan Sanjar and during the Disintegration of the Seljuq Supremacy 184 B. Na~ir-i Khusrau 185 C. COmar Khayyam 189 D. The Panegyric Poets 194 I. Qatran (Azerbayjan) 194 2. Mucizzi and (at the Seljuq Court) 195 3. Mascud-i Sacd-i Salman, l;Iasan Ghaznavi-i and Abu'l-Faraj Riini (Ghaznavid ) 196 4. , and (at the Court of the Seljuqs) 197 5. CAmCaq () 199 6. Rashid Vatvat (Khvarazm) 200 E. The School of Azerbayjan 201 F. The Epic Poet Ni:(:ami and his Imitators and Maktabi 210 G. The School: Jamiilu'd-din, Kamalu'd-din Ismacil 213 H. The Satirist Siizani 214

VI. THE PROSE OF THE SELJUQ PERIOD (sth-6th/Ilth-12th century) 220 A. On the Border-line between Learned Literature (or Instruction) and Belles-Lettres 220 B. Belles-Lettres 222 C. Historical Works in Prose 224 D. Iranian Writers of Arabic (1000-1200 A.D.) 224 xiii TABLE OF CONTENTS

VII. ~UFISM 226 A. Origin, Development and Ideology of ~fifism 226 B. Groups and Schools. Ritual 230 C. ~fin Symbolism 231 D. Beneficial and deleterious Effects of ~fifism on Culture 232 E. The Poets: Abfi-Sa'id b. Abi'l-Khayr, (Baba Kfihi), CUryan, An~ari, Baba Af

VIII. THE MONGOLS 246 A. Sacdi. The Rise of the 250 B. Sa'di's Contemporaries 253 C. Nizari 255 D. Indo-Persian Literature: Amir Khusrau, Najmu'd-mn 1;Iasan Sanjari 257 E. Panegyric Poets at the Smaller Courts: Khvajfi, Ibn-i Yamin, Salman Savaji 260 F. The Lyric Poet 262 G. 1;Iafi~, the Ghazal at its Summit 263 H. 1;Iafi~' Environment in 271

IX. TIMUR AND HIS SUCCESSORS 279 A. Cultural and Literary Life 279 B. Lyric and Epic Poetry under the Timurids 283 C. 286 D. Outside . Baba Fighani and his Influence. Lisani 288

X. THE SAFA VIDS 29 1 A. The Literature of this Epoch 292 I. The 'Indian' Style 295 2. The Classicists 297 B. Poets of the Safavid Period 297 C. Subsequent Development of the Indian Style 301 D. ~a)ib, Shaukat, Bidil 301

XI. THE TURBULENT 12TH/18TH CENTURY 305 A. Shiraz, Political Centre in the Second Half of the 12th/18th Century; 'Return' (Bdz-Gasht) in Isfahan 306 B. 1;Iazin 308 C. Shihiib 30 9 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS XII. LITERARY AND ASSOCIA TED SPECIES OF PROSE DURING THE 7TH-12TH/ 13TH-18TH CENTURIES 311 A. Two Trends in Style: Extravagance and Simplicity 312 B. I:Iusayn Va'i?:; The Moral Philosophers 313 C. Va~~af (8th/14th Century) and his Imitator Mahdi-Khiin (12th/18th Century) 314 I. Indian Essay-Writing; Insha, 'Letter-Writing', 'Model Letters'; Tadhkiras, etc. 315 2. Belles-Lettres 316 3· Scholarly Works 317

XIII. THE 13TH/19TH CENTURY 320 A. General Characteristics of the Century 320 B. Continuation of the Epigone 'Return' Movement with its Tendency towards Simplicity 323 C. 1800-1830 325 D. 1830-1850 328 I. Panegyrists: Qa'iini, Vi~iil, Fmiighi 328 2. The Reaction to the Degeneration of the Social Order. The Satirist Yaghma 333 3. The First Prose-Reformer: Qii'im-Maqam. The Diaries of Nii~iru'd-dIn and their Importance 335 E. Second Half of the 13th/19th Century 336 I. Book-Printing 337 2. The Press 337 3. Diiru'l-Funun and its First Director, Ri4ii-Quli-Khiin Hidiiyat 339 4. The Development of Learned Prose. Translations from Literature of the West 341 5. Trends towards Popularisation and Pro-Russian Reaction to the Occidental Cult. Tiilibuf 343 6. The Sole Philosopher of the 13th/19th Century: 343 7. Classicism in Poetry, occasionally with Contemporary Themes: Sipihr, Humii, Surush, Shaybiini, SMrida, Adib Nishiipfiri 344 8. AdibU'l-Mamiilik 348

Vl1RA KUBfCKOVA: PERSIAN LITERATURE OF THE 20TH CENTURY 353

I. BRIEF SURVEY OF THE ECONOMICO-POLITICAL SITUATION IN IRAN AFTER 1896 355 A. Struggle for a Constitution and Fall of the Qajars in the Period xv TABLE OF CONTENTS

1896-1921 355 B. The Rise of Riga Khan and his Path to Power 358 C. Changes in Home and Foreign Policy after 1941 359

II. CHARACTER OF THE LITERARY RENAISSANCE 362 A. The Press and its Role in the Literature of the Constitutional Period 365 B. The Beginnings of Modern Prose 369 C. Important Poets of the Constitutional Period 372

III. LITERAR Y LIFE IN THE YEARS 1921- 1941 379 A. Literary Reviews between 1921 and 1941 382 B. The Main Trends in Poetry 384 C. Persian Prose and the Rise of the Modern Short Story 389

IV. THE MAIN LITERARY TRENDS AFTER 1941 397 A. Important Literary and Cultural Periodicals of Recent Years 401 B. Brief Survey of Contemporary Persian Poetry 404 C. Persian Prose after 1941 406 1. The Novel and the Short Story with Historical Themes 406 2. Social Themes in Modern Prose 408 3. The Chief Representatives of the Short Story 410

FELIX TAUER: PERSIAN LEARNED LITERATURE FROM ITS BEGINNINGS UP TO THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY 419

I. INTRODUCTION 421 II. PHILOSOPHY 42 5 III. PHILOLOGY 429 IV. HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 438 V. GEOGRAPHY 460 VI. THE EXACT SCIENCES 464 VII. THE NATURAL SCIENCES 470 VIII. MEDICINE AND PHARMACOLOGY 473 IX. ENCYCLOPAEDIAS 480

JIltI BECKA: TAJIK LITERATURE FROM THE 16TH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT 483

I. BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 485 A. Introduction 485 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS B. The Parting of Iran and Central Asia 486 C. Characteristics of Tajik Literature from the 16th to the Early 20th 487 Centuries D. The Study of Tajik Literature 489 E. Periodisation 490 F. The 16th Century 491 I. Political and Economic Survey 491 2. Literature 494 a. 'Sabki ' 496 h~ m c. Hiloli 500 d. Yosin 50 I e. Mushfiqi 502 G. The 17th Century 504 I. Historical Survey 504 2. Literature 505 a. Poetry of the Town Craftsmen 508 b. Salido 509 H. The 18th Century up to the Russian Occupation of Central Asia 5 I I 1. Historical Survey 5 II 2. Literature 512 a. Bedil and Bedilism 515 1. From the Russian Occupation to the October Revolution 520 I. Historical Survey 520 a. ladidism 523 b. The Effect of the Russian Occupation of Central Asia 524 2. Literature 525 a. Folk-Poetry 529 b. Donish 529 c. Savdo 532 d. Shohin 533 e. Hairat 534 f. Asiri 534 g. AIm 535

II. AFTER THE REVOLUTION 546 A~~~ ~ B. Political Development 547 C. Influences 549 D. Characteristics of Soviet Tajik Literature 550 E. Division into Periods 553 xvii TABLR OF CONTENTS

I. Development from 1917 to 1929 553 2. From 1929 to 1941 554 3· From 1941 to 1945 556 4· From 1945 to the Present 557 F. The Founders of Soviet Tajik Literature 559 I. Sadriddin Aim 559 2. Abulqosim Lohuti 564 3. Other Members of the First Generation 566 4· Javhari and the Poetess Ozod 57 1 G. The Second Generation 572 I. Prose 572 2. Poetry 577 H. The 'Third' and 'Fourth' Generations 585 I. Poetry 585 2. Prose 588 J. The Drama 589 I. From 1933 to 1941 590 2. From 1941 to 1945 592 3· From 1945 up to the Present 592 K. The Folk-Poets 595 L. The Study of Tajik Literature 598 M. The Press 600 niH CEJPEK: IRANIAN FOLK-LITERATURE 607

I. INTRODUCTION 609 A. Contrasts between Folk-Literature and Polite Literature 609 B. Directions of Development ofIranian Folk-Literature 6II C. The Importance of Folk-Literature 613

II. IRANIAN FOLK-EPICS 617 A. Iranian Epical Subjects as conveyed by Classical Authors 617 B. Iranian Folk-Epics in Pre-Islamic Times 619 C. Iranian Subjects adopted in Arabic Literature 622 D. Folklore Foundations of Iranian Epical Poetry 625 E. Folklore Foundations ofIranian Romantic Epics 631 F. The Gurughli Epic Cycle and other Subjects of Iranian Folk-Epics 634 G. The Ossetian Nart Sagas and their Importance 640 H. The diistiins - their Development and Connections 642 xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS

III. INTRODUCTION TO FOLK-TALES 649 A. Iranian Folk-Tales and Problems arising from them 649 B. Iranian Folk-Humour 657

IV. IRANIAN ENTERTAINMENT FOLK-LITERATURE 660 A. Collections of Fables, particularly Kalila and Dimna 660 B. 'Mirrors for Princes' and other Entertaining and Instructive Literature 661 C. The Iranian Element in the Book of A Thousand and One Nights and Similar Collections 663 D. The Thousand and One Days 666

V. WRITTEN FORMS OF FOLK-LITERATURE 670 A. Folk-Books - the Forerunners of Folk-Prints 670 B. Folk-Prints in General 67 1 C. Fantastic Romances of Chivalry in Folk-Print Form 671 D. Short Stories in Folk-Prints 673 E. Folk-Tales in Folk-Prints 674 F. Dream-Books and Handbooks for Astrologers and Fortune-Tellers 675

VI. THE INFLUENCE OF FOLK-LITERATURE IN MODERN PERSIAN AND TAJIK LITERATURE 677

VII. RELIGIOUS FOLK-LITERATURE 679 A. Religious Folk-Literature and its Relations to Folk-Tradition 679 B. Religious Folk-Literature as Primary Stage in Iranian Folk-Drama 680

VIII. DRAMATIC FOLK- 682 A. The ta'ziyas and other Religious Festivals and their Development 682 B. 'Umar-kushiin, Religious Parody and Farce 685 C. Folk-Farces 686 D. Iranian Buffoons and their Productions 687 E. Shadow Plays 688 F. Glove Puppet Theatres 690 G. Marionette Theatres 690 H. Modern Drama and its Connections with Folk-Literature 691

IX. VERSE FORMS OF FOLK-LITERATURE 694 A. Folk- 694 B. Lyric and Epic Folk-Songs 695 C. Folk-Couplets, Counting-Out and Nursery Rhymes 699 xix TABLE OF CONTENTS

X. RIDDLES AND PROVERBS 701

XLCONCLUUON 705

JAN MAREK: PERSIAN LITERATURE IN INDIA 7II

A. First Contacts between Iran and India in the Field of Literature. The Age of Ma.J;uniid Ghaznavi and M~ammad GhOn 713 B. Literary Relations become closer. The Sultanate of 715 1. l;Iasan of Delhi 717 2. The Court of Sikandar Low 720 C. The Golden Age of Indo-Persian Literature. The Age of the Moguls 721 1. The Age of 722 2. The Age of Jahiingir 725 3. The Court of Shahjahan 726 4. The Age of Aurangzeb. The Decline of the Mogul Empire 729 D. The Retrogression of Persian as the Literary Language of India. The Poots as Bilinguists 73 I

JAN RYPKA: AN OUTLINE OF JUDEO-PERSIAN LITERATURE 735

SUR VEY OF DYNASTIES 741

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 751

ADDENDA

INDEX

xx LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abh. - Abhandlungen BSL -- Blilletin de la Societe de linguistiqllede Abt. - Abteilung Paris ADTD - Ankara Oniversitesi, Dil ve Tarih• BSO(A)S - Blilletin of the School of Oriental Cografya Fakilltesi Dergisi (and African) Studies, London Ak. der W. und der L. - Akademie der Wissen• CAJ - Central Asiatic JOllrnal schaften und der Literatur CAR - Central Asian Review AN SSSR; AzSSR; Gruz SSR; TadzhSSR; Uzb coIl. pub!, - collective publication SSR - Akademiya Nauk SSSR (= USSR) ; cont., cantin. - continuation(s) Azerbaydzhanskoy SSR; Gruzinskoy (= CPL - A. J. Arberry, Classical Persian Litera- Georgian) SSR; Tadzhikskoy SSR; • ture (see Bib!., B v) koy SSR DAN - Dokladi Akademii Nallk SSSR Annali (Napoli) - Annali dell' Institllto IIni• DRAN - Dokladi Rossiyskoy Akademii Nauk versitario orientale di Napoli ed. - edition, edited, editor Antol. - Antologia tadzhikskoy poezii (see Bib!., EI - Encyclopaedia of Islam (see Bib!., B I) Dna) Ermit. - see below, s.v. 'Gos. Erm.' AR - The Asiatic Review EtM - H. Ethe, Nellpersische Literatllr (see Arb. - A. J. Arberry, Persian Books, Catalogue Bib!., Bv) of the Library of the India Office (see Bib!. Fihrist - Ibn an-Nadim, Kitab al-Fihrist, ed. by B I) G. Fli.igel (Leipzig 1871-2) Arm. - Armaghiin F!Z - Farhang-i Iran-zamin ArOr. - Archiv Orienttilni FO - Folia Orientalia ASA W - Abhandlilngen der Siichsischen Aka- GAL - C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabi• demie der Wissenschaften zll Leipzig schen Literatllr (see Bib!., B I) b. - ibn ['son'] GIPh - Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (see B. -Berlin Bib!., B, p. 757) BAS - Barai adabiiiti sotsialisti (see Bib!., GM(N)S - E. J. W. Gibb Memorial (New) Dmb) Series BEO Damas - Blilletin d'etlldes orientales. Insti- Gos.Erm. - Gosudarstvenilly Ermitazh, Lenin• tu t fran9ais de Damas grad BI - Bibliotheca Indica GSAI - Giornale della Societa asiatica italiana bib!. - bibliography I;Iikmat - 'A.-A. I;Iikmat's translation of LHP, BO E - Bibliotheque orientale Elzeverienne In (see Bib!., B v, S.v. 'E. G. Browne')

xxi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Hisl.-Jilol.Medd. - Del Kgl. Danske Videnska• KI. -Kiasse bernes Selskab. Historisk-Jilologiske Medde• Kri'mskiy - A. Krrmskiy, Istoriya Persii (see lelser Bib!., Bv) Hom - Paul Hom, Geschichte der persischen Krrms'kiy (Ukr.) - A. Kri'ms'kiy, IstoriyaPersiyi Literatur (see Bib!., B v) (see Bib!., B v) hrsg. - herausgegeben KS - Kratkiye soobshcheniya Instituta vostoko• iA - islam Ansiklopedisi vedeniya Akademii Nauk SSSR, resp. Instituta IAN OGN; -OON; -OLY - Izvestiya Aka• narodov Azii demii Nauk SSSR, otdeleniye gUmanitarl1ikh KSIE - Kratkiye soobshcheniya Instituta etno• nauk; - otdeleniye obshchestvennikh nauk; grafti - otdeleniye literaturi i yazika L. - Leningrad IC - LGU - Leningradskiy gosudarstvennly uni• IEFD - istanbul Universitesi. Edebiyat Fakiil• versitet tesi. Tiirk Dili ve Edebiyati Dergisi LHP - E. G. Browne, A Literary History of IHRC Proes. - Proceedings of the Indian His• Persia (see Bib!., B v) torical Records Commission Lit.Ir. - Literatura Irana X-XV vv. (see Bib!., IIFL - Georg Morgenstierne, Indo-Iranian BVla) Frontier Languages (Oslo 1929-1956) (Insti• lith. - lithograph tuttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning) Lpz. - Leipzig ILG - Jan Rypka et al., Iranische Literatur• M.-Moscow geschichte (see Bib!., B v) MDASh - Majalla-i Diinishkada-i adabiyyiit-i IPTL-Yeo E. Bertel's, Izbranniye trudi: Istoriya Shiriiz persidsko-tadzhikskoy literaturi (see Bib!., B v) MDAT - Majalla-i Diinishkada-i adabiyyiit-i lsI. - Der Islam Tihriin Ist.Uzb. - Istoriya Uzbekskoy SSR (see Bib!., MEA - Middle Eastern Affairs Dra) MEJ - Middle Eastern Journal IVV - Institut vostokovedeniya Akademii Nauk Mel. - Melanges SSSR Memoirs ASB - Memoirs of the Asiatic Society Izv. - Izvestiya of Izv.Tadzh. - Izvestiya otdeleniya obshchest• MSOS - Mitteilungen des Seminars fiir orienta• vennikh nauk Akademii Nauk Tadzhikskoy lische Sprachen, Westasiatische Studien, Berlin SSR, MS(S). -manuscript(s) JA -Journal asiatique MTA - Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia (Hun• JAH - Journal of Asian History garian Academy of Sciences) JAOS - Journal of the American Oriental M. va M. - Maori[ va Madaniyat (see Bib!., Society Dnra) JASP - Journal of the Asiatic Society of MW - The NAA - Narodi Azii i Afriki JPHS - Journal of the Pakistan Historical Namuna - Namunahoi adabiiiti tojik (see Bib!., Society Dna) JRAS - Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, n.d. - not dated London NDAT - Nashriyya-i Diinishkada-i adabiyyiit-i J(R)ASB - Journal of the (Royal) Asiatic Society of Bengal NKNI - Nukhustin kongre-i navisandagan-i JRCentr.AS - Journal of the Royal Central Iran ( 1325) Asian Society NO - Novy Orient Karatay - F. E. Karatay, istanbul Universitesi NY - List of Works in the New York Public ... katalogu (see Bib!., B I) Library (see Bib!., B I) Kit. - Kitiibhii-i miih (see Bib!., B I) OCM - Oriental College Magazine

xxii LIST OF ABREVIATIONS

OITL - I. S. Braginskiy, Ocherki iz istorii St. - Stalinobod (Stalinabad) tadzhikskoy literaturi (see Bib!., Dna) Storey - C. A. Storey, Persian Literature (see o LZ - Orientalische Literaturzeitung Bib\., B v) OM - Oriente moderno SV - Sovetskoye vostokovedeniye per. - perevod, pereveJ ('translation', 'trans- T. - Tashkent lated') Thr. - Tehran Przegl.Or. - Przeglqd Orientalistyczny TIE - Trudi Instituta etnograjii PV -Problemi vostokovedeniya TIYa - Trudi Instituf

(For a supplementary list of abbreviations, used only in the section on Persian Learned Literature, see p. 423, note 2)

xxiii GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION

The spelling of Persian names, titles etc. in this work is based on a system of strict transliteration from the . Geographic, ethnic and dynastic names, however, are usually given in a form which is current in English. In pronouncing the transliterated Persian words the following rules should be observed:

I. ii, i and il are long vowels approximately like the English vowels in barred, beat and booed; the ancient majhil! vowels e and 6 (like English ai and oa in raid and road) have been disregarded as far as New Persian is concerned, with the exception of the section on Indo-Persian literature (pp. 7II- 734) I au and ay are diphthongs. 2. zh = French j in jour. 3. ! = t I th and ,. = s I!'", if and db = z. 4. lfh and q (Arabic lfhayn and qat) constitute a single phoneme in modem Persian: a voiced or unvoiced uvular sounding like German If in Talfe II) = h, pronounced in all positions I kh = Scottish ch in loch. 5. ' and ' (Arabic hamza and 'ayn) represent a hiatus between two vowels or the lengthening of a preceding short vowel before a consonant; otherwise they are to be disregarded in pronuncia• tion.

In the section on Ancient and Middle Iranian literature (pp. I-67) some additional rules have been applied: I. i1 = a short intermediate vowel approximately like English u in but I q = a nasalised vowel like French en I r (in Old Iranian and Old Indic) = a retrofiected r used as a vowel. 2. ,. (in Khotanese and Old Indic) = sh. 3. th = English th in thinlf. 4. n=nlf·

In the section on Tajik literature (pp. 483-605) a different system of transliteration has been adopted, based on the current orthography of the . The following rules are only valid in that section: I. 0 (persian ii) and e are always long vowels I long i is exclusively used at the end of a word; the short i in that position marks the izo/a (i1/6./at) I il = a labialised long vowel lower than u and higher than 0 I e = yo (Persian yo.) I r (in diphthongs) = y. xxv GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION

2. '= cyrillic D written both for etymological hamza and 'ayn I ' = cyrillic h, the so-called alomati judoi, a punctuation point placed before e, H (ya) and 10 (yu); e.g. bis'i!r. 3. gh and q are still separate phonemes in Tajik. This system has also been applied to names and titles belonging to the older periods of Tajik literature when the Arabic script was still in use; e.g. Badoe'-ul-vaqoe' instead of Badiiyi'a'l-vaqiiyi'.

In Turkish words; I. I (in the Latin alphabet of ), i (in the of the ) = an un• rounded intermediate vowel like Russian hr (here also transcribed as 1). 2. c=j I r=ch I §=sh. 3. g = Y (with front vowels) or a very weakly pronounced (with back vowels).

xxvi ERRATA

P. 133, line 7: Ibn-i Murfarrigh must be Ibn-i Mufarrigh P. 133, line 32: OF MIDDLE AND PERSIAN VERSE must be OF MIDDLE AND NEW PERSIAN VERSE P. 259, line I I: Tiirikh-i must be Ta'rikh-i P. 274, note 6: Ivanow must be Ivanov P. 306, line IS: BAZ-GASHTmust be BAZ-GASHT P. 307, line 32: baz-giisht must be biiz-gasht P. 558, line 35: Abdurauf must be Abdurrauf P. 658, line 17: mathnavi must he Mathnavi P. 722, line 4: mathnavi must be Mathnavi P. 733, note 2: Abdulvahab must he Abdul Wahab P. 739, line 13: Ibn Abu'l-Khayr must be Ibn Abi'l-Khayr P. 740, note I, line 3: read 'Qissai Yusuf u Zulaykha'

xxvii