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Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?)

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Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) Erika Kathleen Smith T hesi s submi t t ed f or t he degr ee of Doctor of Philosophy I nst i t ut e f or Cul t ur e and Soci et y Uni versi t y of West ern Sydney February 2016 Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) Statement of authentication The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowl edged i n t he t ext . I her eby decl ar e t hat I have not submi t t ed t hi s material either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. Erika Kathleen Smith 2 February 2016. i Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) Dedication I dedicate this thesis to my parents and grandparents. ii Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) Acknowledgements I must begin by thanking my parents for their support throughout my studies at university. Their selfless determination to provide me with all your support made completing this task possible and something I am so deeply appreciative of. I am deepl y gr at ef ul t o my ext r aor di nar y super vi sor s Pr of essor D avi d Rowe, A ssoci at e Pr of essor Robyn Bushel l , and D oct or Russel l St ai f f . M y speci al t hanks t o D avi d f or hi s patience, for critically reading my work, and providing me with incisive and constructive feedback. His expertise has helped me develop my writing, editing and conceptual skills. Thank you to Russell who spent many afternoons over tea in the QVB, helping me develop my research topic and prompting me to pursue new ideas. And thank you to Robyn for offering suggestions for developing sections of the thesis, and who has been such a supportive and positive supervisor. I am indebted to all my supervisors for their knowledge, but I acknowledge that any errors or shortcomings in this dissertation are my own. I want t o acknowl edge t he Uni ver si t y of West er n Sydney f or t hei r gener ous hi gher degree research scholarship, for which I am very thankful. I would like to recognise the I nst i t ut e of Cul t ur e and Soci et y (I CS) f or of f er i ng me a pl ace t o st udy and a gr eat and supportive learning environment. I am grateful to the ICS for giving me the opportunity to travel to the Advanced Cultural Studies Institute at Linköping, University in Sweden, and to conduct my fieldwork on the Kokoda Track in Papua New Guinea. I would also l i ke t o expr ess my gr at i t ude t o Pr of essor G reg N obl e and t he H i gher D egr ee Resear ch Committee who were encouraging and supportive, especially in my final years. It is now that I have been away from the ICS for some time and seen so many of my comr ades gr aduat e t hat I t r ul y appr eci at e t he wonder f ul soci al and l ear ni ng envi r onment that we had. It was because of the ICS that I met great people and dear friends. In no particular order, thank you Jacqui, Ingrid, Brendan, Bettie, Shanna, Pariece, Kev, Jo, Takeshi, Ryan, Jackie, Kearrin, Cathy, Mike, Michelle, Christy, Ruth, Johanna, Ann, Simone, Enda, Jen, Michael, Christian, Scott, Vibha, Louise, Bryn, Deb, Giulia, Willem, Seb, A ndr ea, K ar i n, Jacki e, Sherene, Sue A nn, E ce, and M i cke. iii Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) I would like to thank my sister Alison and her partner Alex for coping with me when we l i ved under t he same r oof . T hank you t o my gr andpar ent s M ama, Papa, O gi san and Obasan, you were the inspiration behind this dissertation. Also, to Benji, Charlie, Meow- Meow, Mr. Pickles and Sally, thank you for showing me, especially during the more challenging times, that you still loved me. To my trek leader and fellow trekkers, it seems a contradiction because of the difficult times we faced, but thank you for the many laughs and friendships on the Kokoda Track. A special thank you to Guy for being a hobby photographer and lugging his professional camera equipment along. Your photos were of far better quality than mine, and I thank you for providing me with copies. The trek would not have been possible without the help of the Papua New Guinean guides and carriers, especially Bob, Sammy and Pete. I would like to acknowledge the tradition owners of the land, the Orokaivan, Koiari, and Binideri peoples, and thank the people who live along the Track. What a sight we must have been when we ‘rolled into town’, with our walking poles, hydralyte and head torches. I do hope that we (Australians) improve our relationship with Papua New Guinea and see the peoples as more than Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels. Finally, thank you to Doctor Ben Imbun from the School of Business at UWS, for correcting my Tok Pisin. iv Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) Table of contents List of Tables ix List of Plates x List of Figures xv Glossary xvi Abstract xix Chapter 1. The Kokoda Track Phenomenon 2 T he st ar t of a phenomenon 3 Identifying the gaps in texts based on the Kokoda Track 4 O ver ar chi ng thesi s stat ement 8 The Kokoda Track 10 Clarifying terms 14 Subjective positionality 18 Aim 20 Methodology 20 Thesis structure 22 Chapter 2. Contextualising the research 24 Introduction 25 Birth of the nation 27 Papua New Guineans and representations in the early period 30 Forging national identity in the colonial period 33 Development of the Japanese Other 37 The Anzac tradition 41 Whiteness in Australia 48 Digital nationalism 49 Conclusion 50 Chapter 3. The Cultures of Kokoda 52 Introduction 53 Political discourse 54 The trekkers 61 Secular pilgrimage meets adventure tourism 64 v Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) The Kokoda spirit: building leadership and team bonding 68 Whi t eness and ‘r ace’ on t he K okoda T r ack 70 Expressing nationalism 74 Online expressions of nationalism 74 Charity events that inspire and raise awareness 75 Expressing nationalism with memorial walks in Australia 76 Everyday objects: music, coins, stamps, images and documentaries 76 Expressing nationalism with body art (tattoos) 79 Meanings in print images 83 Conclusion 85 Vignette I. Sapos yu laik kisim gutpela save pastaim yu mas go longpela wokabaut (If you want knowledge, first you must go on a journey) 87 Chapter 4. Whiteman fantasies of Papua New Guineans 110 Introduction 111 How a ‘Boong’ became a ‘Fuzzy Wuzzy Angel’ 113 The untold history of the Papua New Guinean war experience 123 A Sydney council welcomes Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels 130 The naked native in contemporary representations 133 Homogenisation 138 The ideal native 139 E vi dence of Whi t eman on t he K okoda T r ack 140 Whi t e I ndi genei t y on t he K okoda Tr ack 146 Conclusion 149 Vignette II. 忠実な戦没者へ (To the loyal war dead) 152 Chapter 5. White Indigeneity: examination of Kokoda Track memorials 165 Introduction 166 Background to war memorials 168 War memorials on the Kokoda Track 170 Unmarked memorial sites 171 vi Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) Institutional memorials 172 Military museums 182 Personal memorials 188 Statue 192 D i scussi on of t he war memor i al s on t he K okoda T r ack 192 Memorialising the Kokoda Track in Australia 195 Kokoda Track Memorial Walkway at Concord 196 The Kokoda Trail Memorial Walk at St. Agnes 200 D i scussi on of t he K okoda T r ack M emor i al Wal ks i n A ust r al i a 205 The Second World War Gallery of the AWM 206 Sections in the Second World War II Gallery 212 Section 1 213 Section 2 and 3 214 Section 4 214 Section 5 215 Section 6 217 Section 7 220 Section 8 222 Section 9 225 Section 10, 11 and 12 230 Section 13 231 Section 14 233 Section 15 233 Section 16 233 Compet i ng el ement s i n t he Second Wor l d War G al l er y 235 A balancing act: representations of the enemy 237 Photographs excluded from the Second World War Gallery 242 Political viewpoints and ‘race’ in the Second World War Gallery 250 Conclusion 253 Chapter 6. In search of ‘Australian identity’ in contemporary Australia 255 Introduction 256 The Cronulla Riots 257 Cronulla to Kokoda: Ali’s Story 260 vii Kokoda Track: Stori Bilong Waitlain Tasol? (Kokoda Track: Only a Whiteman Story?) The Australian flag – inclusion or exclusion 269 The fall of multiculturalism and the rise of the White populist 273 The rise of digital nationalism 282 Conclusion 284 Chapter 7.
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