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Reviews and Trigger Articles
NIKOS A. SALINGAROS: A NEW VITRUVIUS FOR 21st–CENTURY ARCHITECTURE AND URBANISM?
Ashraf M. Salama
Abstract NOTE to Academics, Architectural Students, This article adopts the premise that the work of Critics, and Practitioners Nikos A. Salingaros marks a true beginning for seriously regaining what cultures and societies This article should not be seen in a similar light to have lost throughout the years through the work of the typical practice of critics. It is by no means, many architects, urbanists, and decision makers. and should not be interpreted as, propaganda or It explores the three monographs he has written a publicity campaign for a new theory. It simply and views them as a new “De Architectura” for reflects on the work of a scientist, a mathematician, 21st century architecture and urbanism. The article an architectural theorist and a concerned world reflects on Vitruvius’s De Architectura and sheds light citizen who felt the need for architects to start on selected evolutionary aspects of architecture shaping a better world. Recognizing the current and the anti-vitruvian practices that continued status of architecture, it views Salingaros’ work as a for hundreds of years, but intensified over the last great endeavor that is not bound to a time limitation century. It reviews the attitudes of anti-vitruvian or a geographical location. architects that contributed to severe socio-cultural and contextual problematics. The views adopted in this article are based on the conviction that the Preamble: From Vitruvius to Salingaros theories and writings of Salingaros are a reaction and a conscious positive response to these practices, Frank Granger and Morris Hicky Morgan’s and that these theories will invigorate the creation of translations of Vitruvius’ De Architectura tell humane and livable environments. us much about the essence of architecture as a cultural artifact, and as one the most Keywords important professional and educational Nikos Salingaros; Vitruvius; Christopher Alexander; disciplines. De Architectura offers insights into deconstructivism; anti-architecture; urban structure. issues on what constitutes architecture, how architecture should be practiced, and the bodies of knowledge required for a responsive and knowledgeable architect. After several centuries of many failures to address these
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issues and to face the practical realities of was also a writer and can be seen as the first architecture in satisfying the basic needs theorist of architecture in Western history. There of people, Nikos A. Salingaros shines on were other earlier or contemporary known the international architectural community. and unknown theorists in other cultures. In this He brings to light his own theories in three respect, one would differentiate between manuscripts that I believe will shape the future Vitruvius and others by considering their work of world architecture. as “Volume 0 theories” while that of Vitruvius as “Volume 1 theory,” i.e. a recorded written The three pieces of Salingaros titled “Anti- ASHRAF M. SALAMA theory. Architecture and Deconstruction,” “Principles of Urban Structure,” and “A Theory of According to Granger (1931), Marcus Vitruvius Architecture” mark an important milestone in Pollio or “Vitruvius” was one of those appointed the history of architectural theories, where true to oversee the design and manufacturing of scientific thinking coupled with the integration the imperial artillery or military engines of the of natural and social sciences put architecture Roman Empire at that time. It is said that he was again into focus, and answer a series of critical the architect of at least one unit of buildings for questions. While offering harsh criticism on Augustus, “Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus.” A conventional practices, the manuscripts offer few years before he died, Vitruvius completed science-based theories and arguments, an his manuscript De Architectura which, after its aspect that remains missing from old and re-discovery in the 15th century, became one recent debates on architectural theory and of the most influential writings to be studied by criticism. It is my conviction that they will architects from the early Renaissance until the eventually penetrate the thick skin of traditional present. academics and the inherited practice norms of professionals, which are not equipped to face On De Architectura the complexity of architecture and urbanism in the 21st century. Vitruvius adds to the tradition of Greek theories and practices the results of his own experience. On Vitruvius De Architectura covers almost every aspect of Roman architecture. The books break down While little is known about Vitruvius and his life, as follows: 1. Town planning, architecture in examining some of the available manuscripts general, and the qualifications required of an (Granger, 1931; Morgan, 1960) reveals that architect; 2. Building materials; 3. Temples and he was born around 80 BC and died in 25 the orders of architecture; 4. continuation of BC. He was a Roman architect as well as book 3; 5. Civil buildings; 6. Domestic buildings; an engineer, admired and studied Greek 7. Pavements and decorative plasterwork; philosophy and science in depth while gaining 8. Water supplies; 9. Sciences influencing an intensive experience — in architecture architecture — geometry, mensuration, and the technology of the time — throughout astronomy etc.; and 10. Use and construction the course of his professional career. Vitruvius of machines (Granger, 1931; Smith, 2004).
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Roman architects were significantly different societies operate in the physical environment, from their modern counterparts, acting as or simply the dialectic relationships between engineers, architects, artists, and craftsmen people and their environments. Firmness or combined. Vitruvius was very much durability on the other hand represents the a professional of this type, a fact reflected technological aspects of architecture, since it in De Architectura. He covers a wide variety is governed by the natural sciences, including of subjects that he saw as touching on the laws of physics, statics, and dynamics. architecture. This included many aspects Delight or beauty exemplifies the aesthetic
ASHRAF M. SALAMA which would seem invisible to modern eyes, component of architecture, and this is based ranging from mathematics and astronomy, on the very fact that architecture seeks to to meteorology and medicine. In the Roman express ideal concepts of beauty that emerge conception, architecture needed to take from symbols embedded in a particular culture. into account everything that touched on the Notably, each of these phenomena has an physical and intellectual life of a human being interdependent relationship with the other two and his surroundings (Rowland & Howe, 1999). (Salama, 1998).
In Vitruvius’ De Architectura, known in contemporary history as “Vitruvius: Ten Books On Anti-Vitruvian Practices on Architecture,” architecture was defined and Throughout the recorded history of theorized. However, it was re-stated in the 17th architecture, the balance among the century by Sir William Wotton (Morgan, 1960). preceding three criteria/phenomena and their In theory, three complex criteria/phenomena interdependencies has been a continuous constitute the definition of architecture: 1) challenge, and one can confidently argue Convenience/Commodity; 2) Durability/ that they were never addressed in full. This Firmness; and 3) Beauty/Delight. This means is especially obvious when looking at how that a building or a portion of a designed/built architecture has evolved as a profession and as environment must meet three standards to a cultural product throughout the last century. qualify as architecture. It must conveniently Up to the modern era, architecture was — and serve the purpose for which it was designed, was seen as — a cultural index that took different built, and inhabited; it must be structurally forms in different historical eras. These forms sound; and it must be beautiful. resulted from the intersection of contextual particularities of geography, economy, and Each of these three criteria constitutes a socio-political settings. However, architecture number of subordinate complex phenomena. was always concerned with producing For the purpose of simplifying these phenomena individual works of art on individual sites, where one would venture the development of a designing buildings or built environments was preliminary definition of each. Commodity or intuitive. The design process relied heavily on convenience expresses the functional aspects the experience, judgment, and talent of the of architecture, the way buildings house individual designer. While this approach to human activities, how people live and how architecture has — in a few cases — resulted
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in some of the most enduring achievements, designs, the realities of buildings, and the today architecture faces severe challenges context within which they are designed which threaten its traditional role that was and built. Throughout this last century, the dominant in pre-modern times, namely since continuous attempts to internationalize or beginning of the 20th century. universalize architecture have resulted in the subtle destruction of traditional cultures, and I Although architects of the ancient world believe many academics and theorists would were generally associated with the rich and agree on that (Salama, 1995). powerful, the king and royal institutes, their ASHRAF M. SALAMA work had many merits that we still appreciate The international Post-modern movement was in recent times. With varying degrees of a direct challenge to many of the premises success it attempted to strike the balance upon which modern architecture was based. between the three criteria/phenomena of It advocated efforts ranging from historicism architecture. Still, the poor and the middle (including historical revivalism and historic class were never addressed by architects. On eclecticism) to schizophrenic approaches that basis, one can argue that while there were of collage and elitist architecture. Based on many excellent achievements in architecture, some logical fundamentals and critical visions, typical conventional practices throughout the it acknowledged the role of symbolism in pre-modern era were Anti-Vitruvian. Over the architecture. It also regarded Modernism as last three decades however, a few positive lacking the premises to properly respond to the Vitruvian-based attempts emerged here and emotional and cultural needs of people while there around the world. simultaneously expressing economic, scientific, and technological givens of the time. Post- While having its roots in the beginning of the modernists acknowledged the taste codes of 19th century, the Modern movement reached the public as a source of design, in the belief the first half of the 20th century under the that such a practice would help their work to general title of “International Style” or “Modern communicate with the users of architecture Architecture,” though it did not live up to (Mitchell, 1993; Salama, 2002 & 2007). While this its name. The basic premise of the Modern might be seen as a good-intentioned practice, movement was to integrate function, arts, it trivialized the essence of architecture that and crafts to form universal ideas within the eventually became very superficial. In this requirements of technology. This by default respect, the major weakness of Post-modernism has led to the belief in certain principles that lies in the fact that its disposition did not allow include a rejection of ornament and historical it to go far enough in its acknowledgment styles as a source of architectural form and understanding of its context. It did not (historicism), while replacing this with a belief address the shortcomings implicit in modernist in machine aesthetics. However, the literature architectural practices, but rather, it tacitly on architectural theories corroborates that accepted them. the Modern movement failed to appreciate the distinction between conceptual abstract Despite any good intentions that might have
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existed, Modern and Post-modern movements (2004), architects have established first local, were anti-vitruvian in nature. The simple then continental, and now global networks reason for this statement is that one criterion of criticism, critics’ circles, and publications in of architecture was always emphasized at the which awards, books, and magazines are the expense of the other two, or that a high value real medium of expressing their status. In such a was placed upon two phenomena while the medium, the photographs are privileged at the third was oversimplified or entirely ignored. In expense of the physical artifacts, and I would historic terms, as two developmental phases add here at the expense of the people who
ASHRAF M. SALAMA of architecture, they have culminated into use them. The result is that “Architecture has architectural globalization with many underlying become the exclusive domain of the so-called “isms” and trends that simply cut architecture “Star Architect” (starchitect in common usage), from its roots, which are exemplified by socio- no longer operating as a conveyance, but as cultural and physical contexts. a usurper of culture and identity.” (Salingaros & Masden, 2007:37). Globalization generally refers to an economically driven process, whereby the Architects still believe that they are eligible to politics, economics, and culture of one country use the act of building — which buildings are penetrate other countries (Stiglitz, 2003). It is seen however actually used by others — for personal by those who believe they will benefit from it as exploration and expression. They are creating a force that can unite economic forces, while architecture that makes little reference at the same time causing social and cultural to anything, only their creative impulses. resistance. Under strong global economic and Concomitantly, this sense of artistic entitlement cultural impacts, world architecture witnessed empowered a few of them to design a few the erosion of regional/local identities. It is brilliant individual buildings. Yet, it has produced concomitantly experiencing the loss of visual fragmented and illegible urbanism. Therefore, anchors into the soul of most cities, and even one can argue that, in generic terms, while small towns and villages. The three very basic some architects manage individual buildings criteria of architecture were entirely forgotten, well enough, the overall built environment is and were replaced by other factors that involve increasingly mismanaged. market economy and the establishment of transnational anti-vitruvian practices. Digging into the study of Dana Cuff (1989), the attitudes of anti-vitruvian architects On Anti-Vitruvian Architects become more obvious. Cuff was interested in exploring two issues through interviews with Since architecture became an established star architects. These were the notions of the profession, architects are always in a individual and the image of the society, and the continuous search for recognition and fame. individual’s identity and the individual’s sense The reason is that throughout history they have of others. Her interview resulted in a number wanted to be the intellectual and social peers of statements made by name architects that of their elite clients. According to Kelbaugh support the preceding argument. Richard
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Meier states: “… the similarities among my works such individuals now exert over our place in are because I am interested in certain things.” the world?” (Salingaros & Masden, 2007:37). I Robert Kliment states: “… I make what I want would argue that someone, some organization, to be ... architecture is a way to create order a professional body, an architectural club, and logic in my own life …” Eisenman states: a client group, or whatever responsible entity “… I act through architecture, how else do I should take these questions and seriously try to prove I am here …” As Cuff commented, “… answer them in an attempt to stop or minimize a building reveals a self portrait of its maker …” the severe damages to cultures and societies in
ASHRAF M. SALAMA (Cuff, 1989). which those anti-vitruvian architects practice.
Strikingly, these architects see themselves The preceding reflection goes along with the as creative leaders and among the world’s architect role models identified by James actors, but with special talents and unique Ackerman in his pioneering article: “Listening responsibilities, emphasizing the cardinal to Architecture” (Ackerman, 1969). The contribution of the individual maker to the world anti-vitruvian architect role models can be of architecture. As a result, their buildings are exemplified in two types of architects; the seen as steps within their own lives. This illustrates egoist, and the pragmatist role models. One that artistic originality and individual authorship should note in this context that other roles have are highly revered and seen as paramount, and been identified by several writers, for example thus the notion of “celebrity” continues to be a Erber (1970), and Burgess (1983). Nevertheless, dominant aspect of international architectural for the purpose of this discussion, the focus is circles. What does this tell us? An assertion can on the egoist and the pragmatist as dominant be made here: anti-vitruvian architects, the models that continue to exist for centuries. shapers of most cities in the developed and the Again, based on recent practices, one could developing worlds, are immersing themselves in see them as the only models now. a matter of self exploration and self expression, and thus the creation of architecture is based The egoist is attitudinally described as the “I- only on intrinsic feelings and beliefs rather than give-them-what-I-want” approach to practice. rational, logical, and contextual constraints The pragmatist role, on the other hand, is (Salama, 1995). attitudinally described as the “I-give-them- what-they-want” approach to practice. In In response to these syndromes the recent terms of the attitudes underlying these two article of Salingaros and Masden (2007) raises models one can argue that the tendency critical questions “How can anyone believe of the egoist is to deny or oversimplify (or that a “Dutch Design Demigod” could know superficially respond to) the system of values of a more about a place than the very people who society, while the tendency of the pragmatist is were born and raised there? How can these to totally accept the system of values as is. Both starchitects espouse to know what is best for these attitudes produce negative approaches the rest of the world? More importantly, how to the creation of the built environment, and to do we combat the aesthetic authority that the way in which architecture is practiced. The
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egoist is paternalistic and his/her role is to create change in a poor community, or a squatter abstract forms based on subjective feelings, settlement. While anti-vitruvian architects whereas the pragmatist is entrepreneurial and are immersing themselves in exploring new his/her role is to manipulate forms based on innovations to foster their fame, two thirds of accepting the values of others. In this context, the world’s population lacks shelter or lives in one should emphasize “her” as star architects substandard houses (adapted from Salama now include female architects (2). The anti- 2003). vitruvian practices and the attitudes of anti-
ASHRAF M. SALAMA vitruvian architects have contributed to severe On Salingaros environmental and social problems. The cultural and visual identities of different localities in Reaching the global condition and the resulting different parts of the world are completely lost ills of anti-vitruvian world architecture and because of the role models they adopt, as well urbanism, many architects came to terms with as the naivety of the client groups who support the facts of industry and economy, but typically them. at the cost of their ethical responsibilities as independent professionals. The ethics of the One should conclude this section by the individual responsive architect or the small- following four wonders and one wish: scale architectural office were replaced by the ethics of the large consulting firms or real-estate • I wonder if anti-vitruvian architects are able to companies. As a conscious reaction to this deal with different segments of societies other condition, Nikos Salingaros’ work is emerging than serving the rich and only the rich. to offer new theories that if adopted, adapted, and practiced, will shape a better environment • I wonder if they have the ability to protect for the future. The question at this point is: Who the tangible built heritage within the intangible is Nikos A. Salingaros? cultural and societal contexts. Born in Perth, Australia of Greek parents, • I wonder if they can democratize design Nikos A. Salingaros is a mathematician and practices and if they know how to involve polymath popular for his work in urban theory, people affected by design decisions in the architectural theory, complexity theory, and process of making those decisions. design philosophy. Salingaros shares a harsh • I wonder if they are able to deal with critical analysis of conventional modern problems and paradoxes associated with architecture with the architect and computer different sub-cultures including the disabled, software pioneer, Christopher Alexander, the children, seniors, and the under-represented prominent scholar and theorist. Salingaros, (Salama, 1999). like Alexander, has proposed an alternative theoretical approach to architecture and • I wish I could see anti-vitruvian architects urbanism that is more adaptive to human able to solve a housing problem in a village or needs and cultural aspirations, combining in a dense urban region, or able to introduce rigorous scientific analyses with deep intuitive
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experience (Wikepedia, 2007). He has Salingaros and Alexander collaborated with Alexander in the editing of Alexander’s latest work, “The Nature of Order”. In the context of reflecting on the work of Salingaros’ three manuscripts and numerous Salingaros, one has to refer to the mutual articles have been published in, not only and collegial relationship between him and the mainstream conventional architectural Christopher Alexander. Both have contributed magazines, but in responsive online and paper remarkable arguments and theories since journals as well. Alexander’s “Notes of the Synthesis of Form” in the 1960s to Salingaros’ “A Theory of ASHRAF M. SALAMA Prior to shifting his attention to architecture Architecture” in the 2000s. and urbanism, Salingaros published substantive research on Algebras, Mathematical Physics, Salingaros acknowledges a debt to Christopher Electromagnetic Fields, and Thermonuclear Alexander for encouraging him to devote Fusion. Salingaros still teaches mathematics, his energies to understanding architectural and is Professor of Mathematics at the and urban form. Indeed, it was Salingaros’ University of Texas at San Antonio. He is also on collaboration with Alexander, in editing the Architecture faculties of universities in Italy, Alexander’s four-volume book “The Nature Mexico, and the Netherlands. of Order,” that precipitated Salingaros into architectural research. He credits Alexander for In 1995, Salingaros’ first publication on this inspiration: “Working with him on his book architecture marked the beginning of an The Nature of Order during the twenty years exciting new career, which quickly eclipsed prior to its publication taught me much of what his earlier one. His papers on architecture I know about architecture and urbanism. He and urbanism have been translated into has generously encouraged me over all these Catalan, Farsi, Finnish, French, German, years. More than that, he provided a solid point Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish. of sanity in an architectural world driven by He was awarded a grant by the Alfred P. images, fashions, and opinions. My work utilizes Sloan Foundation in 1997 for his pioneering and expands on his ideas in many ways. A full efforts in building a scientific understanding of appreciation of the material presented here architecture and urbanism. He has appeared can only come from reading his monumental as a guest on National Public Radio, and has work.” (Salingaros, 2006:25). been interviewed by several magazines. He is a champion of the New Urbanism, combining Alexander, in turn, gives Salingaros credit for his it with new exigencies of the developing original ideas: “In my view, the second person “network city”. In an essay with James Howard who began to explore the deep connection Kunstler, Salingaros predicted the end of the between science and architecture was Nikos skyscraper era, which expanded his popularity Salingaros, one of the four Katarxis editors. He worldwide (Salingaros Home Page, 2007). had been working with me helping me edit material in The Nature of Order, for years, and at some point — in the mid-nineties I think — began writing papers looking at architectural
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problems in a scientific way. Then by the second preliminary analysis of a building. However, one half of the nineties he began making important would tend to believe that this was not enough. contributions to the building of this bridge, The reason is that architects since the discovery and to scientific explorations in architecture of De Architectura needed more elaborate which constituted a bridge.” (Alexander, 2004, arguments; this is perhaps — in part — one of Katarxis No. 3, online). the reasons why many architects and practices became anti-vitruvian, and the results are really The fact that each is crediting the other in repelling. They needed more clarification and
ASHRAF M. SALAMA some form and out loudly is a rarity in recent interpretation of phenomena that correspond academic and professional practices. Today, to the changing nature of architecture and the many theorists, academics, and practitioners societies it serves. are claiming territory or ownership over whatever they can. Another question here: It would be very difficult in the 21st century what does this tell us? Simply, it tells us that to still think of the three criteria/phenomena professional ethics are explicitly integrated in introduced by Vitruvius as a panacea to the work of Salingaros. the ills of world architecture and the built environment in general. This is especially true in light of population growth, increased From Vitruvius’ Triad to Salingaros’ Triad urbanization, technological advancement, Earlier I used the following terms: Commodity/ and the dramatic changes in the structure of Convenience,Firmness/Durability,Delight/ contemporary societies. Those major forces Beauty. However, there are many interpretations are coupled with housing problems and the in the literature expressing these three continuous emergence of squatter settlements, phenomena, and how they constitute a work the deterioration of the built heritage, and the of architecture or a building. Some authors refer emergence of new building types and large to these phenomena as function, structure, and structures. beauty, while others still prefer to use the original Undoubtedly, Vitruvius gave us the ABC of Latin terms Utilitas, Firmitas, and Venustas. architecture, but someone should have According to O’Gorman (1997), we may think continued the alphabet of architectural of the Vitruvian components as the corners of theories. It is my conviction that Nikos Salingaros an equilateral triangle, or better still, the legs of a offers a new alphabet that corresponds to tripod called architecture. No one leg can stand the demands placed upon the profession by alone; each is dependent upon the other two to contemporary societies. His work meets the form the work of architecture, and this fosters the requirements of architecture and urbanism earlier argument of this paper. in the 21st century. As a critic of modernist, Many theorists argue (and rightly so) that postmodernist, and deconstructivist styles this is an exquisite formulation; for all its of building and thought, Salingaros’ triad antiquity it remains a useful framework for the is emerging to replace these styles with initial thinking about architecture, and the a humanistic architecture for the future. His
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work is seen by many as forging a crucial I would agree that such a triad could change, interface between innovative ideas for a new as the future writings of Salingaros may evolve architecture, and the timeless content of the equilateral triangle into something else. traditional architectures (Salingaros Home However, at the present moment in the Page, 2007). To some, and to eventually many history of architectural theory, it is a triad and academics and practitioners, Salingaros’ role will continue to be so until a new round of will be the responsive theoretician whose aim is Salingaros’ work emerges. The triad offers the to reconnect humanity with so much that was foundation for a completely new approach to
ASHRAF M. SALAMA lost over the past several decades. the built environment. As stated in Salingaros’ Website, his work “derives rules that underlie a Introducing a new alphabet, Salingaros living architecture …” These rules do not simply has written three manuscripts that can be clone great architectures of the past, but they interpreted as forming the new triad. These re-interpret them; they go against copying- are “Anti-Architecture and Deconstruction” pasting elements and symbols from the past, an (2004), “Principles of Urban Structure” (2005), aspect promoted by anti-vitruvian architects and “A Theory of Architecture” (2006). Similar and critics. to that of Vitruvius, but differing in content and comprehensiveness, the triad can be Two striking aspects are evident in Salingaros’ explained in terms of how each manuscript and triad. They can both be classified under its underlying critical theories lead to the next. the heading of “integration.” The first is an “Anti-Architecture and Deconstruction” comes integration of two different but complementary on the top angle or corner of the equilateral types of knowledge in architecture. The triangle, as it introduces critical analyses of second is an integration of the two extremes of 20th century architecture, and offers a prelude architectural theory, the hard facts and the soft to the successive theories. As one moves values. It is believed that there are two types of clockwise, the second manuscript “Principles knowledge in architecture. The first comprises of Urban Structure” comes on the right corner knowledge resulting from research that seeks of the triangle as Salingaros’ theories are to understand the future through a better introduced at the urban scale. Continuing to understanding of the past — research and move clockwise, one reaches the third angle reflection that explores accepted ideas. The of the triangle where the latest manuscript, “A second comprises knowledge resulting from Theory of Architecture” comes to introduce research that probes new ideas, principles, and scientific and mathematics based theories on theories which will shape the future — research architecture. Moving clockwise again to the that develops new hypotheses and epistemics. first angle in order not to forget the critical While “Anti-Architecture and Deconstruction” analyses, one thus keeps remembering the ills falls within the first type, “Principles of Urban that resulted from the anti-vitruvian architects Structure” and “A Theory of Architecture” and their practices, and the move continues constitute the second type. (Figure 1).
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Some architectural scholars and thinkers to be professional it must be ethical and valid. may argue that what we have accumulated Again, Salingaros’ triad incorporates these throughout the years within the scope of components into an objectively and logically “architectural theory” are simply expressions accepted philosophical system that is based of ideas and experiences which have on critical visions, scientific understandings, concomitantly been identified as “theory.” and well articulated arguments. These (Ozkan, 1999). While this argument is in two characteristics of Salingaros’ triad are a part valid, an architectural theory should concomitant reason that his triad has generated address three components: the scientific, the controversial debate in the architectural ASHRAF M. SALAMA artistic, and the professional, while the three media. Unlike mainstream architectural theories components should range from hard facts to developed during the past century, Salingaros’ soft values. However, if a theory claims to be theories are verifiable because they stem from scientific it has to search for the truth, if it claims mathematics and science. to be artistic it has to be original, and if it claims
Anti-Architecture and Deconstruction Critical Analysis/Criticism of 20th Century Architecture
Remembering Prelude
Deriving Rules that Underlie a Living A Theory of Architecture Principles of Urban Structure Scientific & Mathematics New Theories at the Based Theories Urban Scale
From Urban to Architectural Scale
Figure 1: Salingaros’ Triad: Deriving Rules that Underlie a Living Architecture.
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Anti-Architecture and Deconstruction made valid arguments where the manuscript refers to Jencks as a “phrase maker and “Anti-Architecture and Deconstruction” is at style tracker.” He points out that Jencks’ the top of the triad. The manuscript appears as understanding and use of scientific concepts if Salingaros was setting the stage for his future to justify and celebrate deconstructivist writings. He established the scene through architecture is simply superficial (2). On the a collection of twelve essays in the form of a other hand, Bernard Tschumi’s two major compilation that critically analyzes evolutionary writings titled “The Manhattan Transcripts” and aspects of modernism and post-Modernism, ASHRAF M. SALAMA “Architecture and Disjunction” were closely while heavily criticizing the resulting end-style of examined by Salingaros. He concluded that these two movements: Deconstructivism. Anti- Tschumi’s work is a collection of meaningless Architecture and Deconstruction encompasses images that resembles advertising and an interview with Christopher Alexander, and a false claim of knowledge of mathematics in contributions and comments from well-known analogizing it to architectural form. writers and scholars including James Stevens Curl, Michael Mehaffy, and Lucien Steil, among The other ten essays offer eloquent and others. convincing arguments against such a destructive attitude of deconstructivism The main argument of this manuscript and deconstructivists. However, three of lies in Salingaros’ belief that architectural these should be highlighted. The essays titled deconstruction is not a new thing. It has “Derrida Virus,” “Background Material for the started since the 1920s from the Bauhaus, Derrida Virus,” and “Death, Life and Libeskind” the international style, and modernism, going eloquently show how Derrida’s notion of through new brutalism and late and post deconstructivism became a dangerous virus modernism. Each of these “ISMS” is regarded which keep reproducing itself infinitely. Derrida, as a cult that had tremendous negative an Algerian-born French philosopher founded impacts on they way in which we think about such a notion in literary criticism, and described or approach architecture in pedagogy and it as “a method for analyzing texts based on the practice. Salingaros argues, and rightly so, idea that language is inherently unstable and that deconstructivists have disassociated shifting, and that the reader rather than author themselves from the lessons derived from history is central in determining the meaning” (Derrida, and precedents, while distancing themselves 1973). While his work was heavily criticized by from basic human needs and cultural contexts. prominent linguists and philosophers including Noam Chomsky, it found listening receptive While many critical statements are made by ears in the architectural community, a typical Salingaros in different parts of the manuscript, habit of many name architects who run after one should note his criticism of the critics, the slogans and strange notions that help them to articulate and fancy rhetoric and writings of philosophize and theorize in order to justify their Charles Jencks and Bernard Tschumi. In this work. respect, in two important essays, Salingaros
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Metaphorically, the virus has killed almost all I would add my voice to other reviewers of connections to the past, to humanity, and to this manuscript: that it must be a mandatory context. The resulting ills are manifested in many reading in schools of architecture worldwide. cities, but the trauma is well articulated in the Salingaros’ call for going against those attitudes work of Daniel Libeskind in the Ground Zero and regaining our interest in solutions to Proposal, the Seattle Public Library, and the human problems needs to be adopted. The Berlin Holocaust Museum. Salingaros shows how manuscript’s thrust for re-associating ourselves the rhetoric surrounding the claims of Libeskind to the near and distant past — depending on
ASHRAF M. SALAMA on the emotional experience of the Ground who we are and the cultural context in which Zero proposal are nothing but negative. In we operate — deserves special attention by this respect, a reference needs to be made both academics and practitioners. to university campuses which are supposed to convey constructive messages about the Principles of Urban Structure future of learning, research, and humanity; they are calling deconstructivists to destruct their The right angle of Salingaros’ triad is “Principles learning environments. This is clearly evident in of Urban Structure.” The manuscript moves the work of Antoine Predock in the McNamara beyond criticism, and incorporates critical Alumni Center of the University of Minnesota, analyses into philosophical interpretations. and the work of Frank Gehry’s Wiseman Art The result is to form new visions through which Museum of the same University. Notably, Gehry’s we may understand the city as a mixture of work is invading many university campuses phenomena. A preliminary examination of including Case Western Reserve University this manuscript reveals that it is based on through its School of Business, and the University the view that a city with its physical, socio- of Cincinnati through its Center for Molecular economic, institutional, and cultural presence Studies. University campuses are intentionally produces and re-produces, transmits and conveying “deconstructive” messages. represents much, if not all, of what counts as politics, knowledge, and culture. One should While the manuscript was criticized by a few be definite in this respect and argue that for readers for having some redundancy, that thousands of years, many cities have been, issues and concepts introduced say the same among other things, centers of culture, politics, thing in several chapters, one should respond and the arts. Therefore, the knowledge of what by arguing that in many instances, in order a city is and what it is that makes its buildings, for a writer to make his message clear, it has neighborhoods, districts, streets, and the spaces to be repeated, stated, elaborated, and within it alive needs to be subjected to new articulated in different contexts and in different interpretations and visionary arguments. This is manners. This is one of the most important the essence of this manuscript. In this respect, qualities of those who believe in their message. Salingaros argues that “different types of urban Undoubtedly, this manuscript is a voice of logic systems overlap to build up urban complexity and reason against anti-architecture norms, in a living city. This raises the need for using and the destructive attitudes of their followers. concepts such as coherence, emergence,
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information, self-organization and adaptivity.” space and its information field, on one hand, (Salingaros, 2006). and the distribution of sizes, on the other.
Constituted in ten chapters, “Principles of Urban Based on information theory and the laws of Structure” accommodates a number of theories optics, Salingaros concludes that successful and discussions that Salingaros has developed urban spaces are bounded by concave since the mid 1990s. It introduces the unifying surfaces. The spaces reinforce paths and the notion of the network city to understand urban paths are reinforced by the spaces. Insufficient phenomena as components of a complex
ASHRAF M. SALAMA information that people need to define spatial system. As another Greek, Constantine boundaries causes psychological discomfort. In Doxiades, introduced the Science of Human terms of the distribution of sizes, and based on Settlements — Ekistics several decades back, empirical research, a link is established between one tends to see this work as having a Greek certain ordering mechanisms inherent in the origin. Salingaros is describing a beginning of a human mind and the designed environment. real urban science that complements scientific This reflects the understanding that the design approaches to urbanism currently undertaken of an environment is not arbitrary, but should by several academics and scholars. However, satisfy a set of constraints. While this conclusion as stated in the introduction of the manuscript, may see to be revealing what is already known, it examines the unproven principles adopted the organization of mechanisms underlying for many years, which were taken for granted. design were developed by Salingaros in light It calls for a fresh look on our needs to re-shape, of several analogies with complex systems in re-structure, revitalize, and repair cities based biology, physics, and physiology. on some proven logical understandings. The manuscript is dense in terms of introducing In the context of outlining this manuscript science-based concepts, ideas, and visions, as an integral part of Salingaros’ triad, it is while linking them to the physical environment. important to cover selected crucial issues. On the one hand, a number of other ideas are It provides a different way of thinking about presented to address critical issues that pertain an urban area or a portion of a city. Overall, to complexity and urban coherence, such as the theory is not about geometrical forms, it is connecting the fractal city, and the role of about activity nodes and the physical paths information architecture and human intelligence that connect them. It offers planning principles in shaping the urban environment. On the other based on a mathematical understanding of hand, the influence of Alexander is present what generates the urban web. On that basis, in Salingaros’ work. While Alexander’s Pattern Salingaros argues that the current system of Language had and continues to have a great breaking down neighborhoods has already impact on the minds of many people, Salingaros alienated and segregated communities, while investigates the Pattern Language further, as two at the same increasing crime. He complements chapters are exclusively dedicated to root the his theory of the urban web by two other theories pattern language into the soil of recent debates that pertain to the relationship between urban on architecture and urbanism.
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A Theory of Architecture “A Theory of Architecture” is in fact not about one theory, but several complementary ones This manuscript represents the third angle of the that together contribute to a new vision Salingaros triad. While capitalizing on recent about architecture. Concepts that pertain to efforts to develop interpretations of socio- complexity, emergence, and evidence-based cultural phenomena by means of scientific design, pattern languages, the fractal mind, models, it builds on the four-decades-long effort geometrical fundamentalism, and meme of Christopher Alexander. While having his own encapsulation, while presented in different theories and distinct thinking for approaching
ASHRAF M. SALAMA chapters, are all integrated to shape such and introducing issues, Salingaros refers in a vision. Highlights on these concepts reveal several chapters in one form or another to the the message of the manuscript. In addressing work of Alexander, as he sees him as a mentor complexity, Salingaros uses a model of and views his work as a source of inspiration. organized complexity to estimate the degree of Those who read and study the work of Alexander life in a building and measures the organization would immediately realize this fact. of visual information. In evidence-based design, Preceded by a preface written by Prince he introduces the concept of adaptivity as Charles, and a foreword by Kenneth Masden a characteristic phenomenon of emergence. II, “A Theory of Architecture” accommodates As a reaction to the fact that contemporary twelve different but related chapters. Some architectural theory has degenerated of them were jointly written with other scholars architecture into a narrow meaning by including Debora Tejada, Hing-Sing Yu, Michael oversimplifying the relationship between spaces Mehaffy, and Terry Mikiten. Among a number and their meanings, he proposes a broader of aims Salingaros has identified for this work, discourse that involves evidence-based design, two critical ones are noted. These are based an aspect that is being addressed by responsive on my belief that they contribute to a new architects in creating healing, work, and understanding of architecture, its theoretical learning environments. Building on Christopher base, its education, and its practice. As stated Alexander’s work, Salingaros incorporates by Salingaros, these two aims are: “Derive a pattern language and a form language laws for how matter comes together to define into an adaptive design method. Geometrical buildings that give pleasure to human beings,” fundamentalism is another concept coined and and, “Explain, using scientific arguments, why explored by Michael Mehaffy and Salingaros people derive pleasure and satisfaction from to express the dominance of monolithic forms some forms but not from others”. This is based on of modern architecture that led to a “tunnel his conviction that the architectural community vision” understanding of space. has ignored for years logical thinking and This manuscript is of great value to architectural empirical or experimental verification. Thus, this educators. It helps them correct some of the manuscript, in Salingaros’ words, is developed misconceptions inherited in architectural to correct this condition. education. These include the fact that educators tend to present knowledge as a
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body of facts and theories and as a process triad is apparently admired and adopted by of scientific criticism. The processes that led Western Classical architects. The reason is that it up to this product are always hidden and validates new classical and traditional buildings internalized. Salingaros offers explanations by means of scientific arguments, although his of how such processes occur, and uncovers work is not about classical architecture at all. their hidden qualities. Also, in pedagogy, knowledge is usually presented to students in a Implicitly and explicitly, Salingaros’ writings retrospective way where abstract and symbolic within the triad and also other writings favor the architecture of indigenous populations, ASHRAF M. SALAMA generalizations used to describe research results do not convey the feel of the behavior and especially those of traditional Islamic of the phenomena they describe; the late architecture. It is here that the greatest degree Donald Schon emphasized this view in 1988. of “life” can be found through form and The term “retrospective” here means extensive artificial materials. Because his writings have exhibition of the performance of the work of an a broad scope that addresses these specifics, architect over time. In essence, the analysis of they are being translated into Persian and precedents as part of the curriculum should several European languages. However, they be introduced. Salingaros derives his concepts have not been circulated within the Arab and theories from precedents, historical or world as one would expect. Therefore, this is a scientific. Rather than giving students ready- call for Arab scholars, who should also join the made interpretations about the work of star movement of creating responsive architecture, architects, Salingaros offers a deeper insight that is an architecture based upon science, into the understanding of the true essence society, culture, and logic. They should embark of architecture. This is a marvelous piece on a translation effort so that these theories and it should be a required reading in theory can reach their target population, especially courses introduced in both undergraduate and architecture students. In fact, Salingaros’ triad graduate programs of architecture worldwide. validates centuries of traditional architecture, which is being ridiculed and despised by anti- vitruvian architects and practices, in Salingaros’ Epilogue or Prologue for 21st – Architecture words: “by a certain ignorant class of Western and Urbanism architects.” Unfortunately, younger architects in many parts of the world and especially in the In ending this article, one tends to think of this Arab and Muslim world have picked up these discussion not in terms of a conclusion or an prejudices and are currently looking down on epilogue, but as a prologue for the future of their tradition as a “step backward”, and as architecture and urbanism in the 21st century. something to avoid. Actually, they are assaulting Vitruvius’ triad was the beginning of the their culture and its underlying traditions. dictionary on architecture, while Salingaros’ triad completed that dictionary after two Evidently, we are living in a time of confusion, millennia. While Vitruvius’ triad maintains its and in a world in which no one theory will have presence in discussions nowadays, Salingaros’ the upper hand in solving the contemporary
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needs of society in the field of architecture and on the escalator on her way to the auditorium. People urbanism. This requires redefining architecture were dying to get autograph signatures from her. to be ultimately a social act, and a scientific/ Strikingly, when I attended the lecture I found a less intuitive art. It is crucial for current theory than appealing presentation, not much to say about the work presented, not even the typical rhetoric one and practice to question once again the generally hears from deconstructivists. fundamental values embodied in traditional architecture and urbanism in a scientific (2) I have reached a similar conclusion during the manner, and to look for ways in which such Architectural Public Sessions of Al Azhar Engineering th
ASHRAF M. SALAMA values can contribute to the creation of livable 5 International Conference in 1997, AEIC-97, where environments. Now, one should pose questions Charles Jencks gave a speech in Le-Meridien , Cairo. that were repeatedly posed by others: 1) Is Egypt. He was very articulate and his lecture was architecture nothing more than a mask of influential to many because of the big words he used. Students and faculty from around the Arab world were authority and power? 2) Is it a means of hiding intrigued by his arguments. Strikingly, again, no single hardship and the harsh realities of ugliness, word of criticism from the part of architects including poverty, inequity, and injustice that plague myself was said. However, some social scientists and world societies as a result of Globalization? linguists were present, and noted a superficiality in 3) Is it a camouflage that covers up the the arguments he introduced on “Architecture of the epidemics of anti-vitruvian architects and their Jumping Universe.” followers? 4) Is it a veil that simply hides the symptoms of the ills that characterize current References urban environments? In the context of efforts Ackerrman, J. (1969). ‘Listening to Architecture,’ attempting to find thoughtful answers, and in Harvard Educational Review. Vol 39 (4), Harvard the midst of the recent social, political and University Press, Cambridge, Mass, USA. PP. 4-10. cultural turmoil, Nikos A. Salingaros declares the beginning of a visionary thinking paradigm. In Alexander, C. (2004). Foreword: The Interaction of st Architecture and Science. Katarxis No. 3. Available my view, this is a new De Architectura for 21 - online http://www.katarxis3.com/Alexander_ century architecture and urbanism. Architecture_Science.htm . Accessed in May 12, 2007. Burgess, P. (1983) (ed.). The Role of the Architect Notes in Society, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburg, (1) Female architect celebrities are showing off: Pennsylvania, USA. During the World Congress of Architects (2005) of Cuff, D. (1989). ‘Through the Looking Glass: Seven the International Union of Architects-UIA, I recall the New York Architects and their People,’ In Architects’ vast entry lobby of the Convention Center in Istanbul, People, Eds. Russell Ellis and Dana Cuff, Oxford Turkey filled with hundreds of students, young and old University Press, New York, USA. PP. 64-102. architects, journalists, critics and writers, who came from different part so the world. This was because Derrida, J. (1973). Speech and Phenomena, and all were waiting for Zaha Hadid to give one of the Other Essays on Husserl’s Theory of Signs, North congress keynote speeches. Like Rock or Heavy Metal Western University Press, Evanston, Illinois, USA. stars, she came in trousers, blouse, and light jacket, all in black, surrounded by a number of body guards, Erber, E. (1970). (ed.). Urban Planning in Transition, and those waiting screamed as soon as she appeared Grossman, New York, USA.
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Granger, F. (1931). Vitruvius: On Architecture Journal of Architecture, City and Visual Culture, Stitch I & II, (Translation) Loeb Classicial Library-Harvard, Publications, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. PP. 28-32. Cambridge, Mass, USA. Salama, A. (2003). ‘Why are Famous Architects Kellbaugh, D. (2004). ‘Seven Fallacies in Architectural Famous?’ ArchNet Discussion Forum
ASHRAF M. SALAMA International Journal of Architectural Research. Vol. 1 Morgan, M. H. (1960). Vitruvius: Ten Books on (1), PP.86/104. (Online) Architecture, (Translation), Dover Publications, New http://archnet.org/library/documents/one- York, USA. document.tcl?document_id=10069 O’ Gorman, J. (1997). ABC of Architecture, University Sanigaros, N. (2004). Anti Architecture and of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Deconstruction, with contributions by C. Alexander, Ozkan, S. (1999). ‘The Dilemma of History: Theory B. Hanson, M. Nehaffy, and T. Mikiten, Umbau-Verlag, and Education in Architecture,’ In W. O’Reilly (ed.), Solingen, Germany. Architectural Knowledge and Cultural Diversity, Salingaros, N. (2005). Principles of Urban Structure, Comportements, Lausanne, Switzerland. PP. 145-154. with contributions by A. Coward, B. West, A. Rowland, I. & Howe, T. (1999). Vitruvius: Ten Books van Bilsen, The Techne Press, Amsterdam, The on Architecture, (Second Edition: 2001), Cambridge Netherlands. University Press, Cambridge, Mass, USA. Salingaros, N. (2006). A Theory of Architecture, with Salama, A. (1995). New Trends in Architectural contributions by M. Mehaffy, T. Mikiten, D. Tejada, Education: Designing the Design Studio, Tailored Text and H. Yu, Umbau-Verlag, Solingen, Germany. and Unlimited Potential Publishing, Raleigh, North Salingaros, N. & Masden II, K. G. (2007). ‘Restructuring Carolina, USA. 21st-Century Architecture Through Human Salama, A. (1998). ‘A New Paradigm in Architectural Intelligence,’ Archnet-IJAR: International Journal of Pedagogy: Integrating Enviornment Behavior Studies Architectural Research. Vol. 1 (1), PP.36/52. (Online) into Architectural Education Teaching Practices,’ http://archnet.org/library/documents/one- In J. Tecklenburg, J. van Andel, J. Smeets, and A. document.tcl?document_id=10066 Seidel (eds.), IAPS-15 Proceedings: Shifting Balances: Salingaros, N. (2007). Home Page: Papers on Changing Roles in Policy, Research, and Design. Architecture, Complexity, Patterns, and Urbanism, EIRASS-European Institute of Retailing and Service http://www.math.utsa.edu/sphere/salingar/ Studies, Eindhoven, The Netherlands. PP. 128-139. contr.arch.html, accessed in May 15, 2007. Salama, A. (1999). ‘Incorporating Knowledge about Smith, T. G. (2004). Vitruvius on Architecture, The Cultural Diversity into Architectural Pedagogy,’ In W. Monacelli Press, New York, USA. O’Reilly (ed.), Architectural Knowledge and Cultural Stiglitz, J. (2003). Globalization and Its Discontents, W. Diversity, Comportements, Lausanne, Switzerland. PP. W. Norton and Company, New York, USA. 135-144. Wikepedia (2007). Nikos Salingaros http:// Salama, A. (2002). Contemporary Cairo Demystified: A en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikos_Salingaros Critical Voice on Architecture and Urbanism. ARCHIS.
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