Censor & Contend : the Use of Denial-Of-Service Attacks in Autocracies

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Censor & Contend : the Use of Denial-Of-Service Attacks in Autocracies Censor & Contend: The Use of Denial-of-Service Attacks in Autocracies Dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor of Social Sciences (Dr.rer.soc.) presented by Philipp Matthias Lutscher at Sektion Politik - Recht - Wirtschaft Fachbereich Politik & Verwaltungswissenschaft Konstanz, 2020 Konstanzer Online-Publikations-System (KOPS) URL: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-2-165hytwkji012 Date of defense: January 27, 2020 First Referee: Prof. Dr. Nils B. Weidmann Second Referee: Jun.-Prof. Dr. Karsten Donnay Third Referee: Prof. Margaret E. Roberts F¨urKurt, ich vermisse dich. Para Catalina, te amo. Acknowledgments Writing this dissertation would not have been possible with the support and encourage- ment of various people. Foremost, I would like to thank my main supervisor Nils Weidmann. When I was still an undergraduate student, it was he who sparked my interest in doing research. Since then, Nils has supported me greatly in my journey of becoming a political scientist. I am very grateful for his often challenging but valuable feedback, research and traveling funding, network and collaboration, as well as general mentoring. Second, I would like to thank my two other supervisors Karsten Donnay and Molly Roberts. Karsten had always time for me and encouraged me constantly to improve my papers. With Molly, I had the opportunity to co-author a paper in an international and interdisciplinary team where I learned a lot. In that regard, I would also like to thank Alberto Dainotti and Alistair King from the Center of Advanced Internet Data Analysis, as well as Mattijis Jonker, for our fruitful collaboration. Their data collection on Denial-of-Service attacks made most of the empirical analysis in this dissertation possible in the first place. Apart from my supervisors and co-authors, my fantastic colleagues read, commented, and helped to improve much of my dissertation's papers. Big thanks to Sebastian, Eda, Lukas, Annerose, Espen, as well as especially Max, who had the pleasure of reading most of my work. Also, a big thanks to Philipp for his language support. Besides, discussions with other students, post-docs, and professors from the department and Graduate School of Decision Sciences (GSDS) improved my papers a lot. Here, I would like to mention, in particular, Basti, Julian, Peter, Clara, Patrick, Roman, Constantin, Philipp and Carlo. Beyond Konstanz, I would like to thank Tina Freyburg and Anita Gohdes for their invitations to workshops and conference panels as well as their valuable comments. Furthermore, thanks to the GSDS, the German Research Foundation, and the \The Politics of Inequality" cluster of excellence that funded me. I am very thankful to these organizations and employers for supporting my research. Besides, without the support of the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung during my undergraduate and graduate studies, I probably would not have made it that far as a first-generation scholar. Finally, I would like to thank my family. Thanks to my parents for their lifelong support and understanding that I have to go my own way. Most importantly, thank you, Catalina. I am incredibly grateful for your unconditional support, patience, motivational speeches and more. Juntos movemos monta~nas. vi Zusammenfassung In den letzten Jahren wurden Cyberangriffe stark in den Medien, der Politik und der Wissenschaft diskutiert. In dieser Dissertation untersuche ich die politische Verwendung einer speziellen Art von Cyberangriffen, den so genannte \Denial-of-Service" (DoS) An- griff. Diese relativ einfache Art von Angriff ¨uberladt Server mit Internet-Datenstr¨omen, was zu einem tempor¨arenNichterreichen des attackierten Servers f¨uhrt. Die gr¨oßte ¨offentliche und akademische Aufmerksamkeit erhielten politisch motivierte DoS Angriffe im Zusammenhang mit zwischenstaatlichen Konflikten. In dieser Dissertation zeige ich hingegen, dass in Autokratien haupts¨achlich innerstaatliche Gr¨undef¨urdie politische Verwendung von DoS Angriffen verantwortlich sind. Hierf¨urverkn¨upfeich Literatur aus den Forschungsfelder der Sozialen Bewegungen, der Autokratischen Politik und den Internationalen Beziehungen und formuliere zwei theoretische Hauptmechanismen f¨urdie politische Verwendung von DoS Angriffen in Autokratien. Diese werden zur Zensur von Webseiten verwendet oder, um gegen die Regierungspolitik des eigenen Landes oder fremder Staaten zu protestieren. Im em- pirischen Teil meiner Dissertation verwende ich zwei neue Datenquelle zur Messung von DoS Angriffen. Die erste Datenquelle kommt von dem \Center for Advanced Internet Analysis" (CAIDA) an der University of California, San Diego, welche DoS Angriffe aus Internet-Datenstr¨omenmisst. Die zweite Datenquelle beruht auf einer eigenen Messung von Nachrichtenwebseiten in autokratischen L¨andern,in der ich Webseitenstatusabfra- gen verwende, um auf DoS Angriffe zu schließen. Im ersten Papier, das gemeinsam mit Nils B. Weidmann, Margaret E. Roberts, Mattijs Jonker, Alistair King und Alberto Dainotti verfasst ist, fragen wir, ob innerstaatliche Ereignisse die Wahrscheinlichkeit von DoS Angriffen erh¨ohen. Hierzu untersuchen wir in einer weltweiten Studie, ob diese Angriffe w¨ahrendWahlperioden zwischen 2008 und 2016 zunehmen. Die theoretische Erwartung ist, dass die Anzahl von DoS Angriffen insbesondere in Autokratien zunehmen sollte, da hier sowohl autokratische Regierungen als auch Aktivisten Anreize haben diese zu nutzen. In der empirischen Analyse verwen- den wir die oben erw¨ahnten Daten von CAIDA und zeigen, dass Wahlperioden positiv mit der Anzahl von DoS Angriffen korrelieren. Diese positive Korrelation ist jedoch nicht unbedingt f¨urAngriffe auf das autokratischen Land sichtbar, sondern auf Server in Staaten in denen Nachrichtenwebseiten f¨urdie jeweilige Autokratie gehostet sind. Zusammengefasst deutet unsere Studie darauf hin, dass autokratische Regierungen DoS Angriffe gegen Server im Ausland verwenden und ¨uber ihre Grenzen hinweg zensieren. Im zweiten Papier untersuche ich die Zensurfunktion von DoS Angriffen genauer und fokussiere mich auf die Gr¨undeund den Zeitpunkt von DoS Angriffen auf Webseiten. Hierf¨ur¨uberwache ich einige Nachrichtenwebseiten in Venezuela von November 2017 bis Juni 2018. Ich argumentiere, dass DoS Angriffe auf Nachrichtenwebseiten verwendet werden, um Informationen tempor¨arzu zensieren, aber auch, um repressive Signale an Zeitungen zu senden. Im empirischen Teil untersuche ich ob das Berichten ¨uber sensitive Themen die Wahrscheinlichkeit auf Nachrichtenseiten von DoS Angriffen kurz- und mittelfristig erh¨oht. Aus dem Grund, dass es im Vorhinein nicht eindeutig ist, welche Nachrichten f¨urdie Regierung sensitiv sind, verwende ich \topic modeling" Ans¨atze, welche induktiv herauszufinden ¨uber welche Themen venezolanische Nachrichtenseiten berichten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen Evidenz f¨urbeide Mechanismen, jedoch scheint die repressive Verwendung von DoS Angriffen auf Zeitungen ausgepr¨agterzu sein. Im dritten Papier ¨uberdenke ich die Behauptung vieler Kommentatoren von einem viii Cyberkrieg zwischen Nationen, indem ich untersuche ob DoS Angriffe als Drohmittel verwendet werden. Hierzu fokussiere ich mich auf Wirtschaftssanktionen, bei denen man eine digitale Antwort von sanktionierten L¨andernerwarten kann. Ich schlage zwei Mech- anismen vor warum dies der Fall sein k¨onnte. Erstens k¨onnten Staaten mit DoS Angriffen rational auf Sanktionsandrohungen und -verh¨angungenreagieren, um Zugest¨andnissezu erreichen. Zweitens k¨onnten Regierungen und Gruppen innerhalb sanktionierter Staaten mit DoS Angriffe als Protestmittel antworten. F¨urden empirischen Teil verwende ich wiederum die Daten von CAIDA und Zeitreihenanalysen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen keine Evidenz f¨ureinen Anstieg von DoS Angriffen auf das Senderland nach Sanktionsdrohun- gen und nur in ein paar F¨alleneinen signifikanten Anstieg nach Sanktionsverh¨angungen. Diese Ergebnisse ziehen die These, dass DoS Angriffe ein h¨aufiggenutztes Mittel von Regierungen f¨urinternationale Auseinandersetzungen sind, in Zweifel. Eine zu¨atzlichen Fallstudie legt nahe, dass etwaige DoS Angriffe in diesem Kontext eher als Protestmittel eingesetzt werden. Zusammengefasst leistet meine Dissertation mindestens drei wichtige Beitr¨agezur bisherigen Forschung. Erstens zeige ich, dass DoS Angriffe in autokratischen Regi- men f¨urpolitische Zwecke verwendet werden und zwar insbesondere aus innerstaatlichen Gr¨unden.Zweitens formuliere ich theoretische Erwartungen warum und wann bestimmte Akteure DoS Angriffe in Autokratien verwenden und finde haupts¨achlich Anhaltspunkte f¨urdie Verwendung von DoS Angriffen als Zensurmittel. Schlussendlich verwende ich zwei neue Messungen von DoS Attacken, welche es erlauben, genauere empirische Anal- ysen durchzuf¨uren,um so ein umfassenderes Bild von Cyberaktivit¨aten zu zeichnen. ix Abstract In recent years, cyberwarfare has been a hotly debated issue. In this dissertation, I in- vestigate the use of one particular type of cyberattacks: Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks. These relatively simple attacks overload servers with Internet data traffic, making them temporally not reachable. Most of the public and academic attention has been on their use during interstate conflicts. Even so, in this dissertation, I show that in autocracies domestic reasons are primarily responsible for the political use of DoS attacks. To explain the use of DoS attacks, I connect literature from three research fields: social movements, autocratic politics, and international relations. From this, I develop two main theoretical mechanisms for the political
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