Review Paper

THE STATUSOF PARTTTENIUMHYSTEROPHOR U.' AND ITS POTENTIALMANAGEMENT

P.C. Bhowmik, D. Srrkar and N.T. Yadrraju* Deoafirnen! ofPlant. Soil and Ins€ct Scienc€s University ofMassachusettsAmherst, MA 01003-7245,USA 'Indian Councjl ofAgricultural Research,N€w Delbi, India

ABSTRACT

P.rlheniumhysterophotus L. (RaEwccdpadhenium) is an ag8rossiveherbaccolswccd oftropical and subtropicalhabitats. Tl'is speciesis nati\'cto Gulf of Mexicoa d cetrtfalSouth Arnerica and has b€comewidesprcad in Nonh America,South America, the Caribbean and many parts ofAftica, Asia andAustralia. Ragweed panhcnium is crrrrentlyidentified as an invasivespecies in severalcountri€s, includinslndia andNelal. is primariLyfound in th€wastelands, vacant ar€as, community parks,roadsides and even invades agricultural ficlds. lt is a majorwccd in cfopand pastlfc arcas in lndiaand Alstralia. Tlis weedspecies threatens huhan and uDimal health by causinglllergic contact dermatitjs,hay fever, and respiratoryproblems in seflsitivefiumans and lnimals. Padhonium adverselyAffectscrop production, animalhusbandry andfilnun health.This species is knownto have severalallclochcmicals that may have ecolosicsl implications on spcciesdiaersity in varioushabitats. Limii€dconlrolpractices are availablc for managingthh speciesin variousenvironments. Although it is a problemw€ed in AuskElia,India, Nepal and otherAsian subcontin€nts,it may becom€more proninentjn otherpansofihc worldin thenear future, Clobal strategies in relationto identification, carlydctcciion, spread and management must bo dcvcloped lor its tutureinvasion.

Key wordsrllnvasive speci€s, biological control, Panhonium hystcrophorus, oonEfcss srass, caffot sllss, hlsc raswced,knnike ghas, ragwe€d panhenium

INTRODUCTION in the nearlulure (Evans1997). This specieswas noi lisled in world's worsl wccd ufitil 1977. Ragweed parthenium (Patheniun However,within the lasl lwo dccadcsit has hysterophontsL.), a n]'emberofAst€raceae lamily, b€comeon€ of the sevennrosl dreadcd wccds of is a prolinc and aggressivehcrbaceous we€d of theworid. Factors such as highfecundity, efficient tropicaland subtropical€nvironments. The word seed dispersal,absencc of natural pr€dators, poflheniunua, detivedfiom the Latinpa henie allelopathicimpacts lo lhe otherplants,presence ol suggesiingrnedicinal ses (Bailey 1960) and anti-feedantsand wide adaptability1o varying sorl hysterophoruswas detived from the Greekr./sre,'a and agro-climaticconditions have enabledthis (womb) and (b€arjng),referring to the ?ralos plantto invadea va ely of naturalcnvironmenis. prolific secd habit of ihe planr (Parsonsand The weed is known to adversely affecl cmp Cuthbertson1992). The wecd is also comnonly production, husbandry, human h€alth and knownas congressweed, star weed, canot w€ed, biodiversity. Very lew other weeds have such a white top, whitehead, fev€dew, biiter weed, wjde ranging and potentially l€ihal impact on broom-bush,escobar ana€a, false rasweedn humanaffairs. The presentreview is an atlemptto different pans of lhe world. Altbough it is a givean overallidea abour the distribution, biology, problemdric$ced ir ALstraliiand In lrdiar managementand future stategy of parthenium subcontinent,but due to its rapid spreadingii may becomemore prominenl in other pans of the world

ECOPRINT VOL 14, 2007 Origin and distribution Parthenium wa.sintoduced in Nepal via India in early 1980's and has sprcad rapidly alone Partheniumweed is native to Gulf of Mexico roadsides, fallow lands and agricultural Iands and central South America and has become (Tiwai et al. 2005). The i roduction of widespreadin North America, Souh America,the Parheniun hynercphont to easlemEthiopia is Caribbean and many pafls of A&ica, Asia and believedto haveoccuned along with army vehicl€s Aushalia (Bhowmik and Sarkar2005, Navi€ e/ d/. during the Ethiopian-Sornalianwar of 1976-77, 1996).In U.S.A.,it spreadsfrom Fioridato Texas, where it has now consideredas a one of the nosl nonh of Massachusens.Michig:Ln. lllinois, toublesome weeds for grazing and crop land Louisiana,Missouri and Kansas(cleason and (Tanadoand Milberg 2000).Other than tbose i( CrcnqLisll9o3j. h has beenalso reponedfiom was also reported ftom Ismel (Joel and Liston Baltimore.Ne$ PortNews and Virginia.lt is a 1986)and Taiwan (Peng ar al 1988). major crop and pastureweed in India and Australia in particular, where it causesseveral detrimental effects.Parthenium was introducedin Africa, Asia The weedparlhenium causes se ous problem and Oceania in cereal and seed shipments $ass in every sphereof humanlife by scveraiways. The from U,S,A. dudng the 1950s.Two biotpes ol weed is consideredas noxiousweed du€ to its Paflheniun hystercphorurhave esrabhshedin prolific seed produclion.fasr spreadin8abilly. Austalia as a resuhof two differentintroductions potentialallelopatbic effects on otherplani, strong from U.S.A. The first introductionoccuned in compelirivenesswilh crops, hrgher phenor)?ic south-east and the secondin Central Que€nsland plasticityand healthhazard to humansas well as (Navieet d/.1996).In Australia,it has Queensland ,It is a noxiousweed under non cropped becomewidespread in grazingland from central situa$ons,bur it is becominga curscby ovenaling to northemNew SouthWales (Adkins Queeffiland socialforestry, local pastures and 6ny open spaces et al, 1996),ln lndi,a,il f\rst appearedaccidenlally includingresidential areas (Singh et al. 2004).Ir in the lndian BotanicalCarden. Calcu a during ftrcarenshuman and animal health by causing l810-1814(Sharma and Pandey1984). Howev€r, allergiccontact d€rmatitis, rhinitis, hay fever,and ir was first observedin Puneand Maharashrmin respiratoryproblems in sensitivehumans and the mid 1950s(Rao 1956), and now consideredas animals. The initial s],rnptoms in human were one of ihe mosr fearednoxious weed spccies, describedas iiching,redness, swelling and blist€rs Ragw€€dparihenium was report€d to infest more on th€€yelids, face and neck, which then spread to lhar two millionha jn lndiain l99l and during the elbows and knees.ln ihe later stag€sthe skjn lbe last l0 years,it has spreadalamingly to the thickensand darkens(Evans 1997). The reports every parts ol the Indian lenitory except the frorn the different parts of the world indicat€dthat higher altitude (>4500 m), invadins va-star€as of the weed has larger impacl on humanwelfare than waste and cultivated lands (Aneja et al. t991, odginally suppos€d.An intensive fesearcb from Annapumaand Singh 2003, Kohli andRani 1994). Australia rcv€aled that i0% to 20% humm Becauseof th€ iransportationsystem, other than its populauondeveloped .evere allerCenicreaclion naturdl dispersalmechanism it now infests up to after they exposedto ihe weed for I to 10 yeals mid Himayalayasand even in the dry parts of the period (McF:dy€n 1995)-The weed may cause northwestIndia. In Nepal, it was Iirst reponed in toxiciiy; sometimeseven deathwhen consumedby 1982 by Hara et al. (1982r. It is suspectedthat animals.The weedreduces the caryiDg capacityof

2 ECOPRTNT VOL 14, 2007 the gazing land significantly alld adverselyafects Habit*t animnl health,milk 3nd meet quality, marketingof Ragweed parthenium can glow over a wide pasture seed and gain. The taste of the milk range of temperatlre and moisture conditions.A becomesbiner due ro lhe preseDceof paftenin. numberof strategi€ssuch as fast growth rate, quick which is hepatoxic (Kohli and Rani 199a). In regenerative and reproductive potential, greater Australia the weed mainly occun in Queensland, stess adaptability, genetic plasticity and lack of ulfesriog170.000 km'zofglaTiog land and causing natural enemiesfavor th€ir invasivenessin alien $16.5 millioo/year loss to the pasture industry. envircnment(Batish et al- 2004). This weed car After consideringthe expenditureon rcsearchinto rely on phenotpically varying plant traits to paihenium control particularly in biocortol it exploit the available "invasion windows" increased up to $350,000 during 1990-91 (Annapuma and Singh 2003). Ragweed (Chippendaleand Pane$a 1994). partheniumis primaily found in the wastelands, vacanlareas! comhunity parks, roadsidesand even lnitially,the weed confined to roadside,milway inv4desagricultural fields. Report from Australia track, wasteland and nAn-croppedareas, but it showedthat it grows best on alkaline, clay loam to started colonizing cropping field very rapidly. In h€ary black clay soils bui ioleratesa wide variety India it was repoited that mgweedparthenium has of soil irpe. On the otherhand, different opinron moved from road side to adjoining fields of found from other reports, where highe! clay sugarcane!ric€ and veg€tablescrops (Singh et d/. content (>3%) reduced the germination of 2004).The presenceof partheniumin cultivated parthenium seeds and the gro$4h of the plant land can alDtostdouble the cultiv4tioncosts and (Annapumaand Singh 2003), restrictsthe saleand movementof contaminated produc€.The weed can reduceyield by 40% rn The aridconditions may reduce its pefomance agricultrfal crops and up to 90% in forage and invasiv€ness by reducing both net production ifl Indian gr6ssland(Klosla and Sobti photosynth$isand water economyand thusrestrict 198l, Mahadevappaet al. 2001), The research this speciesto invade arid areasof lndia and conductedal Bthiopiashowed that in uncontrolled elsewhere(Pandey et ar, 2003).Parthenium weed plot parlheniumreduces sorghum g{ain yield up to ir b€stsuited with an annualrainfall greater than 40yolo 90Vo.The overallimpact ol this weedto 500 rnm.The distributionmay be limiiedby even agriculturalproduction system is multifacetedand brief €xposue to high day temperatur€(>400) or very difiicult to quantify the exact amountof loss. by prolonged drought (Williams and croves Other than those dir€ct effects, the weed also 1980). The low wint€r temperaiureconsiderably damageenvironmenr by changingrhe exrsting reducesgrowth, flowering and seedproduction of biodiversity.The fast spreadof this weed is a ragweedparthenium but the establishedplant can matter of s€rious concem because they are survivear leasrone mild frosrof-20 C. Shadingis spieading at the exclusion of native plant and anoth€rimportant limitation and the weeddoes not changing the plant species composition by usually become established in undisturbed r€ducing natural plant wealth and biodiversity vegetation or vigorous pasture. It aggressively (Batish e/ a/. 2004). So, seriousefforts hav€ been coloniesin areaswiih poor ground cover, exposed initiated in paftheniuminfested arcasof the world soils such as wastelands,roadside and pastues. to save lhe natural vegetationand biodiversily by Flooded counfy is also very prone to pathenium propermanagement techniques. \rced distribution (Chippendaleand Panetta1994).

ECOPRINT VOL 14 2007 In Ethiopia 90% lowland farmers and 28% germination deqeases vith deffeasing osmotic midland famers consideredparthenium as a most potential and the efect of moisture stess is mor€ Eoublesomeqeed bolh in crop land and gtring under hjgher temperature.G€rmination of seed areas.While, the highland famers only considered generallymore under I 0 h diumai photoperiodand as a roadsid€weed (Tamado and Milb€re 2000). it reduces under continuous light and minimum But with the experienceof lndian subcontinentwe under continuous dark conditions (Pandey and can believethat it has the potentialto becomea Dubey 1988). B t genenlly this speciescan seriousweed on arableland evenin ihe highland. germinateunder oontinuousliSht and continuous dark situations and most fteshly harvestod Biology parthenium seeds do not have a specific Parthenium weed is a fast maturing annual photoperiodrequirement for gernination(Navie el heft with a de€p rap root and an erect stem that di. 1998). becomeswoody with age. It is usually much Partheniumseeds generally r€quire 30 to 60 branched, up to about I m tall but eventually daysftom approximatedate of seeddispercal to reachesa heightol2 m at favorableenvironment. (0.5 The stem is glabrous or sometimes spreading snn emergencern thefield andshallo\^ burial hirsutobelow, puberulent or glandularpuberulant crn) giveshigher €mergence percentage. But seed above. Leaves are pinnatified 01 usually bu al to a depth of 7 cm or more can temporary bipinnatilied, pale gleen and coveredwith soft fine preventseediing €mergence (Tamado el a!. 2002, hairs. The small white flowers have five disiinct Navieel a/. 1998).The deiayin €mergencernay be comers and grow on the stem tips. Each flower due to the need for after rip€ning 10 lower producesfour to five black wedge shapedseeds dormancylevels or the ne€dfor sufficienlmoisture thatare 2 mm long with thin whitescale. It hasa to start germinalion.There is some initial large and persistentsoil seed bank and fast germination germrnarionrare and ils dormancymcchantm inhibition of in freshly shed makes it well adapted lo wide range oI panheniumseeds and that innaledormancy act in environments,It also rel€aseschemicals that severalways to increa8epersislence of seedsin inhibit ihe germination and growth of pastwe fields(Navie et a/. 1998).It hasbeen r€ported that grassesand other plants, waleFsolublegcrminarion i$ibirors fparlhcnin Germinationand longevityofseed and pbenolicacids) are presentin the accessory structurcs and seed coa\ of Parthenium Panheniumweed normally gerninales in spring hyslercphorltt. Emergence of seedling from and early summer, produces flowers and se€ds surfac€sown seedsmay ceasequickly, but buried throughout its short life and di€s in laie autumn. seedsmay rernainviablc in rhc soil for longer Pa{henium seedscan germinatewell ov€r a wid€ period. The geminability of parthenium seeds mnge of fluctuating t€mp€ratues beh{een 12l2'C decreaseswith time and can remain viable aner to 35/25!C (Tamadoet al. 2002). The temp€rsrur€s beingburied for at least4-6 years(Navie er a/. higher lhan 35"C or lower than 50C fimii 1998).Parthenin may also increaseseed survival germination of the species and if ternp€rature by discouraging d€cay or predation differentialincreases from 50C to l10C at low of soeds (Ganeshan mean temperature then it causes significant and JayachaDdra1993). Generally, reducLjonof parlhenium seed ge-minalion (William larger size seeds give higher germinatron and Croves 1980). It is well establishedthai percentagecompare to the smalier ones (Pandey

4 ECOPRTNTVOL 14, 2007 and Dubey 1988).But lighter s€edsare more 2003). Although both high and low lempemture dispersible compar€ to heavier seeds and havea detrinental efects on growth ofparth€nium ' partheniumgrow on coarsetextured soil produces but rato of net photosynthesisdecreases more numerouslight seedswhich facjlitai€ colonization rlnder higher temperature (47uC). Ragweed pholos)'nlhesis of new sites (Annapumaand Singh 2003). OveraU pdnheniunex}libils maximum net padheniumseeds have a viabitiryof 85% or more ratebetween 25 to 35uCand higher CO, levelalso inducesbigher biomassproduction (Pandey d!. undersuirable coDdirion $hicb allo$ thisspeciet ", 2003). to invad€ and persist in varied ecological and topographicalconditions. Limited earlier investigations suggest that parthenium has both Cr and Ca phoios],nthetic Crowth and reproduction pathway with leaveson top having Cr mesophyll In suitable enviroom€nt (rain, availabte with non-Kranz leaf analomy and l€av€s at the moishre, mild soil and air temperature) middle and basehaving C4 mesophyll with Kranz partheniumcan grow and prod\rceany time of the anatomy (Rajendrudu and Rama Das 1990), year and four or more successivegenemtion can However, Pandey et al. (2003) nol€d that emergeaL lhe samesile during a good gro\ ing photos),ntheticchamctedstics of parthenium leaf season(Pandey and Dubey1989). At earlystag€s mosdyr€lated with Ca $?e pathway.They also ol gro$4h it exisls as s rosette and then stem foundthat slomaLalconductancc ofpa heniumis elongatcsrapidly and branchingat the apex,The insensitive to photosynihetic photon llux but is radial leavesspread very close to the ground and geatly influenced by relative humidity. encroaching on the whole area and preventing Parih€nium flowers earlier with 13 h day length oiherseedlings to growwhich gives a competitive and generaLlyall llowers come within 103 days advanlageover other species(Kumari and Kohli (william and Croves 1980).Lewis el d/.(1988) 1987).Long tap roor syriem with higherahount of found that dle time ftom the first flower bud energy reserve,favors partheniumto obtain water initiationto theproduction of matureinflorescence from deeperlayer within soil prolile and allow and dispersalof the first acheneof partheniumto rapid r€grofih after the plant is shshed or glazed be about 30 days, while the time fiom pollination (Navie el ,/. I 996). Report from tbe differ€nt parts to achen€maturation is only about 14 days,Th€re of lhe world suggeslslhar ragweedparlherium are conflicting reports about the process of growsvigorously during summer morths compared pollination of ragwe€d partheniun. In North witi winter months. Plants that emerge in the Americanpopularion rhe visit lo panherium spring time attain a gealer plant size snd have a weed is rare and wind is najor meansof poller longer plant life span.Plant dry matterproduction dispersalbut mechanismofwind pollinationis less increas€s with increasing temperature up to developedin partheniurn compareto other wind 33/284C and temperature is major faclor pollinatedplant (Lewis e/ a/. 1991).On the other controllingthe length of the vegetativephase band, Gupta and Chanda(1991) report€dthat (williams and Grooves 1980). l,ow Mnter parthenium weed appears to b€ entomophilous temperature considerably reduces growth (ins€ctpollinat€d) or at most amphiphilous(pollen p€rfonnance,flowe ng and seed production and dispersalmainly by insectsand partially by wind). phoro.),nrhesisol ragweedpanhenium by reducing Partheniumw€ed is a Foliflc seedproducer. Josbi LAI, RGR, NAR CGR and LAD (Williams and (1991) estimatedthat a single partheniuncan Grooves1980, Navie et a/. 1996,Pandey et al. produce25,000 achenes and padheniumweed seed

ECOPRTNT VOL 14, 2007 bank in the soil to be about 200000 m'? in pseudoguaianolideftom parthenium. Panheniun abandonedfields in India. Pandeyand Dubey leavesand inflorescence contain highesl anout of rlo88) reponed drhene fo.ymorphi.m rn panhenin followed by the stem and rcots parrlelirm $eed and rl-e, srJredthar \a4ing succc\\i\el).$hile loral phcnol.cs $ere hrghe.r rr climatic conditions in different latitudes governed leaves followed by inflorescence,roots and stem liequency of the various achenepolynorphs. successively.Experiment showed that the leaf and Partheniun\{eed seedsare capableof being flower povder were lethal al relatively lower transported in iong distanc€s and achenes are concentation,and stem residuewas tethal ar transportedon motor vehicl€s or machinery, on doubledose. Singh er d/. (2003)demonstat€d rhal llvestock,with cropand pastue seed, or in fodder. €xtracts prepared ftom both unbumt and burnt So, new infestationand spread may appear residu€ofpafihenium rcduc€d seedling lengih and thousandsof kilometersjlom thc originalsourc€ dry weight of mdish and chickpeaand a1lhough (Naviee/ a/. 1996). burnt residueextracts were fonnd to be mor€ phytoloxic Alleloprthy than those ftom unbumtrcsidre, th€ amountof phenolicswas signilicanllyhigher rn The invasivenessand rapid spread of unbumt rosjdue. Pandey (1994) stated tlat partheniumhave been attributed to its all€lopathic parrhen.umplanr residue qas relauvcly more loxic effects on olher plants. Severalworkers have to aquatic\{eeds than to t€stcrop species(wheat dcmonstrated the allelopathic narure of andpaddy). parthenium.The root and shoor extracis of Tablel.Various types allelochemicals partheniuminhibit germinalionand gro$,th ol of ldentificd sensitiveplant specios and thesegrowth inhibitors in Pd heniun hystercphotus pnn$, arer€leased from ragweedparthenium !o the soil 'AllclochcmicAk throughieaching, root exudationa d residuedecay Group Rcfercnces (Mersieand Singh 1988).Sesquiterpene lactones Phcnolics Cnffcic,vanilic, P- and phenolics are major watcr soluble Singh1988) alleloch€micalsprcsent in thisplafi. Rajan(1973) Raja'r(1973) andKanchan (1975) first reportedthe pres€nceof Chlorogenicacids all€lochcmicalsin partheDiumweed. In last threc decades several types of pheDolic and Coronopilin,2-0 at. (2003) sesquiterpen€lacione compoundshave been Hydroxy isolat€d from ih€ roots, stems, lcaves, infloresceDc€,pollen and seeds of mgweed pathenium.The phenoliccompounds identified in rhispldnl a'e czme:c acid. vanillic ac:d. p-counaric acid,ferulic acid. anisic acid and clorogenicacid. et a!. (2003) Pa h€nium is a dch source of rwo Lomprledby meaulnors luuo ps€udoguaianolidesnamely parihenin and coronopilinin additionto someminor constituenrs R€sidueofparthenium flowers and leaves were Iike 2 p hydroxy coronopilin,ietraneurin A, foundlethal to severalaquatic weeds such as water hysterones A-D etc. Venkataiah et all2003) hyacinth(Pandey et al. 1993),salvinia (Pandey recently jsolated chaminarone, 1994),Najas (Pandey 1997) etc. Sdvastavaer dl.

[coPR]NT VOL14, 2007 (1985) discovered thai aqueous extracts of chilli peppers.clover, mulbeny and differenl pal.theriumlcaves and inflorescerceinlibited the lndian and Auslraljanforage cfops and Srasses germinatioDand secdling growth of baflcv showedsimilar responseio parthenlumexhacls Partheniunleachate and orgaDicextract slongly (Evans 1997). The water soluble leaclare of inhibitedseed germiialion and subsequent g'owth m;l\ced narlleniurn !ontr'r' d o o\i' at Brctsicdcdnpettris scedLings, accomlanied by componcnls.Kuma.i andKohli, (191j7)found that severereducLions in celLsu ival and chlorophyll partheniuntr€ated wilh aqueousleachatc lrom contcnt(Kolli 1985).Allelochemicals froln -ed\c. ana ir florescenreshoqed d'crcd'e in "1dl. ragweedpartheniun coxld be releasedtbrough two chlorophyllcontenl as weli as cell survival But possible nechanisms:Either it produced by possibieexplanalion for this planl's survival]n micfoorganismduring residuedecomposition or natxraLsystcn is eitherdLre to the slow releaseol rre) $.rc.cdcneddi1\rl) lron re.iJ( 'Mersie allclochemicalswilh lessconccntration in sysle andSingh 1988). Sanna (1985) found Lhat shoot or the chemicaLsdo not persistin soil for a Long and Iitter extraclsof paftheniLrninhibited growth limeto affcclthe system. So it is well documented of Rhizobiumin laboratoryculturc. Kanchan and thal parth€niunallelochemicals have vast nnlact :r Jayachandn(1981) also showed similar effects oi vn cpeciescorrnosirion Jnd planrdi\err r' partheniumleachates on nitrogen fixing and partheniurninlested en!ironmcnts. nilifynrg bacteria. Scveral ftrsearche'r JJnlon,rr.,reoLl.( Inodcor r.r:nr' ol p"fl\cn.ufr M1rnxgcment (2002) fbur)dthal allelochenicals.SinSh e/ a/. Ihe dcvclopm€nl of Proper cortrol ol pa{heninexerted an advcrseeiLct 0Dpfotcin and managementslralegy to reducethc sprcadand carbohydralcnrctabolis of Ageralln canrroide.\. inr.sr'on oi r.rgwcedptr \cniLlr. is rr"jvl Prndcy(1996) repoLted thnl parlheninresulted in conccmir lndi! and Auslralia.The conlfolol lhis sevcralphysiological changes in watcf hyacirth, wecd is rrthd dinicult, prinarily due 1o rls such as damageto ccllular membranesloss of epidcuricsDread and sLrongteproductivc rn.l dchydfogcoascactivity in roots and loss of rcgenerativepotcnlial, apart from its widcrangc of chlofophyllin theleaves. habftl(Kohli€1a1. 1998). Manual and mcchanical grading, plowtuglbr PdrLhcnintreated plants showcd toor ceU methodssuch as slashingand survival. lower chlorophyll conrentrnd lowcr contfollirrgragwccd parthenium are not cffcchvc waterretention which inhibitedplant regeneration (Muniapp.e/ a/. 1980,Haselcr 1976). Manual (KohLi dr d/. 1985). Pandey (1994) observed cullingsLike nmrving or slashmgrcsulb nr rapid nrassiveloss ofmembmre intcgrily ofsalvinia due regenc'arronof pla.lrslolloq(J l) llo.\e ng 10 partheniumallelochcmicals. The uptake oi and abundantseed production (Dhrwan and pullnrg of nuuientsalso inhibits by latheniun. Mcrsic and Dhawan 1996). Although hand Singh,(1988) lbund rhat iron and zinc contcntof rrgweedt,"hcriJrr s .orrnronlyn-aLriced il jt iomalo plant feducedby caffcic. vanillic and lndia, but it tuvolvessevere risks as causcs lerulic acids which are the major phenoLicsof seriousheaLth hazards. Without proper disposal 'rcrl'od. rlre-dri'e latheniun]extracts. Several other crops and pLanis fald weedng is ani.leflec.\c cLch rs (owfea. .JIfoqrr. crrLarih. dcacia. (Naviee/ di. 1996).Clean cultivalion is another ..rc- yp LL. lculJera. .orghun. ndile. rdgi optionto prevenipatheniun seedspread and its soybeans, french beans, cotton, spinach, okra,

[coPRrNT VOL14, 2007 Movementof cattle,machinery, vehicle, soil, ln pasture,partbenium can be controlled by 2,4-D vater ard feed ftom infest€d area to clean arca (4 ks ai. ha''),picloran (0.8 kg ai. ht'), dicmba should be restricted as a preventiv€ measure. (1 kg ai. lra'), diuron(2 kg ai. ht'), karbutilate(1 Proper legislation such as quarantinelaw between ke ai. ha'), and atnzine (3 kg ai. ht') (Haseler statesand countries of infested and non infested 'a"o). The ,pplicalionof 2. 4-D dnd andzine areasis also very effecuve.fire ane' heall 'din mixtwe is recommendedfor effective contrcl as also resultsbeneficial as il kills newly germinated atrazineprovides loDg term residual activiry. Singh partheniumplants but it Cives only a short t€rrn cl a/. (2004)found that atrazinephs 2,4'D at 0-5 conrrol(Holman IaSl). In flhiopid.pdnhenium L plus0.5 ks ha-rcaused 45% nortaliryto rasweed cuffently controll€d rnainly by hand hoeing and parthenium. Similar author reported that hand pulling. In an experiment, Tamado and gllphosateformulation MON 8793and 8794 at 3.6 Milbetg (2004) found rcpeatedhand hoeing as a kg ae ha'' provided good control of ragweed most effective control measurein grain sorghum partheniumand therewas no recovcryup to 18 comparedwilh 2.4-Dapplicarion and inlercropping weeks after treatrnent. Incr€ased efiicacy of with smothercrop(cowpea), But hoeingby hand herbicides is achieved when applied to younger involves huge amountofphysical eflons and time. thanolder plants, Chloromuron at 0,03kg ha r and Severalresearchers ieported effectivechemical metsulinonat 3.5 g ha_ralso provided excellent andbiological control ofparthenium weed in India partheniumcontrol when appliedto 30 cm tall and Australia.Rec€ntly, scientists and extensron plants(Mishra and Bhan 1995). Atrazine with non workersare more conc€rnedto developsuitable ionic surfactanrcan be spor trearedin grain integratedmanagement strategy, involving various sorgbum(Parsons and Cuthbertson 1992). methods of weed control for padhenium management, Preemergenceapplication of atrazine(1.5 kg ai. ha-'), chlorobromuron(1 kg ai. ha') and Chemicrlcontrol monuron(0.75 kg ai. ha_r)gave effective controlof parthenium Succ$sful chemical control of lagweed in maize and sorghum (Dutta et al. 1976).Same author reported tha! post-emergence parihenium has been achieved by different applicalionof DSMA (2 kg ai. ha-')in maizeand workers.For properchemical control, selection of co*?eaand 2,4"D amine (2 kg ai. ha r) in sorghum herbicide,rate of h€rbicide and the groMh stages and maiz€also controlledparth€nium efYiciently. of ragwe€dpartherium very are imporiant factors. In orchard, diqual was found very cffcctive ro Som€times, after effective application of control this weed withouaaffecting fruit lrees herbicidesthe we€dwill appear{iom the soil seed (Guptaand Sha[na 1977).Parth€nium weed also bant (Navieel d/. 1996).Residual herbicid€s heip can be controlledby rn€tribuzinin potato and to overcomeihis problem butmodem resiriciion of tomato,by terbacil in waterm€tonand by bromacil using herbicide with higher r€sidual activity anddiuron in grapes,pin€apple and cilrus orchard p_€!errsirs apflicalion.In croppingsrluarion (Navie e/ a1. 1996). Partheniumweed is also chemical control is very €ffeciive, but where susceptibleio manyof theother herbicides such as parthenium weed cove$ a large area, ch€mical pendimeihalin,oxadiazone, imazapyr, ox)4luorfen and thiob€ncarb(Parsons and control is no! a viable option (Parsonsand Cuthbertson1992). On th€ other h3nd, partheniumweed is not Cuihbertson1992). Different experimeni.sshowed contfolledby severalother herbicidcssuch as that ragweedparthenium is susceptiblelo various paraqualCNjoroge 1991), triflualin, diphenamid, herbicideswhen these ar€ applied a1high volume. napropamide,alachlor, metalachlor and propachlor

I ECOPRINT VOL14, 2007 (Labrada 1990). It was also noted that if relos?erzir (Hrstache) (CurcuUonidae),a seed partbeniun was teat€d repear€dlywith paraquat,it feeding weevil Snicronyx lutulentus ()ietz) becanea predominantspecies within oneyear rn (Curculionidae),a leaf minlng n.oth Bucculatrix citus, coffeeand banana plantations. The apparent parthenica (Bladley) (), a stem resislance of parthenium to different herbicides galling weevil Conotrachilus albocineleus generatedthe need to use herbicidal mixtures or (Fiedlet (Curculionidae) and ihe lvinter rust sequence of herbioides against ihis weed. Puccihia abrupta var. pa heniicola (Iacksot) Knowledgeof economicalthreshold level of (Parmelee)are known 10 be €sLablishedin the field partheniumin affectedcrop is alsovery usetulto siiuation(McFadyen 1992,2000, Dhil€epan 2001). detennine the proper ch€mical heatment and lt's Thesuccessltl conhol ofpafihenium was achieved timeofapplication. by leaf f€eding beetle ZygoArana bicolorata (Paliist€r) and by Stem galling Epiblena Biologicalcontrol strcnuana(w^tket). The needof alternarivemanagement pracrices Table2.H€rbicides regislered io Austrrlia for developedas several physical and chemical parthenium methodshave proved ineffective,uneconomical control under different andenvironmentally unsafe. Natural suppr€ssionof situations, partheniumby biologicalagents in its nativerange Use fierbicld€ comparedto its increasedfitn€ss or vigourin alien (! or kq) environmentwithout natural enemy g€nerated the ideaof biologicalcontrol as a suitablealtemative Attazin+2,4-D 1.8-3.2kg+0,4-1 kg for long lerm partheniumconirol, Queensland Dicamba 300g D€partment of L6nds (QDL), IICB and 875g CommonwelthInstitue of Biological Control Metsulturon 3-4.2g (CIBC) conduciedan entomologic6lsurvey and Piclorarn+2,4-D 225s+900 E screeningof s€lectedarthopods in the neofopical 1.8"3.2kg centreoforigin (BraziljArgentina and Mexico) of fallow 1.8-3.2kg + 0.4"1kg ragweedparth€nium (Evans 199?),This results Dicamba 160-280C have been reviewed by Mcclay (1985) and Picloran+ 2,4"D 75I +300r McFadyen(1985).The completeresults of North Glyphosale+ 290430E+ 3-4.2g Americansurvey w€rc summarizedby McCIayet ai. (1995),and Navie e/ dI. (1996)listed atl 875g rnlroducedin Austialiawith details.Out of 260 3-4.2e phytophagousarihopod sp€ciescollected from Piclomm+ 2,4-D 225g+ 900g panhenium,only 144 speciesfed on fle plant. 200I Mostofthese are only occasional f€eders and have |.2-3.2ks liltle detrin€nraleffects on plant (Mcclay t981J. |.2-3.2kg Bioiogicalcontrol of parth€niumwas initiated 2.2-3.2kE in Australiain 1977and since then, nine species of 160-280g inseclsand one rust fungushave been intoduced Piclorm + 2,4-D 75g+300 g (McFadyen1992, 2000, Dhiteepan 2001). Aniong 2.2-3.2kB these,the stem moth Epiblena stlewah.l ealljng 160-280g (walker) (Totricidae), a defoliaring beetle ?5g+ 300g (Pallister) 2.2-3.2kE (Chrysonelidae), a stem boring weevil ,irfo'or,lJ Source:Navie a/. 1996 "l ECOPRTNT VOL 14, 2007 Dhileepan (2001) rcpor1€d that Zygogruna targetplant other than aiiual ragweed.The larvae bi.oloruta (Pallister) caused96% defoliation and of Bucculatrix parthenica eal the leaves of Epiblenastenuana (Walker) affected100% of partheniumweeds and in higher abundanceir can the plants, resulting in reductionsof 90% in weed causesextensive defoilaiion ofhost plant(Mcclay density,40% in plant height and 82% in flower et dl. 1990), but the lawae of weevii Sniclo,rr prodLcrion.The Idrvaeof Ilrlrcaotuss to'ir, adi. lutdlpnlu,teed on rhedisc norcl{ dJ de.eloping (Hutache) exed a significant damage to achenesof parthenium(Mcclay er a/. I98l). In partheniunw€ed and when severalare present lnd;a,sevcral number of indigenousinsects attack they may kill yorng plant (wild et al. 1992). padheniumlveed but none causessignificant Although,adl.o,'lrr weevilshowed some f€edng darnageon vaslscale. The proper sffeening ofbio- developmenton sunflowcr,it waslater relcased 1n agentwith adaptabilityto widerrange ofclimate is Australiabclwccn 1982 and 1986.For inlroduchon veryimportant characteristio for Indiancondition. oi biologicalagent there is scepticismabout host Eatliet ZygoBrcna hicolotata was introduced in specificilyand on the backgroundof this faunal Indiaand until no somennpacl was observed tn reldlionsbipof pailheniJm$irh olher specresir the Bangloreregion, India (Navi€ sl d/. 1996)but very impodant.Therc is a high degreeof faunus Epiblenastrenuana \Nas rejected because ofattack srmrlanD betsccn parrhcnrumand [.lelianthLc on Guizotiaabyssinica (McFadyen 1992). (>8%)and few pestcan damage sunflower also but Pafienium is a host of two differet the risk of field damageis very hnilcd. Moth pathogenicrust fxngi Puccihio abrupta \at. Epiblcna swnuaha was found very effectivein pathen.ola flackson) Parm. and Puccnia Auslraliabul enalic rainfallpatterns disrupled the melampodii(Die\ andHolw.) in Mexico(Navie ?r moth populationand rcduc€dthenr in very low al. 1996).lt was observedthat il occursand lcvel. lr was also introducedin lndia bur as il damageparthenium significantly iD similar climatic attacked anotber comfrositae crop, it was conditionslike Queenslandand furiher studyon withdrawn.ln the inilial stage,Zygograma beetle thispathogcn was initiated. In UK pathogenicityof uas ver) effecrile.bur lal(r rbespread of rhisbio rust funguslo partlreniunwas studiedand they agentslowed dowr as ihis specieswas unable to found rhar rnfecrionI a.rcned leaf scnc'cercc, adjustto the variablerainlall pattem (Navie el d1. significantlydecrcased thc life spanaDd dry wcight 1996). Report sbow€d that defbliation by ofparlheniumplanl aDd reduced flower production Zygogra-nabcetle reduccd pan\eniu-n potulauon by 90% (Parkere1 ai. 1994,Evans 1997).The up to 99.5%and parthenium were replaced by 40 pathogenwas found highly host-specific and it was differentplant species in laliow land(Jayanth and relea.edin cenrralQueendand aner lcal (tvans Visalakshy1996). Slem galliDgmoth Epiblema 1997). Significant damage by the rus! was strenuana d^magedthe meristem at early groMh observedin field conditionin earli€r stagebut stagcand as a resultprevented 32% ofplantsfrom droughtand ligh nighi time lemperalue limiied its producingany flower (Dhileepan2001). Another fir..ther spread. The rust strain was found nore stem-galling weevil, Cohotruchelus albocinereus effectivewhen night temperalure fell below20' C (Fiedler)is alsoa pot€ntialbio-agent as thh insect andprefcrably around 17'C (Parkere/ a/. 1994). danage parthenium by galling stem tips and Another rust strain Pacciia nelanpodii and wn]te auxiliarybuds (McFadyen2000). Sinilar author s'llrtt, Entloma parthenit showedpromising as a repofed lhat stem galling weevil is host-specific biocontrolasent in field condition(Evans 1997). and there is mininal risk of damageto any non l0 ECOPRTNT VOL 14, 2007 Some mycoplasmalike organism causingsedous control manasement.Singh (1983) first noticed damageto partheniumplant was noticed in India that Ca,'sia uni|laru (Leg nlnosae)had ability to but a iitde successwas achieved (Navie et a1. replace panhenium. in ongrnal) panheniurn 1996).For mycoherbicide development, infested sreas. Other Casria spp. such as C. 'fode Myrcthecium rcridum ex Fr. appearedvery terecea, C. toru, C. au culata and C. occidentale promising againsrparthenium In India (Pandeyer also has proven allelopathic fees againsi a/. 1992).Most of the evaluatedtunsi suppressedparthenium (Naithani i987, Mhadevappa and seed germination and successively caused high Ramaiab1988). Alielopathic leachates of those seedling monality of parthenium including plants affected germination and growth of Co etotticun gloeosporioides (Penz) Sacc.; paihenium, But the flowers and seeds,which are Fusarun dbporyn Schlecr.. Fu'ariun the md,n source of discemination,remdin nonorifome She1d,arfl Myrotheciun rotidun unaffected. The successof Cassiauntloru has rot (Evans,1997).Collar rot diseaseof panheniumby beenachieved due Io its unsuirabiliqin varying Sclerotiun rofJsii Sacc. was repod€d form India climatic conditions and difilcult cultural but later screening showed that isolates were requirement(Joshi 1991). lt was also discovercd pathogenicto numberofcrop plants,like cabbage, lhal C. uniflora is a major host of Bemisia beans, casior and Amaranthus (Mishra et al. whiteflies, which transmitl€d leaf curl virus to 1994).Severalresearch on similarline were carried tomatoand otherplants (Ev6ns 1997). Kohli snd out in India and Australiabut no formulated Kumar (1997) investigatedeffects of threetree mycoherbicidehas reached for fieldexpenment. species,Eucalyplus lereticarnis, Populusderoides and Leucaena leucocephala on parlhenium and Table3.Species releas€d as blological control observedpoor of partheniumunder those agenfs of Parthenlum hysterophorus $owtb plantations.The gr€atesteffects w€re observed and thelr est.blishmentin Australia, \nder Eucalyptus tereticornis, follorrcd by sp€ciet Counfryof Flrrt Leucaena leucocephala and Papulus deltoides. origin rcl€rs€d Kohli el dl(1998) foundthat volatileterpenes of Col€opterr Eucalwtus spp. reduced seed germinaiion. 1993 chlorophyllconi€nt as well as cellularrespiration Lisoorotus seto sipehhis Brazil/ 1983 of parthenium,The inhibitoryeffect of sunflower (Helianthus annus) on parthenium was also i980 obs€wed(Azania e/ aa 2003). ZygroglMa bicalotuta 1980 Future strategy

r983 Tbe thoroughstudy of ragweedpanheniurn establishedits significant role in loday's Eucculatrirpa herica 1984 environment.There is no doubt aboutihe poientjal 1982 lethalimpact ofihis w€edon humanaffairs. As this P la tp I ha I on i.li a nys I ica t992 species spreads very rapidly, there js always a Source:White 1994, Navie et al.1996 possibiliq,of introductionof this speci€sin areas wher€ parihenium is not presentuntil now. If we The use of natural plant with allelopathic consider all detdmental efTectsincluding, pollen potentiai is gaining real attention in nodem weed allergy, aninal toxicity, agricultural loss,

ECOPRINT VOL 14, 2007 ll biodiversiiyand allelopathythen it demandsa Queensland govemment in Aushalia and serious effon to develop proper managem€nttor Kamataka govemneni in India initiated few the vast parthenium infested areas of Australia, awaren€ssand extensionprogram to helP people India and Africa. Res€archefforts both in Australia for managing this weed \tithout any healih and India in lasi three decadesresulted severa] problem.Even medical scientistsare now very promi:ingmandgemen, options. bur slill 'hereis much aware and staited sev€ral resea{chesto not a single tool, which can eradicateparthenium combarpollen allergy of ragweedpafthenium. The without affecling suffoundingenrironment. ch€apand plentiful labor market in Indra can encouragethe manual control of this weed, but Th€ First Iotemational Coderence on possible health hazards and without suitable Parthenium Management held at Dharwad, disposal mechanismafter removal, does nol help Kamataka,India (1977) focused to evaluate this issuewith great€rextent (Evans 1997) The overallinpact of this weed and pfobablefuture abundanceol this speciesin fallow, roadsrde, directionsto solveone of the majorproblems of railway hack and other non croplandareas aho modembiological science. Proper assessment of require seriousatteniion to pr€vent lhe spreadot economicallosses, biological risks and also this weed.Felv potentialallelopathic plants can benefitsis very importantas it will helpscientists conhol partheniumin thos€ areaswithout affeciing to establishtheir future researchgoal about surroundingenvironmenr. Otherwise it is lcry parthenium.The integratedpest management difficult to conlroLparthenirim in suchvast areas strategy including mechanical,biological and wilh chemicalor mechanicalmethods. cbemicalmelhods can solve lhis problem in program sustainablemanner. The id€ntificationof effective The researchon biologicalcontrol Thc control measure and evaluation of th€ with otheraltemative strategies is important. compatibilily of tbose techniqueswith other screeningof insect,pathogen and sludy on their can manag€mentoptiorl is necessary,Th€ knowledg€ climatic adaptabiiityand host specificity about the biology, phFiology and growth of providea realsolution in nearfuture. D€velopment the parlheniumalso h€lp to controlthis weed in proper of a mycoherbicideprogram in additionto the stag€with lesseffort. classicalapproach of biocontrolcan minimize probabl€adverse efects on environnenl,which The mass awareness and community really preventelhe use of b orogical agenl in participation is very importani to deal this weed diffbrentciimatic condiiions. If quarantinehurdles problem in both urban and rural situations.Batish can be overcome then introduction of suitabl€ (2004) ed that one areain Chandigarh, et d/. repo bioagenrmay resolve this problem. Both in parlbenium India. was severelyinfesled with lhe Australia and in lndi'a Zrqogruna bicolorata weedand rcsidenBwere scaredof evenenlering provediB potentialand generateda real hopefor the zone wilh the fear of getting health problens- firhuebio-control res€arch. The biological research But aft€r they were educatedabout the biology and is still in progressin AusfaLiabu! it shouldstill be possibletheat of the weed,which would agg@vate explored in Indja. The wide climatic variation proper people wiihout control measure, started within Indian subcontinent obviously pos€s a paniciparingin uprooting acriviry before flowering najor problem for biocontrol, however, proper stage. Such kind of motivation with comprehensiveresearch efforts in variousparts of df knowledgebase can efnciently renove this twe the countrycan really evaluatethe potentialbenelit invasive species ftom a certain locatiry. of biocontrol agentsagainst parthenium. t2 ECOPRINT VOL 14, 2oo7 The benefioialrole or use ofparthenium sho d 2003. Allelopathic plants 7. Sunflower also consider in time of plarning turure acoon. (Hetianths anmar L.). A etopathyJoumaL Antitumor alld antiamoebiasisactivity of parthenin 11(1):1-20. has beenrcported by different authors(Mew er al Baily, L.H. 1960. Manual of Cuttirated ptants. 1982,Shama and Bhutani 1988).parthenium was Macmilla,N€w Yo*. used as a folk medicine in the Caribbean and Batisb R.D.,H.P. Singh, K.R. Kohli, V. Joharad CentralAmerica and also usedas a flea repellentin S. Yadav. 2004. Managemenrof lnvasive JamaicaOJavie e! al. 1996). parrehniumis Exotic Weeds Requires Communiq' valuable souce of potash, oxalic acid and easily Participation. Weed Technolog. tltt44'- €xtractablehigh quality proteiDthat can be usedin 1448. animalfe€d (Mane er at 1986,Savangikar and Joshi1978). Bhowmik.P.C. and D. Sarkar.2005. padhenium hystercphotl.ts:lts world status and potential Our primary concem about this weed is managemeDt. Proceedihgs Second developmentof suiEble managemenrsnalegies, Intenatiokal Conference oh pa/thenum The formation of parthenium action group l4ahagement. Univ. Agric. includingrepresenlatives ftom differentsector in Sciences. piobl€m areascan provide a suitabl€rernedy Bangaiore,India. pp. l-5. option.The multidisciplinaryresearch snd proper Chippendale,J.F. and F.D. Panetta. 1994. The cosr €orrununicationor tanrformation of technology of partheniumweed to the Queensland cattle from lab to land is important for eradioating tbis ind)stty, Plant Protection euarterly. 9 :i3-i 6. obnoxio$ species,Otherwise, it can be a real Dhawan,S.R. and P. Dhawan.1996. Regeneration ttueat in any partsofthe world in next few decades i^ Pafthenium hysterophorus and wili becomea global menace.comprising L. WorA Weed. morecomplex characteristics, 3:181-182. Dhileepan,K. 2001. Eflectivenessof introduced REFERENCES biocorurol insects on the weed pa henium Adkins, S,W., S.C. Navie and R.E. McFadyen. hyslercphorus (Astetaceae) in Aust&ln. 1996. Control of par6enium Weed Buletin of Entonologtca! Research, 9lt16j- (Pa heniun hysterophorusL.)r A cenre for t76. 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ECOPRINT VOL 14, 2007 Naithani, H.B. 1987.Patlhenium hystercphorus a Pandey,D.K., L.M.S.Pahi and S.C.Joshi.2003. precious weed in Aflnachal PGdesh and Growth, reFoduction and photos)41th€sisof Nagaland.Indian Forester 113,709-'710. ragweed parthenium -201. Navie, S.C., R.E. McFadyen,F.D. Panetta,and hysteraphonts\.Weed Sci. 51t19 1 5.w. Adkins.loeo. lhe biologyofAusrralian Pandey,H.N. and S.K. Dubey. 1988. Achene veeds 27. Pa henium hystercphorusL. Plant germi,^aIionof Pa heniun hystercphotts L.: P ro tecI ion Quafterly. 1lt7 6-88. effects of light, tempemture,provenanace and Navie, S.C., F.D. Pan€tta,R.E. McFadyenand achenesize. weed Res.28..185-190. S.W. Adkins. 1998.Behaviour of buriedand Pandey,H.N. and S.K. Dubey.1989. Growth and surface-sown seeds ol ParthentunL population dynamics of an exotic weed hystercphorus.Weed Res. 38:335-341. Pa henium hysterophotlts L. Proceeding oJ Njorose,J.M. 199t.Toteral,ce of Bidenspilosa L. the India Academy of Science (Ptant and Paiheni n hystelophorusL. to paraquat Sciences).99t51-58. cramaxone. in Kenya. Ke la Cofee, 561999- Parker,A., A.N.G,Holden and A.J. Tomley. 1994. 1001. Host specificitytesting and assessmentof the Pandey,A.K., B.M. Luka, S.K, Hasijaand R,C, pathogenecityof therusi, Puccinis abrupta va(. Rajak. 1992. Evaluation of Mrto e.iun parlhenicola,as a biologicalcontrol agent of rcridun tor rhe fianageme of Parrhe4ium padheniumweed (Palt eniuh hlstercphorus). -l hysrcrcphorui inoculum rale srudies. Plant P at ho lo g. 43tl 6. Proceedkgs of the Natiohal Academy of Parsons,W.T. and E.G. Cuthbertson.1992. Science, lndi a, 62,449453. Noxious Fy'eedsin Auslralia. Inkata Press, Pandey.D.K. 1o94.Inhibition of Salvinra(Sa/viria Molboume,Austmlia. 692, zol?sfu Mrrchell.by P{rhe im (Partheniun Peng, C.1., L.A. Hu and M.T. Kao. 1988. hysteraphons L.. lI. Relative effec! of flower, Unwelcome naruralisationof Paryheniun leaf, stem and root residueon Salviniaand Hyslercphorus(Asteftce e, it'Taiwan. Journal P^ddy,J. Chem,Ecol. 20(12)t3123-3131. of TaiwatlM seum.4lt95-10l. Pandey,D.K. 1996.Phltotoxiciry of s€squiterpeneRajan, L. 1973. Crowth inhibitors ftom lactoneparthenin on aquaticweeds. J Clen. Parthenium hystercphorus Linn. Cuftenl Ecal.22tl5l-160. Sciehce.42t'7 29 -'7 30. Pandey.DK. 1947.lnlibuion of najasfNajas Rajendrudu,G. andV.S. RamaDas. 1990. C3- like gramincaDel.. by patrtheniulx'(Pa he iuth carbon isotop discriminaiion in C3-C4 hyeercphons L.). A elopathy Jounal. inrermediateAlpr enthda and Pa hcaiun 4(1\tt2I-t26. species.Cwh Sc i. 59.371-31 9. Pandey,D.K., L.P. Kaurawand V.M. Bhan.1993. Ramesh, C., N. Ravindranaih,B. Das, A. Inbibiroryeffecr of pej$,eniu'x'(Paflhpniun Prabhakar, J. Bharatam, K. Ravikumar, A. hysterophontsL.. residue on gorah of wat€r Kashinathamand T.C. McMorris. 2003. hyacinth (Eichornia crass,perMart Solns.. IL Pseudoguaianolides ftom flolvem of Relative effecr of f]ower, leaf, stem and root Partheniun hystercphorus. Phytachenbtry. rcsid]J€.J. Chen. Ecol. r9(11\t2663-2670. 64t841-844.

16 ECOPRINT VOL T4, 2O()? Rao, R.S. 1956.PartheDium: ,A ncw recordfor seedlinggrowth ofbrrley, peaand wheal. ,4cld trdia J bonia) \a. Hdl. So.. 54:2 8-.220. BotunicaIn.licd. 13.191-191 . q ri, |'.K.v. 'd<. I ffecr ol P,rlt"ai l .amado.| ,'r P. \.4lberg. 2uU0. weed nora in hlttei?phous extracton Rhizobiun.rroplc4l arablellelds uf

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