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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION Olaf Zawacki-Richter Adnan Qayyum Editors Open and Distance Education in Asia, Africa and the Middle East National Perspectives in a Digital Age SpringerBriefs in Education Open and Distance Education Series editors Insung Jung, International Christian University, Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan Olaf Zawacki-Richter, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Niedersachsen, Germany More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15238 Olaf Zawacki-Richter • Adnan Qayyum Editors Open and Distance Education in Asia, Africa and the Middle East National Perspectives in a Digital Age Editors Olaf Zawacki-Richter Adnan Qayyum Institute of Education Pennsylvania State University University of Oldenburg State College, PA, USA Oldenburg, Niedersachsen, Germany ISSN 2211-1921 ISSN 2211-193X (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Education ISSN 2509-4335 ISSN 2509-4343 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Open and Distance Education ISBN 978-981-13-5786-2 ISBN 978-981-13-5787-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5787-9 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018966401 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019. This book is an open access publication. Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adap- tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publi- cation does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore This book is dedicated to the memory of Colin Latchem. Colin contributed the Australia chapter in the first volume of these books. He was an important advocate of non-formal, open and distance education. His thoughtful contributions to the field will be missed. Contents 1 Introduction .......................................... 1 Olaf Zawacki-Richter and Adnan Qayyum 2 China ............................................... 7 Wei Li and Na Chen 3 China—Commentary ................................... 23 Jingjing Zhang 4 India ................................................ 27 Santosh Panda and Suresh Garg 5 India—Commentary .................................... 43 Ramesh Chander Sharma 6 Russia ............................................... 47 Olaf Zawacki-Richter, Sergey B. Kulikov, Diana Püplichhuysen and Daria Khanolainen 7 Russia—Commentary ................................... 63 Galia I. Kirilova 8 South Africa .......................................... 67 Paul Prinsloo 9 South Africa—Commentary .............................. 83 Jenny Glennie and Tony Mays 10 South Korea .......................................... 87 Cheolil Lim, Jihyun Lee and Hyoseon Choi 11 South Korea—Commentary .............................. 101 Insung Jung vii viii Contents 12 Turkey .............................................. 105 Yasar Kondakci, Svenja Bedenlier and Cengiz Hakan Aydin 13 Turkey—Commentary .................................. 121 Soner Yildirim and Müge Adnan 14 The State of Open and Distance Education ................... 125 Adnan Qayyum and Olaf Zawacki-Richter Chapter 1 Introduction Olaf Zawacki-Richter and Adnan Qayyum Introduction Since the mid 1990s, the digital transformation has changed the face of open and distance education as we had known it. Already in 1999, Alan Tait observed that “the secret garden of open and distance learning has become public, and many institutions are moving from single conventional mode activity to dual mode activity” (p. 141) and Kearsley (1998) even claimed that “distance education has become mainstream” (p. 1). Indeed, during the last 20 years distance education has moved from the fringes into the center of mainstream education provision (see Xiao, 2018, for a recent analysis). This is specially the case in the higher education sector where today in some countries—supported by enormous state funding programs like in Germany—almost all higher education institutions are offering some sort of online education, ranging from web-enhanced face to face teaching practices to fully online programs on an international scale—although they often do not label this distance education and use terms such as online, flexible or blended learning. The process of the digital transformation—the “digital turn” (Westera, 2013)—affects all segments of society and economic sectors. Different nations and educational systems are responding differently to the macro process of digitalization. Some national systems are more advanced and ahead on the road by making the dig- italization of teaching and learning a strategic goal for development and innovation already over a decade ago (e.g. South Korea) while in other countries distance edu- cation was recognized as a validated and accredited form of education provision only O. Zawacki-Richter (B) Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany e-mail: [email protected] A. Qayyum Pennsylvania State University, State College, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2019 1 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Qayyum (eds.), Open and Distance Education in Asia, Africa and the Middle East, SpringerBriefs in Open and Distance Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5787-9_1 2 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Qayyum in the recent past, now witnessing enormous growth rates of enrollments in online distance education with private institutions massively stepping into this market (e.g. Brazil). The transformation of teaching and learning in a digital age presents a dramatic challenge of innovation and change for the majority of ‘conventional’ universities. Higher education institutions throughout the world have undergone changes to inno- vate teaching and learning processes by implementing infrastructures for educational technology and developing organizational support structures for students and faculty. Distance teaching institutions have always been spearheading the application of new and emerging media, because in distance education media have always been used to bridge the gap students and the teaching institutions and among learners. Starting in the mid 1990s, the Internet and new information and communication technologies paved the way for overcoming the notion of distance education as an isolated form of learning. However, also traditional distance teaching universities are still struggling to make the transition from correspondence to online distance education (e.g. in South Africa). In order to avoid that we reinvent the wheel in this very dynamic process of digital transformation, it is important that we learn from past experiences of open and distance education systems, covering over a century of theory, research and practice in the field (e.g. in the UK, Germany, South Africa and Russia). The present book is the second volume in which we set out to explore, compare and contrast open and distance education systems in various countries. The first volume “Open and Distance Education in Australia, Europe and the Americas” covered national systems in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, the UK and the USA. The goal is to describe different approaches and models of the relationship between distance education and higher education in each country by addressing the following questions: 1. What is the function and position of distance education within the national higher education system? 2. Which are the major DE teaching and research institutions? 3. What is the history and past of distance education including online education? 4. What is the relationship between DE and more established and older campus- based, residential institutions? 5. What is the relationship between public and private sector online and distance education? 6. What are the regulatory frameworks for DE? What are important policies for online and distance education? 7. What are estimated student enrollments for online and distance education pro- grams? 8. What are probably important future developments and issues for online and distance education? 1 Introduction 3 Structure of the Book The countries are presented in alphabetical order. Each chapter is complemented

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