Nigerians and Cubans Reunite Through a Shared Cultural Practice1

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function in a more cohesive and supportive environment. This will allow practitioners to adapt and change epistemologically to the shared experiences. 25 This process would allow practitioners to develop the needed trust and respect for one another and for the respective talents, skills and abilities each person brings. It would allow practitioners to develop a community of respected elders and priests whom the communhy has confidence iil and whom they will seek for its guidance in personal and social matters. The Separated by the Slave Trade: Nigerians and process of building community will also help practitioners develop the unjty it needs to take on the broader social issues plaguing our communities. It allows Cubans reunite through a shared cultural practitioners to build the kind of spirit in our families and communities that 1 encourages African descendant Ifa practitioners in the United States to help practice lift up those who are down and celebrate those who are up. The time has come for Ifa priest and practitioners from the African - Ivor L. Miller Diaspora to take up these dilemmas, controversies and challenges among themselves in a straightforward, honest and respectful way. The successful building of a culture of !fa priests and practitioners and a creation of an Introduction environment and system in the United States that helps one to learn and Throughout the twentieth century, scholars have debated the roles of West internalize Ifa as a way of being depends on moving beyond these factors. African cultural systems in the formation of societies in the Western Hemisphere. Many distinct models have been presented, some emphasizing Iwa la n wa, Iwa 'absolute innovation' after a complete break with cultural systems in African source regions, others taking a romantic view of continuities despite a It is good character that we are looking for, good character. gauntlet of obstacles. Generalizations are hazardous, thanks to the wide variety of experiences during the period of the Atlantic slave trade; Africans References left different regions, at different times, and entered vastly different colonial situations. This essay looks at a very speci£c African institution - the Abimbola, Kola. YoniM Culture: A Philosophical Account. Birmingham, Iroko, 2005 Ekpe Abimbola, Wande·IJa Divination Poetry, NOK Publishers, New York, 1977- leopard society - from a well-defined source region - the Cross River region Abimbola, Wande. Ifa Will Mend Our Broken World. Boston, AIM Books, 1997 of Nigeria and Cameroun, and its historically related Can'bbean counterpart Abimbola, Wande. IJa: An Exposition of !fa Literary Corpus, Oxford University Press, the Abakua society of Havana and Matanzas Cuba. Here I am not interested Tbadan, 1977. in proving either continuity or innovation, since living cultural practices are Adewale-Somadhi, Farounbi Aina Mosunmola (Chief Fama). Fundamental of the reinterpreted with each generation under any circumstances. The perspeGtives ~orUMReligion (Orisa Worship). San Bernardino, Ile Orunmila Communications, Ofculture bearers from either side of a trans-Atlantic tradition are rarely 1993 beard in the literature about their practices. Instead, we often read the work of Anderson, S. E. The Black Holocaustfor beginners. New York, Writers and Rea9ers. anthropologists who come back from the field and write from their particular 1995 theOretical position. . . Brandon, George. SantenafromAfrican to the New World: The Dead Sell Memories. This essay centres upon the views of leaders from both socleties who ha:re Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1993 plltticipated in recent meetings to display their traditions to each other ID Bruner, Jerome. Making Stories: Law, Literature, Life. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002 ~rderto find common ground, whether in t~econfi~ation of a shared re vocabuJary (called Ns~bidiin West Afr Ica) that mcludes a syste= of Drewal, Margaret Thompson. Yorubc:i Ritual: Performers, Plays, Agency. symb 01 . n ensembles chants in a ritual language , Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1992 g.estures, body masks, per.cuss10. rations fr~mwithin an i.nner sanctum. Falade, Fasina. !fa: The Key To Its Understanding. Lynwood, Afa !fa Publishing. 20Q2; geometric signs, and au?ibltO%r~~e maintenance of these systems, and have Kamara, Jemadari , and Van Der Meer, T. Menelik (eds.). State of the Race: Cr~ting Because they are responsl e our 21st Century: Where Do We Go From Here, Boston, Diaspora Press, 2004 Vaill, Peter B. Learning AsA Way of Being: Strategiesfor Survival in a Worldo! Permanent White Water. San Francisco, Jossy-Bass, 1996. n I Acknowledgcme.nts: Mayo Adediran, Sw,day Adaka, Patrke Bancbereau, lill Culler. Alex Jomaro , Victor Manfredi, David O. OgungbUe, Roberl farris Tbompson. and all lhe Vl.kp'"and Abaku6 members participating in the dialogue. Sb4 ,--,."' ...... " " ' ..... ·b ..... " ...... ' .... ·· b' ...... L ...... 'L ...... ' ...... ,...... 1'"'...... " I·' b ..... ' · ...... J V..J

Irivileged access to information about their history and codes, their views Is it possible that the traditional narratives, the liturgy and the language hould be of great interest to scholars. conserved by the descendants of Carabalis in Cuba - the only slave society Africans founded the Abakua society in colonial Cuba in the 1800s. Today in which has developed this type of society emanated from the distant Ekpe here are some 150 lodges and 20,000 members in the port cities of Matanzas - will be of interest to the study of the old societies that survive along the [African] coast, that are said to be threatened to the point of disappearing? nd Havana. Since 2001, Abakua leaders have participated in a series of Who knows if what has been lost there from foreign influences is still lleetings with representatives of their major source institution, the Ekpe conserved in Cuba.4 leopard) society of Nigeria and Cameroon. Since Abakua and Ekpe do not peak the same colonial languages (Spanish and English), they have been ommunicating through the performance of Nsibidi. The process of these Cabrera's questions illuminate two overarching questions discussed below lerformances, including the selection of chants, body masks, and percussion, by the culture bearers: to what extent do the immense narratives of Abakua las presented new data useful in mapping the cultural history of this trans bear relation to the history of Ekpe in Africa, and to w11at extent does Abakua ,tlantic continuum. retain ideas and teachings from there? The recent 'summit meetings' between Nigerians and Cubans are drawing Background attention to a little known aspect of African-centred internationalism, since members of both groups are representatives of an indigenous government )ecades ago, Cuban specialists foresaw the possibility of this unprecedented that emerged hundreds of years ago in the Calabar region of Nige:ria and rans-Atlantic dialogue in what I am calling the continuum'.2 'Ekpe-Abakua Cameroun. The Nigerian Ekpe Oe0pard), and the Cuban Abaku6 both are :ixty years ago when concluding an essay about Abakua performance as ritual hierarchically _graded, with emblematic masked dance performance. The rreatre, Don Fernando Ortiz wrote, leaders of both groups believe their exchanges will strengthen both communities. All evidence points to the remote antiquity of these esoteric afro-occidental Before these meetings, neither the Nigerians nor the Cubans could confirm fraternities. Undoubtedly, the detailed study of its Afro-Cuban survivals the existence of the other. The process began in 2000 when the Nigerians could partially rectify the ignorance, until now not dissipated, about the recognized words from their own language in a Cuban chant that identifies the liturgical functions of the secret African fraternities ... The scientific study port city of Calabar, Nigeria, as a source for Abakua.5 Specifica1ly, the first of these secret fraternities of black provenance existing in America, Cuban lodge, Efi Kebuton, was named after Obut ong, an Efik community in particularly in Cuba, will without doubt help to better understand their 3 caIabar. With each meeting, as culture bearers on each side are studying the African predecessors. performance styles and language of the others, the communication has Ortiz underscored the value of comparative research, but he may not have become more specific and therefore understood by a wider audience of nagined the extent of the intimate involvement of Abakua and Ekpe leaders initiates. As news of these encounters is being diffused on both sides of the llemselves in the current process; the interest in communication is being Atlantic - through word-of-mouth, radio, television, the internet, enerated by culture bearers on both sides who seek insight into the practices newspapers, and scholarly literature - a cultural movement is developing as nd symbols of their counterparts. members of both groups organize themselves for future encounters.6 This Additionally, after a lifetime studying the Abakua, the eminent Cuban )lklorist Lydia Cabrera pondered how future Africanists might use the data ~'\Semn posible que 105 rciatos de tradiciones, la liturgia y cl lenguajc que los descendientcs de carabalues he had gathered. She refers to the African founders of Abakua in Cuba as consarvaTon en Cuba 1>nico paRS esdavist3 eR que estc tipo de sociedad emanada de la lejana Ekppe se ha

Carabali," since many embarked from the port city of Calabar: desarrollado, ofreciernn alg'bn interl1~al estudio de las viejas 50ciedades que sobreviven en la Costa, ya am ena7.... d as, seg'bn nos -dicen de desapareccr? QuiAn sabe si 10 que se ha perdido aU6 pot in:Jlllcncias eXlracas a"n se conscrv8 en Cuba. Y tar.nbiJ:in pensamos en "Igbn fut uro cscudricador de nuestras C05.15, inleresado por cstos apuntes, que arm6ndose de pacienda y con mayores facili dades para pcncrra.r en cl In a 1948 essay, North American anthropologist Melville Herskovits observed that since the study of interior de la Potencia, cuyo acceso est6 vedado a las mujeres, contim.c en terrcno poco e:

essay documents the unfolding process from the perspectives of several Resulting from these encounters, in 2004 , two Cuban Abakua mUSICIans participating culture bearers. travelled to Calabar, Nigeria to participate in the International Ekpe festival, at the invitation of the Governor of Cross River State. After observing their 2001 Brooklyn, New York performances, one Ekpe leader, Engineer B.E. Bassey, wrote: In 2001, the first meeting between Ekpe and Abakua occurred in New York The spontaneous reactions of the Cubans to Ekpe/Mgbe music, dance City, when each group brought their masquerades, percussion and songs, and forms, acciamations and others, proved beyond doubt to the Cubans and displayed them for the other.7 The leader of the Cuban group was Mr. 'Roman' Ekpe/Mgbe exponents that Abakua and Ekpe/Mgbe are sister organizations Diaz, a professional percussionist from Havana, living in New York City since with the same root. All are employing the same techniques to bring man 1999. Diaz used inherited ritual chants to greet their :Efik hosts and to present into conscious contact with his psyche and enable him to know himself.9 the Cubans as linked to Calabar people through initiation lineages that have been continuous since their founding by Africans in Cuba. A man of few If the Nigerians recognized the Cubans through their interactions with words, Mr. Diaz described his impressions ofthis encounter: Ekpe, the Cubans were equally moved. Reflecting upon his performances in The first impression came when we participated in the first encounter with Calabar, 'Roman' Diaz told me: the Efiks in 2001 in Brooklyn. We assimilated the experience after the event by watching a video of our performance, when we saw that the Efiks were The experience of being in Calabar was quite emotional, since the able to recognize some of our words that came from their sources. And this encounter with the land of an entire history known through the liturgy of gave us more security. the society or institution to which we belong, known as the Abakua, gave us a sense of security, and filled us with respect towards all those persons In other words, the Cubans selected materials from their inherited who had made possible the survival of our institution, our religion, our narratives to perform for Cross River peoples. Since the event was video lodges, however one might phrase it, through the onslaught of the years, based upon veracious acts conserved through the liturgy. Being in Calabar recorded, they were able to analyse the responses of their :Efik counterparts to was also very emotional from the cultural point of view, of having the their phrases, music, and dance, a method of comparative research. opportunity to visit these sacred places.

2003 Michigan By "onslaught of the years," Diaz refers to the long history of oppression Two years later, the organizers of the same Efik National Association received suffered by Abakua in the colonial, republican, and revolutionary periods of another Cuban contingent at their annual meeting. 'Roman' Diaz again Cuban history. As a political institution, a 'state within a state', Abakua has by participated, along with Mt. Angel Guerrero, a master Abakua chanter who and large not been viewed kindly by the national authorities.lO The experience had recently migrated from Havana. Diaz reported: of interacting with Mrican counterparts in a celebratory event outside of the Cuban context no doubt contributed to some of the excitement from the Cubans. Later in Michigan, we had the possibility of going with the maestro Angel As witness to the performance of the Cubans at the Calabar Cultural Guerrero, and the emotion was shared, since he is erudite in this material. While watching the Efik performances, he could recognize all the liturgy Centre, I was struck by the dramatic response of the public to the chanting that he has studied in Cuba through their dances, songs, as well as the and dancing of 'Roman', and the lead drumming of Vicente Sanchez (for a comportment and treatment by the collective group of Efiks in this event. detailed description, see Miller 2009). About this palpable connection with the Calabar people, Roman remarked: Both Cubans were moved by their interactions with the Efik community, from their hospitable reception and private meeting with the Obong of Calabar, to the performances of traditional culture.8 9 Citation from Eng. Basscy's foreword 10 Miller (2009: xix). 2004 Calabar IOTo name three eXllmples. rrom the colonial. republican, and socialist periods, ef. Trujillo y Monagas, D. jostl. 1882. Los crimina/cs de Cuba yD. !osl1 Tru}jiio: nalTaciyn de ios selvicios prestados en eJ cueJPo de po/kiln de L1J Habana. Barcclona:Eslablecimiento Tipogr6fico de Fidel Giro; Roche y Monteagudo, Ramc!. 1908. L:Jpo /klla y sus misterios en Cuba; adidonada con 'La po/icia j udicial; proccdimiemos, formularios, leyes, reg/amentos, ordenanzas y disposidones quc con cierncn a Jos cuerpos de segurirad 7 The events leading up to this encounter are described in Miller (2005). publiC71. Primera cdkiyn. La Hnbana: Imprenta 'La prueba'; "La sociedad secreta Abaku6 (c6cigos)." 8 See Guerrero (2007) for his reflections upon this event. 1969. Revista JUrHdica MjJjtar. Ministerio de las FAR. Vo!. 1. Pps. 13-24. . 111._·_.. ' '' -''b - ' . ... _ ... ' ..... b · ...... ·... · ...• _ ...... I""'- . ... t"'- ...... - ...... ·"b -'· ... jb~ JU::J

Being in Calabar, regarding the connection, I can't say that we searched wanting it to exist, then there is something in Mgbe. this connection, as in: 'Ok, let's find the connection.' No. The connection was that through the previous years of study, through the entire liturgy The Cuban example of faith in the value of inherited traditions with that is the fundamental base of our information, we knew that this sources in the Calabar region is remarkable for the contemporary Ekpe, who connection existed. Now, the act of being a participant filled us with are struggling with the legacy of British colonization that dismantled the satisfaction, and filled us with admiration and respect towards all those power of jurisprudence that Ekpe embodied in the pre-colonial period. persons who had jealously guarded this information through the ritual, and by respecting sacred words or sacred acts, so that we have been able, through this language or liturgy, to be recognized by our brothers in Nigerian Ekpeorganize for the Paris encounter Calabar. The 2004 visit of the Cubans to Calabar was well-documented on the internet. This resource drew the attention of 'culture brokers' in Paris, who arranged Responses of Ekpeleaders to the Cubans in Calabar for an invitation through the prestigious Musee Quai Branly for For those present at the Cuban performance in Calabar, the experience had an representatives of Ekpe and Abakua to meet onstage for a series of immediate and lasting effect. Chief Ekpenyong Eyo Honesty Eyo II, an Ekpe performances in 2007.1' To prepare for this event, Calabar Ekpe leaders wisely title-holder in the Efe Ekpe Eyo Ema, commented upon the influence of the created a multi-ethnic group in order to reflect the diversity of Ekpe traditions Cubans in Calabar: in the region, countering the dangerous 'ethnic nationalism' that has been used to divide historically related peoplesP The creation of Calabar Mgbe is a I participated in the 2004 International Ekpe Festival when the Cuban wonderful example of how the trans-Atlantic dialogue is useful in the local Abakua arrived. I hold them in a very high esteem; we thought that since contexts of Ekpe in Nigeria. Precisely because the Cuban 'treaties' (mythic their forefathers were taken to that place and died, we thought that was histories) describe the creation of Abakua through the contributions of each the end of the Cubans. My impression is that we should bring them again ethnic group in the Calabar region, the Cuban presence has helped local to Calabar; let people know that their great-great-grand-children are still leaders insist on contemporary regional solidarity. Chief Ekon E. Imona, the existing. When the Abakua sing their Ekpe, they start calling upon different President of Calabar Mgbe, explains: owners of Ekpe here in Africa, and it has a very high meaning for me. When their forefathers left, the impression is that they disappeared forever, Ekpe in fact is an important vehicle to maintain peace in the region, and we but now we know that they still have the Ekpe society in them, they hold have formed the Calabar Mgbe association in order to bring all Ekpe groups that Ekpe, they did not forget it in spite of their torture. The message is together. Since the Efiks, the Efuts, and the Quas are always fighting each that we here should educate our people, that those brothers who were other, we felt that we could use Ekpe to bring unity between these groups. taken away for slavery, that their children are still alive, and we should The birth of Calabar Mgbe is meant to unite these three ethnic groups in respect them, honour them, and be happy to see them. Calabar, because we have everything in common through Ekpe. And the rules in Mgbe, the laws, what happens in Qua land happens the same way The myriad obstacles facing Ekpe members in contemporary south-eastern in Efik and Efut land. Forming this association is a means of bringing in Nigeria are such that the example of Cuban Abakua is helping locals to peace which the Church cannot give us. reassess their practice and its values. Chief Ekon E. Imona, the Secretary of on the one hand Ekpe represents for the Cubans a source for their the Big Qua Clan Mgbe (Ekpe), describes how Cuban Abakua has affected his If own inherited practice of Mgbe: practice, on the other hand, the Cubans represent for the Nigerians a proof of the value of their ancestral tradItions. The Iyamba of Efe Ekpe Eyo Ema, Bassey Ekpo Bassey has recognized the potential of Ekpe - in an At one time in my life, I did not associate myself with Mgbe, even though I was a title-holder. But the advent of the coming of the Cubans into Calabar international perspective - as a political tool that can help mend divisions in for the International Ekpe festival in 2004 awakened a revival in my life. I the society. He spoke about the formation of Calabar Mgbe to foster asked myself: if the Cubans, who were taken from the soil of Africa to international communication and regional peace: where they are today, could sustain Mgbe for over 200 years, why should we in Calabar allow Mgbe to die? There are a lot of things fighting Mgbe, wanting it to die, for instance the Churches around us here, they say Mgbe

is 'fetish', and they preach against Mgbe. But if people who left here 11 Special thanks to Alex /omaron for his vision and efforts to make this event happen. centuries ago, were able to keep Mgbe for so long, and they are still 12 For details, see Okwud iba Nnoli (Ethnic p oH(ics in MgeJia. Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension publishers, 1978).

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Guerrero's assessment demonstrates several complementary agendas in in the Abakua we have influences from many other African cultures that the process of communication with Calabar: to confirm the Calabar sources arrived to Cuba. The African Ireme [body mask], according to what I saw, for Abakua traditions, to articulate the desire for increased contact, and to dances more with movements like those of a cabildo [nation-group], like a express the grandeur of Ekpe and Abakwl for the contemporary Cuban procession or a march on Three King's Day, quite distinct from that of a leadership. soloist as such. Another Cuban performer, Pedro Martinez, an abaw?kue (first-level Pedro observed overall feeling group initiate) of the Ekueritonk6 lodge in Havana, reflects upon his learning the of communion and joy in the experience, while explaining differences different process and conclusions while in Paris: in terms of adaptation to social contexts. His idea that the Calabar Ekpe perform like a 'nation-group' of the Cuban colonial period suggests that he sees the Ekpe performance as The experience in Paris with the Calabar Mgbe was quite moving, since there were so many similar things, and so many similar energies to those of representing a past from which the Abakua has transformed. In what follows, the Abakua ceremonies in Cuba. Also, we had many very positive he uses several Abauka terms that are derived from Efik, the lingua franca of interactions before the concerts. I went several times to the Calabar Mgbe the Calabar region: dressing-room to observe their drums, how they were constructed; the conversations with them, and their reactions to our comportment towards Regarding their masquerade costume, it's not far from ours at all! It has them, was very beautiful. I had many moments with the Iyamba of the same 'nkanika: [bell]; its 'ita muson' [hat disc] is a little bigger, but it Okoyong, and we had a good spiritual connection. We communicated seems to represent the same idea, the same message. About the music, I through signs, energies, he through Ekpesymbols, and I through Abakua repeat that in Cuba there is a very large rhythmic repertory, but it was very symbols. And I had a very good connection with others in calabar Mgbe. easy to intertwine our two rhythmic traditions. Although their 'erikunde' [rattles] use a rhythmic pattern that we could not easily follow, the drums It was an historical meeting, because we came from there, and from there are indeed very similar, in terms of their sound, as well as construction. came the Abakua religion that we profess in Cuba, that we have always One distinction in the music is that the 'biankomeko' [drum ensemble] in tried to maintain by following the roots left by our ancestors many years Cuba has a larger solo drum, while the Ekpesolo drum was small. But in ago. I feel very content to be part of this wonderful project. general I saw much similarity, as well as a very good connection between the Nigerians and us. I think that it was easier for us to learn their songs, By saying: "we came from there," Pedro signals how powerfully the than for them to learn ours. Also that it was harder for them to incorporate Carabali migrants affected the social identity of many Cuban communities themselves to our playing, because of the complexity of our rhythms, of our into the present. The multi-layered interests of the Cubans in the Calabar language, and also because the manner in which we chant Abakua is much group, from their social protocol, to their material culture, to the energy they more melodic and varied, while their melodies were repetitive. Even so, it's emanated while performing indicate how meaningful this encounter was. not too far from our tradition. Pedro continues: Whereas all the Cubans in Paris were professional musicians, the Calabar troupe, with two exceptions, were not professional performers. This factor During these concerts there were many powerful moments when my hair affected the performances, and was observed by Pedro: stood on end, because - apart from the fact that were trying to represent what we do in Cuba, and they what they do in Calabar - for a concert it I think that for Calabar Mgbe it was surprising to have left their land to was quite close to ceremony, and we shared many beautiful moments of participate in the Paris encounter. I think that they would have unity at the finale of each concert when we joined them to play together. demonstrated many more details of their culture, like the gestures [NsibiciJ] It was a unique experience, being the first time I had the opportunity to that speak through signs, but they were not very relaxed onstage. We play with an African group like this, interacting with them on stage, playing Cubans are religious but at the same time we are artists, and we have one their instruments; it was good, truly a very emotional experience. way of practising the religion away from the stage, and another way onstage. I think the next time they will feel much more comfortable and be Regarding their manner of playing and dancing, we share many things in freer. For example Bassey Jr., the son of the Iyamba of Ekoretonko, is a common. Cuba is a place where people are always trying to update by person with professional experience onstage; he helped out a lot, and there using new ideas, adapting to the conditions of the time. In Calabar, I think was a good connection with him too. that things were better conserved as they were in the past. For example in Cuba the dances are more virtuosic, using more stylistiC movements, more I think that for us the encounter was even more moving, because the exaggerated, with a wide repertory of movements that a soloist uses. Also, Abakua didn't come from Cuba, it came from Calabar. For us the impact 374 1""\111\"'01 1 IIIUI6 "-" VUJ ,'-11 0 ","'1,,01-, L ...... ,..- ...... · · ·O .... ~ ·- ..JI..J

was stronger, but since we are artists, we know how to control this emotion Abakpa people. They are our own kith and kin, our brethren who more than they who have not travelled as much; some had left calabar for travelled out from us. Everything that hovers in Abakua, you can see the first time. Myself, I was observing all the time, checking each one of the replica here. Particularly the Nsibidisigns, which we have here. them, their instruments, how they moved on the stage, how they sang, and I recognized a lot our own traditions in what the Cubans did. In developed their expression. Calabar, in the Idagha [title-taking] time, in the early hours of the morning the young people will go out with the masquerade and A fascinating aspect of Pedro's testimony is his awareness of the historic inform the people in the community that something will happen. role the Cubans were playing. Communication with West Mrican Ekpe has Christmas time, they also play, they perform with the masquerades, been a dream for many Abakwl leaders (as I learned from them over the particularly there will be one drum used to talk to the masquerade years), yet the opportunity to travel was absent. This understanding forms when playing . The Cubans did this on stage in Paris. My impression part of the sensitivity of the Cubans towards their Calabar counterparts. is that we are waiting to receive them in Calabar any day, because One of the common themes in the reflections of members of both groups, we know that they are our brothers and Sisters, and that they came was their impression of the correct social protocol, of greeting, of respect, of from us. acknowledgement, and communication through signs. Chief Ekpenyong E. Ekpo, the Obong-Iyamba of Okoyong, mentions this aspect: The Ekpe and Abakwl musical structures are similar, both in the rhythms expressed, and in the approach to performance. Both begin with a vocal I am very happy about PariS, because of the way the Cubans mixed statement that introduces the performers, demonstrates their status, then themselves with us. Very very happy! Even in the hotel and in the theatre, greets the celestial bodies, the present members, and finally enters into the how they mix with us made me very happy! Some of them do not 'hear content ofthe song. Chief Edet comments upon this: English, very few of them speak English well, that was the only difficulty we I noticed that the Cuban singing pattern is similar, when they start had with them. But how they performed their Ekpe,I was shocked to see singing, there is a prelude, you don't just start Singing straight in people who had left Africa or Nigeria for years, but yet they were still Mgbe. It's not permitted. You first do the chorusing, you sing a maintaining that culture. I was very happy. One very slight difference from prelude before you start singing the actual song. When the their own Ekpeand our own here, is that we use raffia [netting for the masquerade recognizes you and greets you here, at the end we Idem Ikwo masquerade], but they use cloth for their masquerade. I believe raise our shoulders in appreciation, they did that too! And our they could not get raffia where they live. From the drums, if you see the masquerades carry a staff to show their status, the Cuban masks drums that they make by themselves, you will know that they are from also used staffs. And they still maintain their Ebongo masquerade here in Africa. I was happy to see those things. Even how they perform with a straight head, erect. Their culture is very similar. They have a their dancing, singing, drumming, the rhythm of their drumming I was different approach to the use of the bell, but it's still a bell. I say happy about it. Even up to the time we came back here, the socialism Thank God for the Cubans, thank God they have maintained the between ourselves and the Cubans shows that we have another set of culture they have brought from here, it's good! relatives elsewhere. If you listen to most of the songs of the Cubans, you will hear our language. For instance, when they pronounce 'Mboko' [an We also noticed that when we merged and danced together at the Ekpegrade], though they don't pronounce it as we do, you will know that it show finale in Paris, their beats merged with ours, and they played is Mboko that they are singing. They mentioned the titles Obong Iyamba, very similar rhythms. During the finale of the last Paris show, we they mentioned Dibo, they mentioned some of our villages here, like really felt the unity, it was a hallmark event. We were touched, and Obutong, and Usaghade. sharing that unity and fellowship again, there was so much affection and love, we felt that these are our people, and that there is a need Another member of Calabar Mgbe, Chief Hayford Solomon Edet is a leader to reunite. of Mgbe ceremonies in Qua-Ejagham communities of Calabar M unicipality. He led many songs in the Paris performances. Since the term Abakua likely I am interested in continuing to perform with the Cubans in derives from the 'Abakpa' (or Qua-Ejagham) community of Calabar, Chief festivals, because we need to propagate Mgbe, we want people to realize that Mgbe is a pillar in the world, that it has crossed the Edet has no hesitation in claiming the Cuban Abakua as part of his own ocean, it is everywhere, and we want people to realize too that it community: can unite people very much, and we want to hold that unity and Every Qua Ejagham community we have here [in Calabar] has a keep it for generations to come. Many of our people were taken to counterpart in the cameroons, because people migrated from there far away, and they still can come back and we can continue, so that to here. We know that the Cuban Abakua are Qua people, they are nobody feels badly about what happened in the past. ;jIb ~

We are looking forward to that reunion with the Cubans one day, we they feel that it is good to maintain the culture of the Cross River have been praying for it. Others were selling our people, but the region, where they come from. Quas did not run slave markets. Our people could be sent on an The way they dance, no matter that they do not dance as we dance, errand and captured, they were captured on their farms, or but we recognize what they do as part of our own. Their drums are captured while fishing at sea. But we thank God that the Quas and the same that we have in Calabar, no matter that the rhythmic Ejaghams did not engage in the slave trade. But we know that we patterns are not the same, but when they play we dance together lost quite a large chunk of our people. Those who did that, they with them very well. know who they are, but we are looking forward to uniting with our Cuban family, that is the truth about it! Many Calabar Mgbe members emphasized their happiness in sharing their culture onstage with Cuban counterparts. Some comments about the Chief Edet brings up the issue that the encounters with Cuban Abakua will lead to reflections about Calabar history and the involvement of local leaders· distinctions in music and body mask performance, while too general for use in in the slave trade. Edet is quick to disassociate Qua ancestors from the comparative analysis, demonstrate that all the participants are engaged in a mercantile aspect of Ekpe's trans-Atlantic sojourn, an historical problem that process of critical dialogue, and comprehend its relevance for contemporary is not fully settled,13 identity. From an Efut community in Creek Town, Etim Ika is initiated into all the Inameti Orok Edet is a professional musician who played with the Ca1abar masquerade clubs of the Efik Kingdom. He is highly trained in the inneF Cultural Centre ensemble for eight years. During the Paris encounter he workings of Ekpe: played the lead 'talking' drum, and seems to have enjoyed the challenge to his talents provided by the Cubans: Ever since we got to Paris, we joined the Cuban Abakuci, and they received us very well first with drinks, then with gifts, as it should I felt very comfortable in Paris with the Cubans, who received us as be. We give thanks to the Cuban brothers, whose ancestors were friends and brothers. I appreciate them, for their drumming, and for taken away from us by the slave trade. In Paris we went to perform their singing. They sang two types of music that I liked and I tried our own traditional Ekpe,and the Cubans also came with their own to memorize. Even till now I'm Singing them here for myself. If Ekpe,their own tradition. The way they played it was very nice, we someone asked me what the song means, I could not tell them, but loved it, and we danced together with them, and they danced I like it very much. Even if I don't know the meaning, their singing is together with us because they like the way we play our Ekpe.We very fine. Their drumming is different from ours, so I tried to learn shared the same hotel, the same dining table, we mixed up, and we from them, and even today I try to imitate the way they were enjoyed everything together, and we were very happy. By the grace drumming. If I had two months with them, I could learn it well. of God, we will share together again, Enshalla. I felt very good in PariS, the experience was very challenging; I had No matter that their masquerade was not like ours, the way they to work hard to meet up with the Cubans. They were challenging play, sing, and chant, convinced us that they really know something me, so now I am training my own voice to improve. The man with about Ekpe,because their chanting showed us that they were from dread-locks [Pedrito], he make me vex, that's why I drum very hard this part of the country. They chanted in their own language, for these days, to do my best. I like challenges, because they make me example: "Ebonko Enyenisong", meaning "Ebonko from Efikland" in grow, and I want to learn more. By the time we left PariS, we made Efik, so these things made us understand that they are not novices friends with the Cubans. in what they are doing, no matter that they don't chant as we do, I have worked professionally at the Calabar Cultural Centre for but they gave us the impression that they are from here, because several years, and I can play 26 out of the 36 Nigerian cultural they chanted: "Efut Ibonda Enyenisong," a place here in Calabar. dances. I have had many good teachers, and I have surpassed Maybe some of them are from Efut Ibonda. And the rest of them them. I am very confident of myself, but in PariS, the Cubans made might have joined together to keep up this Ekpein the way that me sweat. But when it came to the masquerades, the Cubans could not surpass us, we 'xed' them out. Nigeria has so many masquerade l3 Regarding Chief Edet's comment, historian David Northrup (2009 pers. corn.) responded: "I think the styles, and our Ekpeis very colourful. Qua gentleman could be correct, if, by selling slaves, he means selling them directly to Europeans. As you know, the Efik were quite successful in monopolizing that part of the business along the Cross River Estuary. If he wishes to assert that the Qua had no subordinate role in the slave trade, I fear the weight of evidence stands against him."

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that that joined joined was was African indigenous religious traditions: perspectives on Nigeria .JU.1. 380 Administration through the hierarchy of chiefdom, would be given a clear I have been on a crusade for the revival of our culture: As a tourism responsibility and therefore be seen as partners with government in consultant, I have always been in favour of indigenous culture, which could controlling society for a balanced development. be restructured and uplifted, projected to a stage that it would attract intemational interest, and bring in the benefits that are expected of a Therefore our dream of working together for the emanCipation of our highly competitive tourism business. In Nigeria much of what we see th~ people through the use of indigenous cultural poliCies will come to bear, days are cultures grown from extemal influences, and in this part of the now that we know that we are not a/one. We are ever so happy and world - Akwa Ibom and Cross River States and into the cameroons - one grateful to the Cuban Abakua for bringing us back to our senses. Clearly very outstanding indigenous cultural wealth that we have is the Ekpe the message is: 'Hey, you had it, we have it, it worked for us, we don't see SOCiety. But over time, interest in Ekpehas waned perhaps due to strong why it won't work for you: So we're going to embrace this resurgence, we Christian religiOUSinfluence and deep political manoeuvres of state, and so are looking forward to a revival of our cultural systems through the much has happened, they have cast aspersions upon the dignity, quality, leadership and moral principles of Ekpe.And we think that the development and content of Ekpethat a lot of people have literally 'gone to church of an international platform linking three large groups: Cuban Abakua, blindly, and have doubted the validity of holding on to that which is Calabar Mgbe (of Cross River State), and Efe Nkomo Ibom (of Akwa Ibom unequivocally theirs. This has not done well for us, because today, we have State) will generate that level of structure that we need to do things here. serious societal problems - we know that this would not have been so if Ekpeprinciples still held sway today. We are ready to build an Afro-Cuban Friendship Forum, with a center in Akwa Ibom State. We want to see a situation where Ekpelodges will be Such problems as rape, robbery, murders, and general vandalism restructured to reflect the fact that we have satellite shrines in other areas by are because low committed mostly youths who not properly in control of of the world. I think that this center could be a rallying point for all peoples moral values. These are very worrying, and govemment today makes a IQt of the world of ibibio extraction and Ekpelineage who want to come of noise, uses a lot of money without getting expected results, and I know together. that because of the Christian religion, because of the manoeuvres of govemment, the elders who have an answer to these problems stand We say in Ekpe:'Abasi ikpaha, Afo ukpaha.' God will not die/ you will not aside, they don't want to interfere, and things grow worse everyday. Ekpe die'. Ekpeis immortal. is an instrument which is comfortable for use by the elders in controlling social problems. So one has always thought, 'can there ever be a way that these people could be empowered, energized into doing what we know How the myriad projects envisioned by Ekpe leaders progress remains to they could do to put society back on track?' It has been a very difficult be seen; the important thing is that the trans-Atlantic dialogue is creating a question to answer, and very little has been done about it, so Ekpehas renaissance, as Fred Essien put it, by opening up possibilities for educational, been relegated to just the celebratory aspect of our cultural wealth that you artistic, and economic production. see in local festivals, such as tourist events superficially enacted. It's a far cry from the deep philosophies manifested visible in the grandiose funerals Ekpeleaders reassess the role of women in their practice exhibited by the monarchy of the passage of a king. It's very depressing to One of those possibilities has been a reassessment of the role of women in the psyche and dignity of our people. E/cpepra ctice. Being a socjety for males, in some communities women of royal lineages do become members without access to the inner workings of the We want to use the clear example from Cuba of the success of Ekpeas a but society in Ch societal block-building eqUipment, that could be used to put things in . Since women have become very prominent the many r istian proper perspective, give full attention to worrisome issues from an all 4enominations in southern Nigeria, Ekpe leaders are recognizing that for encompassing strategy of nation-building at the rudimentary stage. When survival in the present requires their reassessment of the role of women in you want to treat society, you use moral issues; once the youth know that Ekpe.Chief Imona opines: there are mechanisms of control in place, well established by our forebearers, then the capacity to control them is established. Cuba has If I had my way, we should modify Mgbe to bring in women, because they shown us that what we believed in is alive and applicable today to solve are the people sustaining the Churches today. Women have been made problems. Cuba has shown us that we are not wrong about what we Bishops, and because of that people are going to church. But here, we are thought of our forebearers. Cuba has shown us that besides the Christian keeping Mgbe secrets away from women, and they are the mothers, they religion, there is a complementary alternative, because there is no conflict are the first teachers of the child, and the first teacher calling the child to between Ekpeand Christianity. So these are two instruments that could be say, 'look, my friend, that Mgbe you are going to is not good', and the child used together, with clear definition of areas of control. In fact the Native will follow the mother's advice.

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Diaspora Diaspora activated activated 384 384 "' I''"'''''' " 1~lb"""""''''''''·_ .. 0·.... _ ... .'-' .... _ ...._ . .•. 11""- . .. ,.. _ •• •• - -- ':>01 j~b historical imperative according to Abakua leaders, whose communities bave Edet, Chief (Honorable) Hayford Solomon. 2008. Audio-recorded interview with the author, Calabar, Nigeria. Chief Edet belongs to Ekonib (1kot Ansa Qua Clan), Ikpai been under siege throughout Cuban history as "obstacles to the progress of the Ohom Qua Clan, as well as Big Qua Clan, through various family ties. He is FCAI nation," or as "criminal elements". What foreign scholars think about this JP (Justice of the Peace). May 25. Revised by Chief H. S. Edet August 15. problem is of little concern to the Ekpeand Abakua participants, who have Edet, 1nameti Orok. 2008. Audio-recorded interview with the author. Calabar, Nigeria. historically rejected the views expressed in the literature about thejr Mr. Orok is a professional percussionist of traditional Nigerian music. He hails institutions as inaccurate and hosble. Instead, the example of (j~ from Akpabuyo, a rural area that supplies Calabar with agricultural products. demonstrates that scholarship about trans-Atlantic communities will attain August 21. descriptive accuracy only when shared with the leadership of the groups being Ekeng, Ekpo. 2008. Audio-recorded interview the author, Lagos, Nigeria. From studied. Both Ortiz and his colleague Lydia Cabrera had earlier envisioned the Henshaw Town, Ekeng is the Chairman of the Youth Leaders for the entire Efik use of their documentation of Abakua for future comparisons with their Kingdom, capped by Edidem Nta Elijah Henshaw (the late Obong of Calabar). May 31. Revised by Mr. Ekeng, August 5. African sources. In this essay, culture bearers who organized themselves fOF Ekpo, Chief Ekpenyong Ekpenyong. 2008. I Audio-recorded interview with the author, the series of performances with their trans-Atlantic counterparts refiectllPon Calabar, Nigeria. Chief Ekpo is the Obong-1yamba of Okoyong. The Okoyong the process and its meanings. In the aftermath of a series of performances in people migrated from the Mamfe region of Cameroon to Akampa, outside of Paris, Ekpeand Abakua members are engaged in a series of creative activities, Calabar Municipality, in the 19th century. He speaks both Efik and Kion, the including the reorientation of their institutions to grapple with contemporary language of Okoyong people. His late father was a master of Ekpe; Chief Ekpo, in social problems, and the exploration of their cultural history through cultural his 70S, is renown for his skills in singing and dancing Ekpe. He resides at Akampa festivals and commercial recordings. Thanks to the unprecedented openness Okoyong, the traditional headquarters of Okoyong. August 29. from both Ekpe and Abakua in discussing usually hidden facets of their Eyo, Chief Ernest Ekpenyong Eyo Honesty H. 2008. Audio-recorded interview with the traditions, scholars of the African Diaspora have rare opportunities to assess author in Calabar. Chief Ekpenyong Eyo Honesty Eyo II, a native of Creek Town and Henshaw Town in Calabar, is a descendant of Eyo Honesty H, one of the great their historical relationship. traders from Creek Town in the early nineteenth century. Chief Eyo holds the title of Mboko-mboko in Efe Ekpe Eyo Ema. He was a member of the Calabar Mgbe troupe in Paris, 2007. February. References Essien, (Sir) Fred. 2008. Audio-recorded interview with the author. Uyo, Akwa 1bom Abimbola, Wande & 1vor Miller. 1997. Ifa Will Mend Our Broken World: Thoughts on State, Nigeria. January 16. Transcription revised by Fred Essien January 21. Sir Yoruba Culture in West Africa and the Diaspora. Roxbury, MA: AIM Books. Essien held two honorific titles from Uruan and Ibibio communities: '1beredem' Bassey, Engineer Bassey Efiong. 2001. Ekpe Efik: A Theosophical Perspective. and 'Ukai', both meaning 'one who is dependable'. He was an Ekpe leader from the Victoria, B.C.: Trafford Publishing. [original 1998]. Uruan community of Akwa 1bom State. Theredem Fred Eno Essien passed away in Bassey, Etubom Bassey Ekpo. 2005. Video-recorded statement made at the Tourism December 2008. Bureau for Akwa Thorn State, Uyo. February. Guerrero, Angel. 2007. '''A father and son embrace': the significance of the encounter Bassey, Etubom Bassey Ekpo. 2008. Audio-recorded interview with the author. between Abakua and Ekpe." Mr. Guerrero is the Aberifian title-holder of the Itiel. Calabar. Bassey is the Obong-Iyamba (head) of Efe Ekpe Eyo Ema (the Eyo Ema Mukanda Ef6110dge of Havana. Posted in March at: Ekpe lodge) of the Ekoretonko Clan of Ca labar. He was the National Deputy Chairman of the Alliance for Democracy. February 25. Transcript revised by Bassey Guerrero, Angel. 2008. "1biono." An essay in Spanish about the Abakua music CD on March 3. 1biono, recorded in Havana. Posted in March at: Cabrera, Lydia. 1988. La Lengua Sagrada de los Naiiigos. Miami: Colecci6n del Chichereku en el exilio. Guerrero, Angel. 2008b. Audio-recorded interview with the author in the home of Diaz, 'Roman'. 2008. Audio-recorded interview with the author in the home of Mr. Pedro Martinez, Union City, New Jersey. 3 November. Transcription revised by Mr. Diaz 4. November 2008, Newark, New Jersey. Guerrero 26 November, 2008. Herskovits, Melville J . 1948. "The Contribution of Afroamerican Studies to Africanist Research." American Anthropologist. Vol. 50, no. 1 part 1 (January-March): 1-10. Herskovits, Melville J .1967. Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom. 2 vols. scholarly-native projects are not only marred by a number of theoretical conundrums but are also Evanston, IL: Northwestern UP. politically tendentious . .. " (Routon 2005: 376) Anthropologist Kenneth Routon (2005: 371) recently challenged the trans-Atlantic dialog documented In Ika, Etim. 2008. Audio-recorded interview with the author, Calabar, Nigeria. August 6. [his essay by asking: "Do they reflect a gen uine desire of the Cuban Abakull to reconnect. with their Transcript revised by Prince 1ka on August 13. 1ka's father is the Muri (head) of the purported cultural origins? ... Could this be a case in which scholarly projects. such as the curre.nt vog!l_e Efut Ifako Clan of Creek Town. His ancestors were Efuts (Balondos) who migrated of research on lomsnationaJ identities, overshadow the real interests of the groups they claIm to have the from southwestern Cameroon. ethnographic authority to represent?" The statements by Abakua leaders in this essay are meant to dispef Routon's confusion in this matter. African indigenous religious traditions: perspectives on Nigeria 388

Imona, Chief EkoD Effiong EkoD. 2008. Audio-recorded interview with the authQr. Big 26 Qua Town. Calabar Municipality. Nigeria. Chief Imona nolds the Mgbe title ofNtoe Mabo in Big Qua Town. He is the Secretary of the Big Qua Clan Mgbe, and the President of Calabar Mgbe. February 24. Transcription revised by Chief Imonain March. Martinez, Pedro. 2008. Audio-recorded interview in the home of Pedro Martinez. 3 November. Union City, New Jersey. Transcript read and approved of by Mr. Borderless Homeland: memory, identity and the Martinez 17 November 2008. Matory, J. Lorand. 2005. B/ackAtlantic Religion: Tradition, TI'ansnationalism, and spiritual experience of an African diaspora Matriarchy in the Afro-BraziIian Candomble. Princeton UP. Miller, lvor. 2000. "Religious Symbolism in Cuban Political Performance." TDR: A community Journal of Performance Studies. Vol. 44. no. 2 (T166): 30 - 55· Miller, lvor. 2005. "CubanAbakua chants: examining new evidence for the African - David O. Ogungbile Diaspora." Aj,.ican Studies Review. April. v. 48, n. 1: 23-58. Miller, Ivor. 2009. Voice ojthe Leopard: African Secret Societies and Cuba. U P of Mississippi. Nnoli, Okwudiba. 1978. Ethnic politics in Nigeria. Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Introduction Diaspora discourse offers a wide range of interpretations and theorising for publishers. Northrup. David. 2009. Email to the author regarding Qua participation in the trans- such disciplines as history, politics, economics, religious studies, sociology, Atlantic slave trade. April 29· anthropology, psychology, international relations, etc. Issues that have Ortiz, Fernando. 1950. "La 'tragedia' de 105 nafiigos." Cuadernos Americanos. Vol.lJI. emerged from such discourse include immigrant, settler/indigene, n. 4. (Julio-Agosto) Mexico: 79-101. centre/border, insider/outsider, and homeland/hostland. (Eck 2002; Sheffer Ortiz, Fernando. 1955. Los instrumentos de la musica afrocubana, vol. 5· La Habana: 2003; Johnson 2007; Olupona 2007; Ogungbile 2010) The central focus C3.rdenas y Cia. however has been on the profound question of identity raises evolutionary Otu, Vid.")'. 2008. Email to the aufuor. 6 December. concern for anthropologists and theologians. Barbara Sproul (1979: 1) puts it Routon, Kenneth. 2005. "Unimaginable Homelands? 'Africa' and the Abakua Historical Imagination" Journal of Latin American Anthropology. Vol. 10, No. 2: thus: 370-400 . Simmons, Donald C. 1956. "An Ethnographic Sketch of the Efik people"; "Notes on the The most profound human questions are .. .who are we? Why are we here?

Diary [of Antera Duke]. H Efik Traders of Old Calabar. DaryU Forde, Ed. London: What is the purpose of our lives and our deaths? How should we International African Institute: 1-26; 66-78. understand our place in the world, in time and space? These are central questions of value and meaning ...

Thinking about and acting out the perceived identity are reinforced by memory and imagination. In thinking and/or acting, however, the critical questions are: is identity imagined or real, for both an individual. and the community? Community or identity is defined by Benedict Anderson as "an imagined political community." (Anderson 1993: 6) Imagination provides the grammar for constructing and upholding the community or a nation through a process of routinization that transforms into a strong social and political unit. (Afolayan 2002: 14) As the community develops and expands, several other levels of identity are constructed and reinforced, defining some as host (owner of the territory) and others guests (visitors in a territory). Thus, in uniquely formal way, homeland is distinguished from hostland. Homeland/hostland identity is rehearsed and re-enacted through several means including retelling of myths and practice of rituals in defence of one's territory and in keeping others outside the fold.