European Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
№ 2 2020
PREMIER Vienna Publishing 2020 European Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Scientific journal № 2 2020 ISSN 2414-2344
Editor-in-chief Maier Erika, Germany, Doctor of Philology Lewicka Jolanta, Poland, Doctor of Psychology International editorial board Massaro Alessandro, Italy, Doctor of Philosophy Marianna A. Balasanian, Georgia, Doctor of Philology Abdulkasimov Ali, Uzbekistan, Doctor of Geography Meymanov Bakyt Kattoevich, Kyrgyzstan, Doctor of Economics Adieva Aynura Abduzhalalovna, Kyrgyzstan, Doctor of Economics Serebryakova Yulia Vadimovna, Russia, Ph.D. of Cultural Science Arabaev Cholponkul Isaevich, Kyrgyzstan, Doctor of Law Shugurov Mark, Russia, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences Barlybaeva Saule Hatiyatovna, Kazakhstan, Doctor of History Suleymanova Rima, Russia, Doctor of History Busch Petra, Austria, Doctor of Economics Fazekas Alajos, Hungary, Doctor of Law Cherniavska Olena, Ukraine, Doctor of Economics Garagonich Vasily Vasilyevich, Ukraine, Doctor of History Proofreading Kristin Theissen Jansarayeva Rima, Kazakhstan, Doctor of Law Cover design Andreas Vogel Karabalaeva Gulmira, Kyrgyzstan, Doctor of Education Additional design Stephan Friedman Kvinikadze Giorgi, Georgia, Doctor of Geographical Sciences Editorial office Premier Publishing s.r.o. Praha 8 Kiseleva Anna Alexandrovna, Russia, Ph.D. of Political Sciences – Karlín, Lyčkovo nám. 508/7, PSČ 18600 Khoutyz Zaur, Russia, Doctor of Economics Kocherbaeva Aynura Anatolevna, Kyrgyzstan, Doctor of Economics E-mail: [email protected] Konstantinova Slavka, Bulgaria, Doctor of History Homepage: ppublishing.org
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© Premier Publishing s.r.o. All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Publisher. Typeset in Berling by Ziegler Buchdruckerei, Linz, Austria. Printed by Premier Publishing s.r.o., Vienna, Austria on acid-free paper. POETICS OF “GLORIA” IN THE CHRISTIAN MUSICAL-HISTORICAL TRADITION OF THE PAST AND PRESENT
Section 1. Study of art
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-3-10 Tatarnikova Anzhelika, candidate of pedagogical sciences, doctoral student, lecturer of the Department of Theoretical and Applied Cultural Studies of the Odessa A. V. Nezhdanova National Music Academy E-mail: [email protected]
POETICS OF “GLORIA” IN THE CHRISTIAN MUSICAL-HISTORICAL TRADITION OF THE PAST AND PRESENT Abstract. The article is devoted to the study of the spiritual-semantic and intonational-drama- turgical specifics of “Gloria” and the evolutionary ways of its development in the Western European cult and musical-historical tradition. Keywords: “Gloria”, Mass, doxology, Glory of the Lord, Gregorian Choir, Missa brevis. Татарникова Анжелика, кандидат педагогических наук, докторант, преподаватель кафедры теоретической и прикладной культурологии Одесской национальной музыкальной академии имени А. В. Неждановой E-mail: [email protected] ПОЭТИКА «GLORIA» В ХРИСТИАНСКОЙ МУЗЫКАЛЬНО- ИСТОРИЧЕСКОЙ ТРАДИЦИИ ПРОШЛОГО И СОВРЕМЕННОСТИ Аннотация. Статья посвящена исследованию духовно-смысловой и интонационно- драматургической специфики “Gloria” и эволюционных путей ее развития в западноевропейской культовой и музыкально-исторической традиции. Ключевые слова: “Gloria”, месса, славословие, Слава Господня, грегорианский хорал, Missa brevis. Духовная музыка – это ценнейший пласт куль- гослужений или на библейские сюжеты и мотивы, туры каждого народа и всего человечества в це- произведения, которые могут и не быть связаны лом. Она охватывает не только богослужебное с религиозными текстами, но используют сакраль- пение и песнопения на канонические тексты; это ную символику. По мнению В. Ценовой, «рели- и композиторские сочинения, написанные для бо- гиозность – состояние, свойство души человека,
3 Section 1. Study of art
относящееся к его умственным и нравственным песнопение». Текст «Славы в вышних Богу» «… силам. Поэтому, когда мы говорим о религиозно- соответствует одному из этапов символической сти современной музыки, мы не ограничиваемся фабулы мессы – явлению Спасителя в мир, к об- только лишь специальным пластом духовных жан- щине, к каждому человеку» [14, 45]. ров. Речь идет о вечных темах искусства, вопросах Одновременно, «ангельское славословие» – о смысле бытия, об этической основе музыки» один из символов единения небесного и земно- [15, 128]. го начал в христианстве, поскольку именно эти- Одной из древнейших функций музыки, связан- ми словами «ангельское воинство и небесные ных с ее духовной миссией является славословие, силы приветствовали рождение Иисуса Христа: хвала Богу, облеченные в жанровую форму гимна, “И внезапно явилось с Ангелом многочисленное гимнопения. Последние весьма существенны имен- воинство небесное, славящее Бога и взывающее: но в христианской духовно-литургической и куль- Слава в вышних Богу, и на земле мир, в челове- турно-исторической традиции во всем разнообра- цех благоволение!” (Лук. 2: 13–14)». В данном зии ее конфессиональных проявлений. Хвала-гимн описании обращает на себя внимание указание Творцу как важнейший смыслообразующий вектор на «небесное воинство» как источник славле- духовного бытия человека символически соотно- ния, оказавшее существенное влияние на фор- сим с древнейшими культовыми музыкальными мирование типологии “Gloria” в мессах Нового жанрами славословия, а также с Gloria, вошедшими времени, авторы которых часто апеллировали в разнообразных формах как в православную бо- к темброво-интонационной атрибутике военной гослужебную традицию, так и в христианскую об- музыки – звучанию труб, квартовости, сопря- рядовость и культуру западноевропейского мира женной с диатоникой, ходам по звукам аккордов прошлого и современности. и т. д. Обозначенные качества объединяют раз- “Gloria in excelsis Deo” – «Слава в вышних делы “Gloria” в мессах представителей различных Богу»… Этот текст «ангельского славосло- композиторских школ и эпох XVII–XX ст. вия» (Лк. 2: 14) издревле был широко известен Отметим также, что значимость данного тек- в христианской богослужебной практике как ста в христианской богослужебной традиции Востока, так и Запада. В первом случае он чаще определяется не только ее новозаветными исто- всего ассоциируется с Великим славословием, ками, но и ключевой ролью образа Божьей Славы в то время как во втором выступает составной в христианстве в целом. В данном случае он может частью Ординария римско-католической мессы рассматриваться и на уровне богословской кате- (“Gloria”). Согласно мнению историков данного гории, и на уровне духовно-нравственного начала, жанра, «поэтическое достоинство этого гимна, связующего Божественный и человеческий миры. исполняемого непосредственно после «Господи, Образ Божественной Славы, славословия во помилуй», обусловило его первостепенное зна- всей широте его толкования, знаменующий духов- чение в богослужебной католической традиции» ную связь Бога и человека, а также один из важней- [12, 134]. Развивая данную мысль, Ю. Н. Холопов ших путей духовного преображения последнего, отмечает следующее: «Символическое значение выступает в качестве существенной категории глории – радость и духовное веселие по причине христианского мировосприятия и христианского рождения Христа, который принесет себя в жерт- духовного сознания, что находит также запечатле- ву на алтаре во спасение людей. Если кирие – это ние не только в богослужебно-певческой практике, переосмысленный древнейший (еще дохристиан- но и в соприкасающейся с ней духовной музыкаль- ский) возглас, то глория уже чисто христианское но-исторической традиции. Сказанное обуслав-
4 POETICS OF “GLORIA” IN THE CHRISTIANMUSICAL-HISTORICAL TRADITION OF THE PAST AND PRESENT
ливает не только существенную роль “Gloria” воздействия на него римского обряда, авторы ци- как раздела мессы, но и возможность выделения тированной статьи отмечают, что «перенесение ее в качестве самостоятельного произведения Gloria из Laudes в начало Мессы, вероятно, свя- (на уровне кантаты) в творчестве А. Вивальди, зано с практикой совершения мессы в праздник К. Сен-Санса, Ф. Пуленка, Дж. Раттера и др. Рождества Христова ночью <…> Место Gloria на Жанровая сущность Gloria в литургиче- утрене занял древний гимн – Te Deum laudamus ском цикле определяется как «гимн», воспри- («Тебе, Бога, хвалим»), также имеющий парал- нимаемый на уровне «хвалебной песни Богу». лели с великим славословием» [11]. Анализируя семантическую сущность гимнов Духовно-смысловая специфика “Gloria” опре- суточного литургического круга в уставе св. Ав- делила также особенности интерпретации данно- релиана Арелатского, М. Р. Ненарокова отмечает го богослужебного текста в литургии. Вероятно, следующее: «В исполнении гимнов объединялась с учетом его «ангельского» генезиса, в раннехри- вся сотворенная вселенная: люди пели “с хорами стианской традиции он провозглашался высоки- ангелов вечный гимн восхваления Бога”. У гимна ми церковными иерархами. Известно, что «спо- как жанра христианской поэзии было и другое на- чатку “Слава в вишніх Богу” вимовлялася тільки значение – дидактическое» [9, 528]. Обозначен- єпископами, потім також і священниками, з XI ст. ная смысловая сущность гимнопения определяла, у співі гімну став брати участь і приход» [1]. Исто- соответственно, и его типологию, ориентирован- рия мессы свидетельствует также о том, характер ную на яркость и избыточность его музыкально- возглашения и интерпретации славословия в ходе выразительных средств, очевидную, например, его исторической эволюции приобретал различные в образцах “Gloria” различных исторических эпох. темброво-интонационные формы, что во многом Сказанное подтверждается также историей также определялось его вписанностью в годовой внедрения “Gloria” в богослужебную практику, круг богослужебних праздников. Так, например, «у в соответствии с которой местоположение дан- Великий Четверг “Глорія” виконують у супроводі ного гимна в литургическом цикле менялось, органу і дзвона, після чого музичні інструменти не символизируя тем самым этапы взаимодействия використовують до богослужіння Навечір’я Пасхи, восточнохристианской и западной традиций. Со- коли Глорія знов звучить під дзвін дзвонів» [1]. гласно историческим обобщениям бытования В. Н. Холопова, анализируя структурно-ин- рассматриваемого гимна, представленным в Пра- тонационную сторону мессы как цикла, конста- вославной энциклопедии, «в древних амвросиан- тирует, что в обиходном репертуаре песнопений ском и галликанском обрядах, Gloria, подобно ве- Gloria доминирующими выступают «мелодии ликому славословию на Востоке, пелась на службе речитационного типа», которые «могли испол- Laudes. В Антифонарии из Бангорского монасты- няться коллективно всей общиной», поскольку ря имеется подзаголовок к Gloria – Ad vesperum «они, по существу, воспроизводили интонации et ad matutinum. Вероятно, такая же практика су- псалмового тона, хорошо известные всем прихо- ществовала в древней испано-мосарабской тра- жанам». Одновременно в католическом обиходе, диции (13 канон Толедского IV собора (633 г.) не сопряженном с “Gloria”, имели место и так называ- связывает Gloria с евхаристическим богослуже- емые «сквозные композиции» с более развитой нием). Однако в Антифонарии из Леона имеется мелодикой, и потому «из-за своей уникальности подзаголовок к “Gloria – item ad missam”. Коммен- были предназначены скорее для солиста или для тируя далее эволюционные процессы западнохри- хорошо обученного хора, нежели для общинного стианского богослужения, возникшие в результате исполнения» [13, 172].
5 Section 1. Study of art
Дальнейшие эволюционные пути развития Gloria в мессе названных авторов в честь корона- тематизма Gloria характеризуются расширением ции венецианского дожа, датированной XVI ст., его диапазона, а с XI в. появляются первые его характеризуется не только вокально-полифони- многоголосные обработки, подготовившие рас- ческим богатством, но и введением (помимо ор- цвет ренессансной полифонии, в рамках кото- гана) инструментального сопровождения [см. об рой текстово-смысловые духовно-христианские этом более подробно: 8, 40–45]. аспекты глории-славословия приобрели новое Месса XVII–XVIII веков, сохраняя статус вы- звучание. сокого серьезного жанра, обращенного к духов- Итак, историко-эволюционные пути развития ной архетипической тематике, отмечена активным мессы и Gloria как ее составляющей так или иначе взаимодействием с иными типологиями (в том фиксировали обозначенные смысловые качества числе оперой, позднее – сонатно-симфоническим данного раздела в соответствующем стилевом циклом), осуществляемым в стилевых параметрах и музыкально-риторическом запечатлении. Так барокко и классицизма и присущими им музы- эпоха Средневековья характеризуется господ- кально-риторическими «формулами». Сказан- ством монодии и исполнительской дифференци- ное соотносимо и с типологическими качествами ацией, в соответствии с которой изначально при- “Gloria”, которая в творчестве авторов названного оритетная роль в оглашении-пении «ангельского периода приобретает черты кантатного микро- славословия» отдавалась, как указывалось ранее, цикла в рамках мессы (И. С. Бах, В. А. Моцарт, Л. епископу и высокому духовенству. ван Бетховен и др.) либо самостоятельного про- Месса эпохи Ренессанса представляет собой изведения (А. Вивальди). При этом музыкальная масштабную циклическую композицию с раз- риторика “Gloria” («радость», славословие, хва- витым многоголосием, подразумевающим про- ление-благодарение) оказывается соотносимой фессиональное хоровое исполнительство, со с семантикой тональной сферы C-dur, D-dur, значимой ролью авторского (композиторского) B-dur, с приоритетной ролью тембральности мед- начала, не исключающего введение в качестве ных духовых инструментов (трубы) и присущей Cantus firmus мелодического материала негре- им кварто-квинтовой интонационностью, яркой горианского происхождения, что нередко сим- динамикой, туттийностью, доминированием ри- волизирует гармонию-единение Божественного торических фигур типа anabasis, fuga, что в со- и человеческого начал, показательную для ренес- вокупности определяет «вселенский» характер сансной эпохи. данного раздела как славословия «ангельского Полифоническая месса Ренессанса «исто- воинства» и причастного к нему человечества. рически очень важное, к тому времени высшее «Gloria – традиционно самая громогласная часть завоевание на пути становления крупной музы- любой мессы. В XVIII веке даже в мессах, напи- кальной формы. Исполнение такой мессы, в ко- санных в минорных тональностях, Gloria сочи- торой сосредоточено выражение “возвышенного нялась в мажоре, чаще всего в C-dur или D-dur, созерцания” (определение В. Конен), приурочи- поскольку эти тональности наиболее ярко звуча- валось к большим праздникам церковного кален- ли на натуральных трубах и, кроме того, обладали даря…» [3, 108]. Сказанное показательно и для определенной сакральной семантикой» [5, 387]. разделов Gloria. Особой монументальностью Одним из символов “Gloria” рассматриваемого и пышностью в этом плане отличается венеци- периода выступает также итоговая фуга, венчаю- анская хоровая школа, представленная именами щая композицию данного раздела и соотносимая Андреа и Джованни Габриели. Так, например, по семантическим параметрам с «идеей единства
6 POETICS OF “GLORIA” IN THE CHRISTIANMUSICAL-HISTORICAL TRADITION OF THE PAST AND PRESENT
и гармонии мироздания как концептуальной до- ских показателей вербункоша [см. об этом более минанты» [6, 9]. подробно: 7, 539]. Жанр мессы, равно как и типология Gloria, за- Жанровые метаморфозы мессы в ХХ ст. нимал существенное место и в творчестве венских и “Gloria” как ее важнейшей составляющей об- классиков, у большинства из которых преобладает условлены взаимодействием со множеством уже, как и у И. С. Баха кантатный принцип компо- факторов творческого, исторического, духовно- зиции мессы, т. е. с дополнительным подразделе- психологического, ментально-национального, нием литургического текста на самостоятельные цивилизационно-исторического и религиозно- разделы, венчаемым финальной хоровой фугой. обрядового порядка. Творческий индивидуализм Отметим также, что связь с характерным «ин- духовно-художественного самовыражения, пои- тонационным словарем» своей эпохи в мессах ски «мировой религии», объединяющей не толь- венских классиков также дополняется ориента- ко конфессионально разобщенное христианство, цией на структурно-композиционные принципы но и цивилизации Востока и Запада на планетар- сонатности, особенно очевидные у В. А. Моцар- ном уровне соседствует в истории мессы ХХ века та. Так, например, в «Коронационной мессе» с осознанием самим христианством необходимо- данное качество представлено именно в “Gloria”. сти литургических реформ. В числе прочих фак- В самой же композиции данной мессы А. И. Тихо- торов, определивших трансформацию поэтики нова усматривает аналог сонатно-симфоническо- духовных хоровых жанров минувшего столетия го цикла: «Kyrie – вступление, Gloria – сонатное А. В. Денисов также выделяет «новое отношение аллегро, Sanctus – аналог менуэта, Benedictus – к самой сущности веры и религии, попытки их скерцо, Agnus Dei – медленная часть, Dona nobis пересмотра» [2, 118]. – финал» [10, 167]. Жанровый канон мессы в творчестве компо- Эпоха романтизма демонстрирует дальней- зиторов ХХ ст. нередко дополняется литературно- шие эволюционные пути духовно-хоровой жан- поэтическими текстами-комментариями, чередую- ровой сферы, в том числе и “Gloria” в составе щимися с литургийными текстами («Месса мира» мессы. В данный период для нее показательно, К. Дженкинса), а также жанровыми синтезами- с одной стороны, усиление национального факто- симбиозами, выявляющими контактность мессы ра, вступающего во взаимодействие с риторикой с симфонией, мюзиклом и иными типологиями духовного жанра (Ф. Шуберт, Ф. Лист), с другой (2-я симфония-месса А. Шнитке). Подобного рода – сближение мессы с типологией симфонического пересеченность традиций и новаций во многом жанра при одновременном возрождении ренес- определила «неоканон» мессы ХХ ст., ориенти- сансно-барочной духовно-музыкальной традиции рованный на «совмещение исторических пластов, (А. Брукнер). стилевых и культурных парадигм» [4, 343]. Наиболее очевидно контактность обиходно- В итоге месса начинает трактоваться в твор- го, национально-характерного и авторского начал ческой практике скорее как «символ жанра», прослеживается в мессах Ф. Листа. В “Gloria” из обладающий значительными духовно-обобщест- «Гранской» мессы классика венгерской музыки вляющими возможностями, имеющими муль- национальный колорит ощутим и в широком ис- тикультурную природу и направленными не пользовании композитором пунктирного ритма, только на сближение разнообразных конфессио- и характерных предъемов, и дважды гармониче- нальных традиций христианства, но и на синтез ских ладов, которые, согласно характеристике духовных традиций Запада и Востока. Данные Я. Мильштейна, составляют один из стилистиче- текстово-смысловые и жанровые «внедрения»
7 Section 1. Study of art
в конечном итоге, по мнению А. В. Денисова, оказывается соотносимой и с одноименной кан- приводят и к «семантической трансформации татой А. Вивальди, и с глориозным барочным мессы» вплоть до ее «пародийного переосмыс- музыкально-риторическим комплексом. Вместе ления». При этом цитированный автор ссылается с тем, данное сочинение выявляет индивидуаль- на «Мессу» Л. Бернстайна, которую сам автор ность авторского подхода в претворении поэти- определил как «театральную пьесу для певцов, ки христианского славословия, что проявляется актеров и танцоров». Стилевой диапазон музы- в доминантной роли монодийности, хорально- кального материала, соответственно охватывает сти, бурдонных построений, в принципиальном широкий спектр тематизма – от обиходного ли- избегании аккордовости функционально-класси- тургического вплоть до эстрадного. В условиях ческого типа и полифонических форм (фуга), что активной роли последнего Месса Л. Бернстайна в совокупности выявляет типические качества становится отчасти соотносимой с мюзиклом. «неоканона» мессы ХХ ст. Аналогичного рода жанровые симбиозы демон- “Gloria” Дж. Раттера, созданная в 1974 году, не- стрируют «Месса танго» Л. Бакалова, а также сет на себе отпечаток, с одной стороны, европей- «Креольская месса» А. Рамиреса. ской духовной хоровой традиции этого периода Подобного рода направленность в развитии (Ф. Пуленк, И. Стравинский), отмеченной поис- жанра в творческой практике авторов ХХ ст. так ками «новой сакральности» и «новой религи- или иначе выявляет экуменистическую тенденцию озности». С другой стороны, это произведение в развитии мессы, утверждающую идею религи- непосредственно связано с английской духовной озного космополитизма. «Стремление соединить и культурно-исторической традицией, в рамках отдельные конфессии, точнее – создать некую все- которой концепт «славы» во всем разнообразии ленскую религию, обращенную ко всему миру, во- его проявлений занимал достаточно существенное обще было необычайно характерным для ХХ века. место, начиная со времен Средневековья, и соста- Именно здесь масса и оказалась особенно значи- вил один из важнейших аспектов национального мым жанром – его освященная временем <…> мироощущения и «образа мира», претворенного функция как нельзя более соответствовала кос- в том числе и в поэтике грандиозных славильных мополитическим задачам» [2, 127] своего време- хоровых композиций в жанре Te Deum, Gloria и их ни, о чем свидетельствует, например, «Вселенская национальных аналогов (антемы). месса» А. Гречанинова, объединившая католиче- Глориозно-славословная тематика во всем ские, православные и иудейские песнопения. разнообразии ее проявлений составляет также Отметим, что “Gloria” как на уровне состав- существенный духовно-смысловой пласт сочи- ляющей литургического цикла, так и в каче- нений иных жанров, представленных у авторов стве самостоятельной композиции (Ф. Пуленк, ХХ ст. Сказанное очевидно и в славословно-ми- Дж. Раттер и др.) также оказывается соотносимой стериальных разделах «Потопа» И. Стравин- с обозначенными выше эволюционными путями ского, выявляющих не только жанрово-стилевые развития мессы, демонстрируя актуальность ее искания автора, открывшего для себя интонацон- поэтико-интонационных качеств, а также их вос- но-семантические возможности серийной тех- требованность в культурных и духовных реали- ники, но и духовно-религиозные установки его ях минувшего столетия. Так “Gloria” Ф. Пуленка мироощущения, базирующиеся на православной в запечатлении авторских религиозных исканий основе в ее широком культурно-историческом и духовных «доминант» французской культуры понимании с показательной для нее доминант- первой половины ХХ ст. на уровне микроцикла ностью славословного качества.
8 POETICS OF “GLORIA” IN THE CHRISTIANMUSICAL-HISTORICAL TRADITION OF THE PAST AND PRESENT
Обозначенная особенность духовно-творче- М. Шуха традиционных атрибутов Славления – ского мышления показательна и для украинского яркой динамики, фактурности, исполнительской композитора начала XXI ст. М. Шуха. Его рек- «массы», доминирования трубных «гласов» вием “Lux aeterna”, с одной стороны, структу- и т. д. и представляет «тихое славословие». По- рирован текстовой моделью латинского рекви- добная интонационно-смысловая «доминанта» ема и ренессансной теноровой мессы. С другой произведения украинского автора выявляет его стороны, отсутствие в произведении секвенции связь как с глубинными духовными традициями “Dies irae” как существенного компонента жанра национального религиозного мировоззрения компенсируется в данном сочинении концентра- («киевское христианство») и его «этическим цией автора на образах Света, Покоя, Славосло- законом», так и с духовными исканиями пост- вия, зафиксированных и в названии произведения модерна и его представителей. («Lux aeterna»), и во введении текста “Gloria”, Таким образом, исторический обзор бытова- который отсутствовал в структуре данного жан- ния “Gloria” и как существенной составляющей ра. Его славословная семантика вместе с фигура- христианской культовой традиции, начиная с эпо- тивной мелодической избыточностью “Sanctus” хи Средневековья и вплоть до современности, и “Lux aeterna”, производных от традиций гре- и как показательной образно-смысловой и жанро- горианики, византийского пения и православ- вой сферы в творчестве европейских композито- ной монодии, формируют базовый интонаци- ров Ренессанса и Нового времени, свидетельству- онно-смысловой комплекс всего произведения, ет о его поэтико-интонационной уникальности, метафорически соотносимый с духовным вос- духовной значимости, выявляющих в различные хождением человека к Богу, Вечности. Отметим исторические эпохи глубинные преобразования также, что этот комплекс лишен в произведении человеческой сущности. Список литературы: 1. Глорія (жанр). URL: https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Глорія_(жанр) (дата обращения: 18. 03 2019). 2. Денисов А. В. Месса в ХХ веке – интерпретации жанровых констант // Богослужебные практики и культовые искусства в современном мире: сб. материалов Международной научной конференции / Ред.-сост. С. И. Хватова. – Майкоп: Издательство «Магарин Олег Григорьевич», 2017. – С. 116–129. 3. Друскин М. С. Пассионы и мессы И. С. Баха. – Л.: Музыка, 1976. – 168 с. 4. Катунян М. И. Плач Иеремии: сакральное слово и неоканонический стиль Владимира Мартынова // Слово и музыка: Научные труды МГК им. П. И. Чайковского. – Сб. 36. – М., 2002. – С. 341–351. 5. Кириллина Л. В. Бетховен. Жизнь и творчество: в 2-х т. – М.: Научно-издательский центр «Москов- ская консерватория», 2009. – Т. 2. – 590 с. 6. Коробейников С. С. Фуга XIX века в стилевом контексте музыкального романтизма: На примере произведений Ф. Мендельсона и М. Регера: дисс. … канд. искусствоведения: 17.00.02 – Музыкаль- ное искусство / Новосибирская государственная консерватория им. М. И. Глинки. – Новосибирск, 2001. – 161 с. 7. Мильштейн Я. Ф. Лист: в 2-х т. Изд. 2-е, расширенное и дополненное. – М.: Музыка, 1970. – Т. 1. – 864 с. 8. Муравська О. В. Нариси з історії зарубіжної музичної культури. – Одеcса: «Друкарський дім», 2010. – 214 с. 9. Ненарокова М. Р. Гимны суточного литургического круга в уставе св. Аврелиана Арелатского // Древняя и Новая Романия. 2015. – Т. 15. – № 1. – С. 527–543.
9 Section 1. Study of art
10. Тихонова А. И. Прочтение текста в музыке католической мессы: от грегорианского хорала к Гайд- ну и Моцарту // Вестник ПСТГУ. Серия 5: Вопросы истории и теории христианского искусства. 2007. – № 1 (1). – С. 140–170. 11. Ткаченко А. А., Москва Ю. В. «Gloria in excelsis Deo». URL: www.pravenc.ru/text/165155.html (дата обращения: 25. 12. 2019). 12. Фиденко Ю. Л. Музыкально-литургическая практика католических приходов азиатской части Рос- сии на рубеже ХХ–ХХI веков: дисс. … доктора искусствоведения: 17.00.02 – Музыкальное ис- кусство / Новосибирская государственная консерватория имени М. И. Глинки. – Новосибирск, 2016. – 436 с. 13. Холопова В. Н. Формы музыкальных произведений: Учебное пособие. СПб.: Издательство «Лань», 2001. – 496 с. 14. Холопов Ю. Н. Месса // Григорианский хорал: сб. науч. тр. – М.: МГК им. П. И. Чайковского, 1997. – С. 38–65. 15. Ценова В. С. Новая религиозность русской музыки и духовные сочинения Эдисона Денисова // Московский форум. Музыка ХХ века: Научные труды МГК им. П. И. Чайковского. – М.: МГК им. П. И. Чайковского, 1999. – Сб. 25. – С. 128–141.
10 PERFORMANCE AS THE ART OF INTONEMENT
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-11-14 Zhang Jiaohua, Postgraduate student of the Department of Fine Arts, Musicology and Culturology of A. Makarenko Sumy State Pedagogical University, Ukraine E-mail: [email protected] PERFORMANCE AS THE ART OF INTONEMENT Abstract. The article deals with the problems of performing art in the context of B. Asafiev’s intonation theory. Musical performance as an art of intonement is analyzed. Keywords: performing art, performing skills, intonation theory, musical intonement. The basis of B. Asafiev’s intonation theory is a ho- The definition of intonement as a method of listic approach to the study of musical art, which com- content manifestation emphasized the aesthetic bines both a wide use of already obtained scientific and orientation of intonation theory. It was this innova- practical achievements in this field, and their innova- tive understanding of this phenomenon in music art tive rethinking. The key problem of the intonation that became the most important factor that made it theory is the study of the musical thinking nature and possible to substantiate the essence of music as “the the justification of the music specificity as an art form. art of intonation content”. Thus, according to the intonation theory, music is: All of B. Asafiev’s scientific and journalistic activ- –– a phenomenon of objective reality: “the figu- ities were characterized by an interest in the perform- rative and sound reflection of reality with the ing arts, which found its expression in music and help of musical instruments or human voice performance criticism. Thus, in works on historical apparatus” [5, 344]; musicology, critical articles and reviews, scientists –– a carrier of spiritual values, the unity of per- covered a wide range of problems of performing art. ception, performance and creativity, an artis- Among them: revealing the essence of performing tic form of thinking; expressiveness, the question of performing skills, –– a specific language of communication, and aesthetics and public importance of performance. thus, a socially significant phenomenon. The provisions of intonation theory required the The methodological significance of the studied study of performing culture. Thus, the researcher’s theory was to substantiate the intonational nature of definition of the performing art value prompted him musical art. B. Asafiev noted on this issue: “I see no to create an author’s aesthetic concept, which was con- possibility to investigate the dynamic essence of mu- ditioned by his views on the specific nature of musical sic and its dialectical formation outside the process of art. B. Asafiev wrote: “Performing is a consistent and intonement and intonation, as music, first of all, is the irreversible consequence of the intonation nature of art of intonement” [5, 195]. It is through intonement music as it is” [5, 90]. Performing is a necessary and that a person has an opportunity to self-fulfillment important condition of public consciousness: like mu- in music, because it is the result of the activity of his sic itself, it develops in accordance with its formation. intellect, a kind of “intonation-like” form of thinking “Beyond social intonement… music does not exist [5, 267] and the process of personal consciousness in social and cultural exchange” [5, 90]. The author manifestation in the kind of musical art forms. of the intonation theory created his own performing
11 Section 1. Study of art aesthetics as an ideal model by taking a performance nent of the above-mentioned unity, but also as an in which “everything in which human mental life man- independent type of artistic creation. B. Asafiev ifests itself … is perceived by the listener in an act of considered performance as an art of musical into- communication directly arising from music, enriches nation. Under the high type of executive thinking, the spiritual world” [3, 6]. As a result, music “turns he understood the ability to adequately intonate the into a powerful social organizing impulse” [3, 6]. composer’s plan, embedded in a musical work. “The Such views of the author led to the conclusion life of a musical piece in its performance, in the dis- that in order to achieve the result it was necessary for closure of its idea through intonement” [1, 203] that the composer’s creative process to continue through is, in the continuation and completion of the author’s the act of performance and to generate a listening process with the performer. experience, which is inseparable unity with him. Ac- The artistic performance of a musical work is cording to B. Asafiev, only in this case did the per- not only a transformation of the composer’s idea, formance express the emotional world, developing but also a manifestation of the creative personality together with the public consciousness, as did the of the performer himself. B. Asafiev noted that the music itself. Including musical performance in the disclosure of the essence of a musical piece is relat- system of positions and ideas of the intonation doc- ed not only to the personality of the performer, but trine, the scientist revealed and substantiated the dia- also to the period of its writing. Thus, in the process lectical connection of performance with two other of a musical composition reproduction, there is an types of musical intonation activity: music writing interaction between the composer and performer, and its perception. The process of reproduction in as well as enriching the work with features inherent this triad has become a specific form of connection in a particular era and the individuality of the one between creativity and its perception, because with- who performs it. In the performing arts, B. Asafiev out performance, musical art is unable to realize its singled out two leading aspects, based on the musi- social purpose: “Outside the living reproduction and cian’s auditory culture. Thus, the researcher describes perception of music does not exist, and only in the the fundamental difference between “creative” and process of his life is its form” [2, 199]. The period “craft” performance: “There are two main categories in which the performing concept was created deter- of musicians: some listen to and understand music mined its content, educational character and social with their inner ears, intonating it before playing it, orientation. Thus, B. Asafiev insisted on expanding i. e. before hearing it from outside: in the orchestra, the concert activity, justifying it by the fact that the or from under their fingers; others do not intonate latter is one of the most effective means of getting the music in their consciousness, perceive it from acquainted with musical art, asserting “the necessity outside, only playing the sheet music” [5, 297–298]. of installing musical concert practice on the listen- The scientist strongly criticized the play of those per- er” [1, 132]. According to the scientist, the actual formers who played the text mechanically. He be- performing activity developed the understanding of lieved that it is the great evil that is the indifferent music, “a direct feeling”, “because you can not per- performance “within the limits of service” [1, 14]. ceive the whole essence, not just the mind of creative “In musical art, you have to master the element, to achievements, if at least for a moment do not feel spell it or be obsessed with it: only when this or that an accomplice or creator – the carrier of someone’s extremity is present does the performer attract the creative ideas, that is, the performer” [1, 19]. attention of listeners” [1, 14]. Among the perform- However, in the intonation theory, the author ers who helped to create his “ideal model of perfor- considered performing art not only as a compo- mance” were S. Prokofiev, S. Rakhmaninov, A. Sch-
12 PERFORMANCE AS THE ART OF INTONEMENT nabel. Also, in the theoretical works of B. Asafiev we formation and development of music in the percep- find performing portraits of M. Balakiriev, F. Blu- tion of listeners” [4, 259]. menfeld, A. Glazunov, A. Liudov, E. Petri, A. and Striving to learn and develop the new, B. Asafiev N. Rubinshtein etc. By characterizing the specific actively promoted the need to enrich and update features of each of the performers, the researcher the musical repertoire. In selecting works by the precisely selected poetic comparisons and defini- performer, he particularly appreciated the under- tions. For example, in A. Glazunov’s performance standing of aesthetic demands of the time and sense the critic saw “creative, lively possession of music” of modernity, and had a positive attitude towards [2, 315], in S. Rakhmaninov’s performance he noted the performance of new musical compositions for “aesthetically high attitude towards art”, “the abil- the audience. At the same time, he “stressed that it ity to express everything that suggests the creative is necessary to make only that musical material, the imagination” [4, 261], the play of A. Schnabel was value and emotional component of which captures described as “the complete domination of will over the listener” [4, 259]. By the term performing in- artistic material” [4, 264]. B. Asafiev believed that terpretation, the researcher understood the “perfor- the real performer should always “carry music within mance, that is, artistic interpretation, musical works, him” [1, 96], and during the performance to strive in other words, conscious organizational, rather than for “through action to reveal the formation “of music random, reproduction of music” [4, 54]. For a full as a development”” [2, 181]. interpretation of a musical piece, a performer must Connecting the listener to the study of perfor- perfectly master the technical skill, professional mance problems, B. Asafiev argued that the perform- knowledge and culture. B. Asafiev noted the need er should not only realize music as a development, for a musician to have humanitarian knowledge and but also at the moment of playback of the work as if mastery of musical technologies: “It is not in the tra- to unfold this thought process in front of the listener dition of music, which has always fought for the truth in order to awaken empathy with the latter. Artist- of art, to inculcate in talented young people the prin- performer must necessarily understand the essence ciple of ‘technique for the sake of technology’; is it of the piece being performed, which requires from much benefit from a young professional who enters him wit, “sensitive intellectualism”. However, the the world of music with a diploma of testing, which scientist stressed that the emotional sphere is also he withstood, but with an empty heart, with a per- present in this process. Thus, characterizing the unity fectly trained hand, but with the head of a musician- of feeling and thought in the play of F. Blumenfeld, practitioner, without spiritual inquiry” [1, 135]. B. Asafiev wrote that “everything intellectual found Thus, investigating the specifics of the performing figurative support in the very quality of intonations art, B. Asafiev developed the theory of performance, on the piano, that is, came from a good and respon- based on the ideas of his intonation teaching. In the sive heart” [2, 318]. S. Prokofiev’s “powerful charm” concept of the scientist, performance is a key condi- felt “in harmony of the improvisational element with tion for the existence of this art form. It was the un- the organizing though” [4, 259]. In the process of derstanding of the unique specificity that became reproducing a musical piece, the synthesis of emo- a fundamental element in the formation of the aes- tional rise and conscious control, in other words, the thetic concept of performance. On the one hand – unity of the performing “representation” and “experi- the reproduction of music is a socially conditioned ence” plays a fundamental role. According to B. Asa- phenomenon, on the other – a factor that affects the fiev, only in this case does the music sheet “become peculiarities of the musical art development in gen- an existence, and its embodiment becomes the life eral. According to B. Asafiev’s theory, performance
13 Section 1. Study of art is a continuation of the composer’s creative process, The author of the intonation concept noted that and at the same time it is a way of revealing the indi- penetration into the content of a musical work is viduality of the musician-performer. In his theoreti- possible only when all the means, “all the richness cal analysis of performance, the scientist included the of expression is directed deep into the essence of figure of the listener, which confirmed his own opin- music” [4, 260], and the possession of professional ion on the relationship between the types of musical skill, that is, technical perfection, is only the means thinking. The researcher put forward the idea of the to achieve this goal. creative nature of the performing art, highlighting the Thus, intonation – the realization of music in performance as a separate and independent type of the broad sense – is a complex and holistic process creativity. As criteria that would determine the profes- of creative reproduction of musical works, includ- sional level of the performer, B. Asafiev singled out the ing a wide range of closely related issues of artistic following: creative possession of music, the presence performance. B. Asafiev associated the problems of of a developed auditory culture, a wide performing performing skills with intonation, as an expression repertoire, which is constantly updated with modern of thought, inspired by the “proclamation”, revealing samples, the ability to comprehend the artistic image the content of music in the process of its implemen- in the combination of representation and experience. tation. References: 1. Asafiev B. Izbrannyye stat’i o muzykal’nom prosveshchenii i obrazovanii [Selected Articles on Music Enlightenment and Education]. Ye. M. Orlova (Ed.). – Leningrad: Music. 1973. (in Russian). 2. Asafiev B. Izbrannyye trudy [Selected Works]. – Moscow: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. – Vol. 4. 1971. (in Russian). 3. Asafiev B. Kontserty Shnabelya [Schnabel Concerts]. Art life, 20, 1924. – P. 6–12. (in Russian). 4. Asafiev B. (Igor’ Glebov). Kriticheskiye stat’i, ocherki i retsenzii. Iz naslediya kontsa desyatykh – nachala tridtsatykh godov [(Igor Glebov). Critical articles, essays and reviews. From the heritage of the late tenths – early thirties]. – Moscow-Leningrad: Music. 1967. (in Russian). 5. Asafiev B. Muzykal’naya forma kak protsess [Musical form as a process]. – Leningrad: Music. 1971. (in Russian).
14 TRANSFORMATION OF THE DESIGN OF MEN`S COSTUME1960S – 1970S IN UKRAINE: STYLE, SILHOUTTE, COLOR, TEXTURE
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-15-18 Chubotina Iryna, Postgraduate student, Kiev National University of Culture and Arts E-mail: [email protected] TRANSFORMATION OF THE DESIGN OF MEN`S COSTUME1960S – 1970S IN UKRAINE: STYLE, SILHOUTTE, COLOR, TEXTURE Abstract. The article considers the evolution of men’s costume in 1960 s‑1970 s as a prerequisite for its further development in Ukraine. The path from uniformity and monolithism of the “Soviet style” of the early 1960 s to variety and fancy polyphony of the late 1970 s. The article analyzes the changes in style, silhouette base, as well as transformation of fabrics and color solutions of the studied period in men’s costumes. Keywords: men’s costume, Ukrainian fashion, 1960 s‑1970 s fashion, Soviet style. Modern costume, especially men’s, is a “victim” of a style formed in the 1930 s, where quality and so- postmodernism ideas of the twentieth century with lidity were most important” [1, 115]. A well-known its reinterpretation of previous eras, which was most fashion researcher Djurdja Bartlett emphasizes that evident in the 1960 s and 1970 s, when an unprec- socialist fashion hoped to avoid constant changes edented innovation based on traditional costume “that the decadent bourgeois world was subject to emerged. By giving the younger generation, which and get the status of a timeless phenomenon like did not have influence on society and money capi- classical art” [2, 198]. The men’s costume had to be tal, the opportunity to express their desires, fashion made of Boston wool cloth in black or dark blue, as began a new path. But classic men’s costume proved well as gabardine trench coat also in strict black-and- once again that it can adapt to anything, despite the gray color scheme. The heavy monumental silhou- fact that the “peacock revolution” of the late 1960 s ette of the double-breasted jacket with wide lapels seemingly crashed down all the most indestructible complemented by oversized high-waisted trousers that men’s fashion had: firmness of form, sober col- and loose shirt was a symbol of male elegance of the ors, simple clean textures. The effect that tectonic “Stalinist glamour” era. In Western fashion, such upheaval had on men’s clothing was so strong that it silhouette was no longer relevant under pressure of easily overcame the “iron curtain” carefully erected subcultural riots demanding greater freedom and by Soviet ideologists. It was a long way from true po- expressive provocativeness from the modern cos- litical and social changes in the USSR, but the eman- tume. “Hipsters” with their attempt to stand out of cipation of costumes generated by the individualiza- the “gray mass” and personalize their appearance tion that was brought by “peacock” transformations became the first costume “revolutionaries” in the could no longer be ignored. Soviet Union. Inspired by American fashion, over- The Soviet men’s costume existed within the nar- sized clothing (wide jackets, skinny leg trousers) was row confines of unification and functionality until the complemented with bright accessories and remind- second half of the 1950 s virtually unchanged. “Even ed of the English fashion “Teddy boys” or French in the mid‑1950 s, men’s costume was dominated by “Zazou”. But the rebellion of Soviet “hipsters” against
15 Section 1. Study of art characterless Soviet costume was far from mass and message was changed in the next decade. Ukrainian transient, although it attracted public attention. The magazines of the early 1960 s claim that the Soviet real transformation of male image in the USSR and, man is characterized by modesty, and therefore his as a result, in Ukraine, was in the 1960 s‑1970 s. clothes are distinguished primarily by simplicity. But In addition to global trends, the so-called “Thaw”, by the early 1960 s, the Soviet light industry was be- which politically refers to the period of Khrushchev’s ing actively exported to the West, where it was stra- rule and culturally to the “sixties” movement, was tegically important to demonstrate the achievements purely Soviet push for visual changes. “After Stalin’s of Soviet society over capitalist society, which was death in 1953, when Khrushchev came to power, he to be facilitated by the unique Soviet fashion. “By not only criticized Stalin’s domestic policy, but also rejecting modern aesthetics, the authorities used declared war against pompous style” [2, 114]. By the aesthetic art to create their own mythic style, by end of the 1950 s, the “Builders of communism” were treating it as the embodiment of a genuine, intuitive not a faceless mass for whom the colorless uniform spirit of creativity inherent in the people” [2, 143]. of Stalinist coats or square suits would be all that Therefore, regardless of fashion trends, artists had to can be desired. The flourishing of non-ideological include folk motifs in their models, long before the poetry and prose, the new wave of avant-garde paint- supremacy of the hippie aesthetic at the turn of the ing and musical counterculture, which did not have 1960 s and 1970 s. General Secretary N. Khrushchev the opportunity to fully manifest themselves in So- himself, by making a public appearance in traditional viet society, was reflected in the visual aesthetics. By Ukrainian vyshyvanka (embroidered shirt) under a excluding pre-revolutionary sewing traditions and costume, made a controversial advertising for this constructivist ideas of the 1920 s, and being isolat- image. Folk motifs were particularly suitable as a ed from the world fashion movement, the “Soviet counterbalance to the ever-changing fashion, which style” had to look for new sources of inspiration. “In could not be centrally managed. Instead of the aes- Ukraine, during so called political, economic and thetic progress and creative freedom enshrined in cultural “Thaw”, the authority of science, higher fashion transformations, the Soviet man was offered education, and faith in the significant results of their a “fake stuck in theatrical monotony, mass-produced development increased” [3, 97]. Ukrainian fashion to show mainly to strangers” [4, 22]. While Soviet designers follow new trends: “shoulders are sloped, fashion experts were stubbornly searching for their waist line is slightly slimmed, and the jacket is nar- own style, the most important changes that were rowed down, by smoothly changing over to the pants happening in costume style during this period elud- line, which become narrower, and almost has no ed them. Kiev magazine “Fashion” reports: “Fashion cuffs” [3, 95]. In the early sixties, warm tones such as is extremely simple and concise in recent years. In smoky brown, gold, and beige were gradually added 1966, there will be no dramatic changes in fashion. to the cold, strict male color array. Fashion developed based on national motifs with By the 1960 s, there was a concise style based on the use of folk embroidery, ornaments, taking into two “whales”: both folk traditionalism and simplic- account climatic conditions, is becoming more and ity. But conciseness of Soviet citizens’ clothes was more popular” [5, 1]. Which meant that men will be not only the result of aesthetic needs, but in many wearing the same familiar classic costume with the ways, the result of a low standard of living, insuffi- inclusion of folk embroidery. Meanwhile, the world cient supply of even the most necessary goods. But is shaken by fashion revolution: “the world of men’s if in the 1950 s the idea of not chasing fashion trends fashion is revolutionized by a new generation of as a bourgeois relic was inculcated on people, the London entrepreneurs, who felt in the urban youth
16 TRANSFORMATION OF THE DESIGN OF MEN`S COSTUME1960S – 1970S IN UKRAINE: STYLE, SILHOUTTE, COLOR, TEXTURE a desire to dress not like their fathers used to dress, clothing, constantly fueled men’s fashion, by bringing but to dress in the height of fashion” [6, 180]. New comfort and novelty to informal clothes. This trend English fashion easily includes the achievements of easily adapted to new Soviet realities: “The lifestyle Italian masters, American street style, without forget- becomes active and dynamic, travel, the search for ting its tailoring tradition, and as a result produces a new discoveries and “romantic” impressions become new unique style that has changed the idea of men’s trendy, which leads to more practical clothing, re- fashion as something static, shadowed by brighter duction its volume. In the end, since the mid‑1960 s, women’s fashion forever. simplicity, convenience and practicability will give The Soviet official fashion had a hard time adapt- clothing features of sport and functional versatility” ing to Western fashion trends. The planned economy [3, 98]. Official propaganda received sporty style was not able to modernize and meet fashion needs as favourably, which was the most approved part of so easily as the capitalist market, for this reason firmly called “youth” style becoming more and more radical resisted new trends, accusing it of commercializing in the world by the end of the 1960 s. the revolutionary spirit and anti-artistic achieve- It was much more difficult to promote vintage ments. But Soviet propaganda could not shut down fashion, a product of the hippie style and histori- the appeal of new world fashion, especially the un- cism of the turn of the 1960–1970, which reached precedented style diversity of men’s images. its peak in 1975 in the USSR. The Ukrainian fashion In parallel with the hippie style initiated by researcher Z. Tkanko notes that the simplicity and youth movements and then accepted by boutiques conciseness of geometric forms of the previous de- on Carnaby and Kings Road, the 1960 s gave rise cade gave way to the softness of an elongated silhou- to the space style authored by French couturiers ette, colorfulness and richness of details, decorative Pierre Cardin and Andre Courreges. And if at the maximalism with obvious exaggerated jewelry [3]. beginning of its development, this style was actually In contrast to textured fabrics with glitter, since the a reflection of the mod minimalism, by the end of 1970 s, there has been a trend for plaid fabrics, as the sixties, P. Cardin brings futuristic ideas to per- well as fabrics with different printed ethnic, abstract fection for men. The space style became the only and floral patterns. Public rejection of the new style trend well received in the USSR, because it not only was caused by historical quotations referring to the assumed the same simplicity and conciseness, but “hated” pre-revolutionary past, which was alien to had a strong ideological base that reminded of the the ordinary Soviet citizen. But even more rejec- Soviet achievements in space exploration. Scientific tion was caused by obvious “feminization” of retro and technological progress, by invading the fashion style with a refined flare silhouette, long haircuts field, supported space trends, offering new materi- for men, high-heeled shoes. For a Soviet person, als such as capron, dacron, nylon. The men’s line in- all this “Western tinsel” was completely unaccept- cluded materials with geometric patterns, abstract able, and therefore it found its application only on drawings, and smooth shimmering textures. The the stage. But like all the most radical trends, retro nylon white shirt becomes an object of desire and style quickly became untrendy, and the fashion- a symbol of elegant man of the mid‑1960 s. But all able Ukrainian press reported with satisfaction that the innovative ideas suggested by new Gallic style men’s clothing is now more calm and chaste, and, remained with fashion magazines, without leaving most importantly, that too “young” elements are their pages to the mass Soviet consumer. Sporty style finally removed from the men’s wardrobe. By the became the most adaptive fashion trend in the 1960 s mid-seventies, with overall similarity of silhouettes, and 1970 s. Sportswear, along with work and military small waist, bell bottom, the shoulder belt is some-
17 Section 1. Study of art what sharpened and widened, the clasp of jackets is fashion, never becoming publicly available, even in deepened, and single-breasted jackets with two but- England itself. But still, punk freshened up boring tons is more common. There are less and less details, male image of the 1970 s, having paved the way for classic style prevails over the youth trends: hippy, new style discoveries of the 1980 s. military style, etc. But this was only the calm before Although the vivid transformations of the period the storm. At the same time, England is shaken by under study seem to be a direct evidence of the con- a new provocative “punk” style initiated by music sistency of fashion revolutions with social changes, agent Malcolm McLaren and fashion designer Vivi- fashion rather becomes a precursor of deep changes, enne Westwood. A. Vasilyev states how quickly the since the subconscious desire for change manifests new fashion wave reached the USSR: “in 1976, the itself in the visual physical sphere before someone first punks emerged in London, and two years later expresses and comprehends this need itself” [4, 30]. the golden Soviet youth were already wearing safe- Sociocultural and ideological changes in the world ty pins and cheap jewelry like chains with nickel- of the mid-twentieth century radically changed not plated decorative blades “razers” attached thereto, only women, liberating and giving them new oppor- which became very trendy, and dyed strands of tunities. Men also stopped being victim of traditional hair in bright contrast colours” [7, 367]. But the behavior patterns, and fashion proved once again bold style of London’s streets quickly went out of that it is not only privilege of women. References: 1. Лебина Н. Б. Мужчина и женщина: тело, мода, культура. СССР – оттепель / Наталия Лебина. – М.: Новое литературное обозрение, 2014. – 203 с. 2. Барлетт Дж. FashionEast: призрак, бродивший по Восточной Европе, – М.: Новое литературное обозрение, 2011. – 356 с. 3. Тканко З. М. Мода в Україні ХХ століття. – Лвів: Артос, 2015. – 236 с. 4. Холландер Э. Пол и костюм. Эволюция современной одежды. – М.: Новое литературное обозрение, 2018. – 176 с. 5. Блэкмен К. 100 лет моды для мужчин, – М.: КоЛибри, 2012. – 320 с. 6. Васильев А. А. Русская мода. 150 лет в фотографиях. – М.: Слово, 2007. – 448 с.
18 MEDIEVAL CITIES OF AZERBAIJAN IN THE SYSTEM OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
Section 2. History and archaeology
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-19-25 Dostiyev Tarikh Meyrut, doctor of historical sciences Baku State University, Azerbaijan E-mail: [email protected] MEDIEVAL CITIES OF AZERBAIJAN IN THE SYSTEM OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION Abstracts. In this article there was given information on the formation and development of the Muslim cities in Azerbaijan. The breaking changes occurred in the material and spiritual culture of the population with the spread of Islam in the Caucasus. In the 9–10th centuries, the type of cities were established, which, similar to the cities of the Muslim East, divided into three planning structure: citadel, shahristan and rabad. The sanctuary architecture as well as mosque, minarets, madrasahs (religious school), mausoleum were main urban landscape. Azerbaijani cities, as significant cultural centers of the Caucasus and the Middle East, played a significant role in the development of the Medieval Islamic culture. Keywords: Azerbaijan, Muslim city, urbanization, shahristan, rabad. Достиев Тарих Мейрут оглы, доктор исторических наук Бакинский государственный университет E-mail [email protected] СРЕДНЕВЕКОВЫЕ ГОРОДА АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНА В СИСТЕМЕ ИСЛАМСКОЙ ЦИВИЛИЗАЦИИ Аннотация. В статье представлена информация о формировании и развитии мусульманского города в Азербайджане. С распространением Ислама на Кавказе произошёл коренной перелом в материальной и духовной культуре населения Азербайджана. В IX–X вв. утвердился тип горо- да, который аналогично городам мусульманского Востока, имел трехчленную планировочную структуру: цитадель, шахристан и рабад. Культовая архитектура – мечети, минареты, медресе, мавзолеи являлась доминантом городского ландшафта. Города Азербайджана, как значительные культурные центры Кавказа и Ближнего Востока, в средние века играли значительную роль в развитии Исламской культуры.
19 Section 2. History and archaeology
Ключевые слова: Азербайджан, мусульманский город, урбанизация, шахристан, рабад.
Возникновение Ислама и Арабского Халифата двор, сооружения пенитенциарной службы. Наи- внесли кардинальные изменения в мировую исто- более монументальные здания общественно-куль- рию. Арабские завоевания VII–VIII вв., сопро- турного и жилого характера располагались в шах- вождаемые распространением исламской веры ристане, который был заселен городской знатью, и новой социально-экономической системой чиновниками и представителями духовенства, во- регулирования отношений между государством енными, богатыми ремесленниками и торговца- и населением, сыграли важную роль в развитии ми. За шахристаном располагались ремесленные народов Кавказа, в особенности Азербайджана. кварталы – рабад и предместья города. Считается, С принятием ислама произошёл коренной пере- что рабады в структуре городов возникли после лом в исторической судьбе Азербайджана, кото- арабского завоевания, в результате развития ре- рый стал неотъемлемой частью мусульманского месленного производства и торговли, роста на- мира. Вхождение Азербайджана в состав Хали- селения, перенаселения шахристана. В рабаде, фата, интенсивные экономические, культурные в основном, размещались ремесленные мастер- и духовные связи породили общемусульманские ские, торговые ряды, а в предместье – подсобные черты в материальной и духовной культуре. Все хозяйства горожан. В связи с подъемом ремеслен- это предопределило бесповоротный общемусуль- ного производства и торговых операций в горо- манский путь развития средневековой культуры дах Азербайджана, как и в других мусульманских Азербайджана [4, 43–44]. Письменные источни- городах, особенно высокими темпами расширяет- ки и археологические данные свидетельствуют, ся рабад [15, 27]. Прослеживается рост городов что урбанизационные процессы, феномен мусуль- за счет рабадов. манской цивилизации, ускоряются уже в ранне- Важным атрибутом городских населенных исламский период и в Азербайджане, расширя- пунктов было наличие крепостных стен. Все горо- ется градостроительная деятельность. Начиная да имели развитую фортификацию. Особое значе- с VIII–IX вв., население городов Азербайджана ние придавалось защите цитадели и шахристана. в основном исповедовало ислам [7, 189]. Ранне- Городские фортификационные сооружения этого исламский период (VIII–X вв.) характеризуется периода имели много общих черт с оборонитель- введением инноваций во всех сферах городской ными сооружениями мусульманского Востока. культуры. В IX–X вв. утвердился тип города, ко- Оборона городов и обеспечение безопасности торый без принципиальных изменений просуще- горожан поднялись до уровня одного из решаю- ствовал на протяжении всего средневековья. По- щих градостроительных факторов [2, 27; 5, 83]. добно городам мусульманского Востока, города Особенностью городской фортификации рас- Азербайджана в основном имели трехчленную сматриваемого периода является укрупнение кре- планировочную структуру: цитадель, шахристан постных стен, а также возведение круглых и полу- и рабад. Формирование каждой из них было об- круглых башен вместо прежних четырехугольных условлено военно-административной, ремеслен- и квадратных, что было связано с появлением но- но-торговой, культурно-идеологической и дру- вых видов осадной техники. Башни размещались гими функциями. Резиденция правительства или определенными интервалами. На более опасных наместника располагалась в цитадели. Здесь на- участках они расположены чаще. В комплекс обо- ходились дворец правителя со служебными поме- ронительных сооружений городов входят рвы, щениями, административные здания, монетный снаружи окружавшие городские стены. Городские
20 MEDIEVAL CITIES OF AZERBAIJAN IN THE SYSTEM OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
укрепления равнинных регионов обычно четыре- ственном убранстве интерьеров общественных хугольные в плане. Такова планировка Байлакана, и культовых зданий, жилищ широко применялась Гянджи, Шамкира. В предгорных и горных мест- резьба по гяжу, которая была освоена мастерами ностях планировка городских стен зависела глав- Азербайджана на базе существовавших ислам- ным образом от рельефа местности. ских художественных традиций. В декоре доми- Роль культовых сооружений в создании ар- нируют эпиграфические и растительные орна- хитектурного облика городов была весьма суще- менты. Часто встречаются надписи религиозного ственна. Мечети, минареты, медресе, мавзолеи содержания. Например, обожженный кирпич, вы- являлись доминантом городского ландшафта. явленный в Шамкире, покрывалcя гяжевым слоем, Наиболее важным типом культовой архитектуры, по которому вырезали надпись с куфическим по- связанным с исламом, являются мечети: кварталь- черком: «Власть принадлежит Аллаху» [18, 114]. ные и соборные. Ранние соборные мечети – Джа- Для Хараба-Гилана характерны фигурные обли- ме-мечети Азербайджана известны по Дербенду, цовки с растительным орнаментом и надписями Шамахе и Ардебилю. Археологические раскопки в рамках. На одном экземпляре, на верхней части в Шамахе подтвердили, что Джаме-мечеть, кото- в рамках размещена надпись:»Ла-илаха иллал- рая была возведена в 126 г. хиджры, неоднократ- лах» («Нет бога кроме бога») [6, 123]. но перестраивалась, при этом ее планировочная Археологические данные свидетельствуют структура оставалась неизменной [3, 26]. о высоком уровне городского благоустройства, Археологическими исследованиями установ- что было неразрывно связано с высоким уров- лено, что застройка городов носила кварталь- нем урбанизации, требованием Ислама и общим ный характер. Монументальные здания с высо- развитием экономики и культуры страны. Благо- кохудожественным оформлением возводились устройство осуществлялось, в основном, в трех в центральных частях (цитадель и шахристан) направлениях: обеспечение всех горожан питье- города. При археологических раскопках здания вой водой, мощение улиц и площадей, частично дворцового типа были изучены в Дербенде, Шам- озеленение и наконец, сооружение инженерных кире, Дабиле. Руины крупного, общественного устройств санитарно-гигиенического назначения. здания с многочисленными комнатами вскрыты Археологические раскопки свидетельствуют, что в Шамкире, Хараба-Гилане. Наряду с одноэтаж- для обеспечения горожан питьевой водой соору- ными встречаются также двухэтажные дома. Для жали кягризи, прокладывали водопроводы, со- каждого типа строений была установлена опре- ставленные из керамических труб. Улицы и пло- деленная композиционно-планировочная схема, щади городов мостились каменными плитами, строительная техника и строительные приемы, обожженным кирпичом, плоским булыжником архитектурный декор. и гравием. В городах функционировали дренаж- В городском строительстве широко приме- ные, канализационные системы и другие санитар- няется керамика: обожженные кирпичи, терра- но-гигиенические устройства [14, 76–79]. коты, изразцы. В строительстве общественных Города, концентрирующие в себе производ- и культовых зданий, жилищ широко распростра- ственный, культурный и интеллектуальный потен- нились стрельчатые своды, арки, купола, порта- циал, стимулировали различные виды активности. лы со стрельчатыми арками, окна с каменными Высокий темп процессов урбанизации обусловил решетками, сталактитовые карнизы и другие высокий уровень развития ремесла, углубление спе- конструктивные элементы, характерные для му- циализации ремесленного производства и стандар- сульманского Востока[14, 66; 15, 73].В художе- тизации ремесленной продукции. Особенно бурно
21 Section 2. History and archaeology
развиваются художественные ремесла. Большие ном оформлении этой керамики доминировала успехи были достигнуты в торевтике, литейном, разнообразная геометрическая, эпиграфическая, гончарном, стекольном производстве и других от- растительная и изобразительная орнаментация. раслях художественного ремесла. Археологически- Часто геометрические, растительные и эпиграфи- ми раскопками были выявлены и изучены остатки ческие орнаменты удачно сочетаются. Различные мастерских гончаров (Бейлеган, Шамаха, Габала, почерки арабского письма открывали перед гон- Баку, Шабран), кузнецов (Шамаха, Шабран), сте- чарами-художниками широкие возможности для кольных (Дербенд), обнаружены браки, отходы творчества. Каллиграфия переходит из книжных и полуфабрикаты ювелирного, косторезного и дру- рукописей в область художественной керамики. гих производств, выявлены орудия труда ремеслен- Надписи на керамике выполнены в основном по- ников, многочисленные изделия различного назна- черком «куфи» и «насх». Содержание их разно- чения [15, 102–158]. образно: стихи, благопожелания, изречения и т. д. В этот период в Азербайджане была усовер- Надписи, благопожелания, как правило, выпол- шенствована техника обжига керамических из- нены на арабском языке. Так, на одной поливной делий, появились новые виды бытовой керамики, чаше из раскопок Бейлагана читается: «Покой характерные для материальной культуры мусуль- и благополучие, преуспевание… и счастье ему от манского мира. Крупным достижением явилось бога» [16, 72]. Встречаются надписи, связанные применение глазури, открывающее большие воз- с именами 14 непорочных. Например, на днище можности художественного оформления керами- глазурованной чаши из средневекового города ческих изделий. Это нововведение в керамическом Шамкир черной тушью был написан текст, свя- производстве было переломным, определившим занный с именами 14 непорочных [18, 115]. Ино- новый, более высокий уровень и характер гон- гда на керамических изделиях на месте словесного чарства, раскрывая его экономический потен- благопожелания появляется символ. Надписи ли- циал, определило место этой отрасли в системе рического содержания в основном выполнены на ремесленного производства. Надо заметить, что персидском языке. Например, на фрагменте блю- художественная керамика была наиболее массо- да, изготовленного гончаром Хаттабом из Бейла- вым видом декоративно-прикладного искусства. гана, сохранилась четверостишия на персидском В ней ярко проявились характерные черты ислам- языке [16, 81]. ской художественной культуры эпохи – особенно В изделиях торевтики также отчетливо проя- тенденция к синтезу искусств, с большим совер- вилась характерная черта исламской художествен- шенством и гармонией сочетаются орнамент, кал- ной культуры, и большим совершенством и гар- лиграфия и живопись. Орнамент с его абстракт- монией сочетаются орнаменты с каллиграфией ными формами, разнообразием ритмического и живописью. Большие успехи в художественной «звучания» стал той демократической формой металлообработке Азербайджана достигнуты художественного воплощения духовных и рели- в XI–XII вв. Образцы торевтики этого периода, гиозных задач Ислама, которая была доступна изготовленные в городах Азербайджана, по тех- всем слоям мусульманского общества [9, 187]. нике исполнения и художественному достоинству Производство керамических изделий, непрерыв- не уступают высочайшим произведениям искус- но развиваясь, достигло в XII в. своего апогея, ства мусульманского Востока [12, 266–281]. появились керамические школы – Ширванская, Раскопки средневековых городищ представили Арранская, Нахчыванская и Агкендская со свои- богатую коллекцию стеклянных изделий. Остатки ми локальными особенностями. В художествен- стекольной мастерской открыты в Дербенде. Для
22 MEDIEVAL CITIES OF AZERBAIJAN IN THE SYSTEM OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
изготовления стеклянных сосудов мастерами при- рынков. Крупнейшим из них был знаменитый ры- менялись свободное дутье, дутье в форме и отлив нок ал-Кюркий, расположенный в Барде. Археоло- в форму. Прослеживается значительная стандар- гические материалы и данные письменных источ- тизация стеклянных изделий, свидетельствующих ников свидетельствуют о торговых и культурных об их широком изготовлении на рынок. Стекло, связях Азербайджана со странами Севера, Ближ- как наиболее эффективный материал, успешно него и Среднего Востока, Византией, Китаем использовалось как в массовом выпуске бытовой и Индией. Фаянсовая посуда Самарры, люстровая посуды, аптечно-лабораторных сосудов, так и при керамика Рея и Кашана, керамика типа «минаи» изготовлении предметов украшений, в частности, из Кашана, тончайшие стеклянные изделия из браслетов, бус и т. д. В рассматриваемой эпохе по- Сирии и Египта, ювелирные изделия и цветные является оконное стекло [11, 161]. Ассортимент камни из стран мусульманского Востока, селадон выпускаемых изделий, приемы художественного и фарфор Китая, раковины “каури” с Мальдив- оформления сосудов были общими на всей тер- ских островов, множество иноземных монет, не- ритории мусульманского Востока. Вместе с тем сомненно, в результате торговых и других контак- образцам стеклянных изделий Азербайджана при- тов оказывались в городах Азербайджана. Надо сущи также локальные черты, свидетельствующие заметить, что осуществлялись не только торговые о местном производстве находок и сложившейся операции, но и распространялась информация об школе мастеров-стеклоделов. инновациях, шел обмен культурными достижени- Неодобрение исламской религией роскоши, ями, расширился диалог цивилизаций. особенно ношение мужчиной предметов укра- Мусульманские монеты лишены изобрази- шений, обусловили широкое распространение тельности. Предпочтение давали каллиграфии. предметов из недрагоценных металлов и цветных Особенно монументальностью отличается му- камней. В одном хадисе пророк Мухаммед под- сульманские монеты раннеисламского периода, черкивает: «Дозволены золото и шёлк женщинам угловой почерк «куфи» делает их привлекатель- моей общины, и не дозволены они мужчинам». ными. На лицевой стороне оттискивался символ Украшения из цветных камней, в особенности мусульманской веры: «Нет божества, кроме Алла- сердолика и бирюзы были весьма популярными ха. Он – един, нет Ему сотоварища». На оборот- на мусульманском Востоке. Встречаются амулеты ной стороне шло продолжение символа, упоми- с мистическими формулами, призванными охра- нался посланник Аллаха: «Мухаммад, Посланник нять их владельца от всех бед и обеспечивать ему Аллаха, послан с верой истинной для возвышения успех во всех его делах. ее над всеми религиями, вопреки сопротивлению В процессе археологических раскопок вы- многобожников» [8, 358; 10, 85–86]. явлено значительное количество вещественных Развитие городской жизни создало предпо- источников, позволяющее представить характер, сылки для подъема культуры. Город превратил- объем и направление внутригородской и внешней ся в важный культурный центр. В средние века торговли. Города Азербайджана – Тебриз, Арда- Азербайджан подарил миру блестящую плеяду бил, Бейлаган, Барда, Гянджа, Шамкир, Шамахы, мыслителей, зодчих, поэтов и ученых. Основу их Шабран, Дербенд являлись важнейшими пункта- творчества составляла любовь к человеку, его тру- ми караванного трансконтинентального пути, ду, изысканный эстетический вкус. а на морском пути самым крупным портом был Археологические данные свидетельствуют, что Дербенд. В средневековых городах Азербайджана в городах Азербайджана наряду с мусульманами функционировали десятки специализированных мирно сосуществовали также представители
23 Section 2. History and archaeology
других конфессий – христиане и иудеи, господ- Заключение ствовали идеи толерантности и ненасилия. Средневековые города Азербайджана, изу- Расцвет материальной и духовной культу- ченные археологическими исследованиями, сви- ры Азербайджана падает на XII – начало XIII вв. детельствуют о непрерывности исторического Именно в это время в архитектуре и декоратив- процесса на протяжении почти целого тысячеле- но-прикладном искусстве возрождаются древние тия. Города были политико-административными, традиции. Создаются условия, способствующие торгово-ремесленными и культурными центрами, расцвету светского мировоззрения и гуманистиче- являлись очагами прогресса. Принятие и распро- ских идеалов. Прослеживается подъем градострои- странение Ислама оказало сильное влияние на тельства, возникают большие архитектурные ком- различные сферы быта и культуры, имело боль- плексы, формируются центральные части городов. шое значение для консолидации народа и его С распространением Ислама появляется и ут- духовного развития, расширились культурные верждается мусульманский обряд погребения. связи с мусульманскими странами Востока. Мест- Мусульманские могильники обнаружены и архе- ные доисламские традиции трансформировались ологически изучены в Дербенде, Габале, Шабране, и сыграли важную роль в формировании ислам- Бяндоване, Гяндже, Шамкире и Бейлагане. В моги- ской культуры в Азербайджане. Отчетливо про- ле погребенные лежали на правом боку в вытяну- слеживаются также интеграционные процессы. том положении, головой на запад, лицо обращено Встречаются элементы, возникшие в результате в сторону Мекки, руки вытянутые вдоль туловища. интеграционных процессов, взаимодействия Шариат не одобрял возведения надгробия с культурными традициями стран мусульманско- на могиле. Однако данный принцип с IX не со- го Востока. В этот период одним из важнейших блюдался. Распространение получили надгро- факторов сближения в области ремесленного про- бия в виде стелы, саркофага и сундука. Начиная изводства были творческие обмены между пред- со второй половины X в. возникают монумен- ставителями различных культурных центров. Бла- тальные мемориальные сооружения – мавзолеи годаря миграции мастеров и движению товаров, [1, 117]. Мемориальные сооружения Азербайд- изделия, принадлежавшие одной художественной жана отличаются многообразием видов. Ранние школе, так же как и традиции, быстро распростра- мавзолеи делятся на две большие типологические нялись на огромной территории. Происходила группы: здания кубического объема, увенчанные унификация культурных компонентов. Взаимов- куполом, и башенные постройки. лияние культур разных народов мусульманского Башенные мавзолеи, которые строились для мира, находившихся в длительном историко-куль- правителей и других светских лиц, были архи- турном контакте, в целом обогащало мусульман- тектурным феноменом эпохи сельджуков. Ква- скую культуру. Города Азербайджана, как значи- дратные в плане купольные постройки служили тельные культурные центры Кавказа и Ближнего местом погребения и почитания духовных лиц Востока, в средние века играли важную роль в раз- [17,83–129; 13, 220–240]. витии Исламской культуры. Список литературы: 1. Амензаде Р. Б. Архитектурные мотивы в намогильных памятниках Средневекового Азербайджана // Известия АН Азерб. ССР. Серия литературы, языка и искусства, 1998. – № 1–2. – С. 117–120. 2. Ахмедов Г. М. Города и городская культура в средневековом Азербайджане // Тезисы докладов всесоюзной археологической конференции. – Баку, 1985. – C. 2–6.
24 MEDIEVAL CITIES OF AZERBAIJAN IN THE SYSTEM OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
3. Джидди Г. А. Средневековый город Шемаха (IX–XV вв.). – Баку: Элм, 1981. – 176 c. 4. Достиев Т. М. Общее и особенное в материальной культуре средневекового Азербайджана // The Caucasus in the context of world history. International conference. Abstracts of Papers. – Tbilisi, 1996. – C. 43–46. 5. Достиев Т. М. Основные итоги археологического изучения средневековых городов Азербайджана // Вестник Бакинского Университета, 2003. – № 3. – С. 83–88. 6. Ибрагимов Б. И. Средневековый город Киран. – Баку-Москва, 2000. – 176 c. 7. Мамедов Р. А. Города Северного Азербайджана VII–XIV вв. (социально-экономическая и культур- ная история). – Баку: “Elm və Təhsil”, 2015. – 480 c. 8. Раджабли А. М. Монеты Азербайджана. – Баку: Халг банк, 2012. – 357 с. 9. Стародуб Т. Х. Исламский мир: художественная культура VII–XII вв. – М.: Восточная литература, 2010. – 255 c. 10. Федоров-Давыдов Г. А. Монеты – свидетели прошлого. – М.: Изд-во Московского университета, 1985. – 176 c. 11. Художественная культура Центральной Азии и Азербайджана IX–XV вв. Том II. Стекло. – Самар- канд-Ташкент: МИЦАИ, 2011. – 182 с. 12. Художественная культура Центральной Азии и Азербайджана IX–XV вв. Том III. Торевтика. – Са- марканд-Ташкент: МИЦАИ, 2012. – 297 с. 13. Художественная культура Центральной Азии и Азербайджана IX–XV вв. Том IV. Архитектура. – Самарканд-Ташкент: МИЦАИ, 2013. – 280 с. 14. Azərbaycan arxeologiyası. Altı cilddə. VI c. – Bakı: “Şərq-Qərb”, 2008. – 632 s. 15. Dostiyev T. M. Azərbaycanın orta əsr şəhərləri (IX–XIII əsrin əvvəlləri). – Bakı: “Elm və təhsil”, 2016. – 200 s. 16. Əhmədov Q. M. Orta əsr Beyləqan şəhəri. – Bakı: Elm, 1979. – 198 s. 17. Qiyasi C. Nizami dövrü memarlıq abidələri. – Bakı: İşıq nəşr., 1991. – 264 s. 18. Nemət M. Şəmkir kitabələri // Azərbaycan arxeologiyası, 2009. – № 2. – s. 113–117.
25 Section 2. History and archaeology
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-26-35 YiFei Zhang, Student, The Affiliated High School of Peking University E-mail: [email protected] STIMULATING THE MODERNIZATION OF CHINA’S LEGISLATIONS: AN ESSAY ON A LEGACY OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM Abstract. Although it is generally said that the history of European colonialism in China is a his- tory of shame and tears that the country would rather forget, I would argue that colonialism did not serve only as a detriment to China. Through various channels, such as the importation of opium and the wars fought between China and colonizers, European colonialism triggered great changes in China’s governance and the tra- ditional Chinese Legal System. The changes resulted in a progressive modification of legislations, improving existing defects in the original legal system, guiding legislations into systematization, and gradually helping them to adapt into the modern society. Therefore, I would argue that European colonialism stimulated the modernization of China’s legislations. Such a semi-autonomous, unique process of modernization has left many enduring influences on China’s society even until today. Keywords: legal History; Chinese Legal System; Qing Dynasty; European Colonialism; Mod- ernization; Legal Reform. Introduction ism and the effect it produced, ultimately conclud- Long after the collapse of the ancient Qing ing that colonialism stimulated the modernization empire, historians, especially Chinese historians, of China’s legislation. considered the period of European colonialism in Premise China as a history of violence, shame, and tears that According to the Marxism legal theory, law is not the country would rather forget. However, as history an eternal, transhistorical existence [16], rather, in light continues to progress and the scope of research ex- of the historical materialism interpretation of history, pands, we are presently able to look at the interaction law is innately similar to all other sociological phenom- between Europe and East Asia from a more objec- ena in that it experiences an objective historical process tive viewpoint. European historians, for example the and is intimately connected with the human society avant-garde California School [17], are starting to [16]. It can reasonably be concluded that law can be in- reconsider the relative status of Asia during colonial fluenced by human society and the historical events it periods [24]. Simultaneously, Chinese scholars are produces, thus providing the theoretical establishment accepting that European colonialism meant more to behind the thesis that European colonialism affected the country than just a detriment. the evolution of China’s legislation. Understood in context of the various changes in Clarification of Definitions social climate during the Qing dynasty, this article “Legal system” is a fundamental concept in legal briefly analyzes the influence of European colonial- studies. A “legal system” is defined as “a procedure
26 STIMULATING THE MODERNIZATION OF CHINA’S LEGISLATIONS: AN ESSAY ON A LEGACY OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM or process for interpreting and enforcing the law” tion as well. Written documents, such as Documents that “elaborates the rights and responsibilities in a of the Opium Wars, also supported this conclusion variety of ways” [1]. In addition, a legal system must [21]. The spread of opium addiction into the up- possess the quality of having a unique and complete per class, especially amongst government officials, maternal legal system and a certain number of sub- pinpointed opium importation as a serious threat to systems which are influenced by, and have the same the regular functioning of the society. “Candid” offi- characteristics of, that system [32]. cers who dared to bring the problem to the Emperor The term “Chinese Legal System” used here re- [27, 3257], particularly Lin Zexu and Huang Juezi, fers to a specific genealogy of legal systems. It is a proposed to deal with the problem from a legal as- legal system that evolved on the basis of Chinese pect and urged the enforcement of a series of opium feudal ideologies [31]. The Chinese legal system is bans [21, 254–247]. However, more crucial than of global significance in that it exerted a profound bans was the exposure of the inefficiency inherent influence on the judicial structures of Southeast Asia in the traditional legislation during the process of at- through the medium of the Chinese Tributary Sys- tempting to restrict opium importation by law. That tem in early periods [32]. However, though there are is to say, their ardent proposals increased the amount many components in the legal system, this paper will of attention the government gave to the problem of focus on the discussion of legislation. mass importation of opium and ultimately forced The Interaction between European Colonial- the legal reforms necessary to restrict the further ism and China’s Legislation encroachment of opium. Though European colonialism did not act di- Recorded in Documents of the Opium Wars, rectly upon Chinese legislation, several events that Huang Juezi wrote a letter to the Emperor with spe- occurred produced significant impact on the latter. cific legal implementations to ban opium importa- One such event is the importation of opium. tion by decreasing pubic consumption: As opium permeated into the upper class of the “(Note that since some of the primary sources Qing dynasty, legal action had to be taken to prevent I used are historical documents written in ancient further spread of opium-addiction. One historical Chinese and do not have English translated versions, proof that opium had indeed become an entertain- therefore I provided my own translations and marked ment among Qing government officials is a sketch these original translations with square brackets) (Al- of a 19th century opium den. The Chinese Opium though China’s opium come from colonizers (such Smokers by Thomas Allom portrays a well-orna- as England Although the correct name might have mented opium den with 12 Chinese opium-smokers been Great Britain, but since the Chinese document crowded into it [2]. Most of the people in the front directly used the word “England”, I shall adhere to the of the picture are likely peasants, judging by their original document), the colonizers themselves have clothing [30], however, magnifying the picture re- laws that would sentence those who smoke opium veals a hat on the floor, and in the very back of the to death, preventing any opium market in Europe… picture is a man wearing the same type of hat [2]. Hence, after giving one year as a buffer period, China Matching the hats with records of the Qing dress should replicate the colonizer’s legislative methods etiquette [13], it can be inferred that the hats ap- as well. A year later, anyone caught smoking opium pearing in the picture are a kind of winter hat spe- shall be sentenced to death…)” [21, 254–257]. cifically made for Qing government officials [35]. After consideration of the 28 government of- Thus, the evidence demonstrates that people of ficials’ proposals, the Emperor Daoguang adopted high social status became victims of opium addic- Huang Juezi’s idea and announced a legislation
27 Section 2. History and archaeology providing for death sentences to those found smok- would soon be repeated in other historical events, ing opium after a 1.5-year national buffer period such as the Sino-Japanese War. [21, 388]. However, under Qing dynasty legisla- As a consequence of the Opium War, the treaties tion, requests for permission for judicial offices to signed between China and the Western powers gave give death sentences had to go through the county the colonizers rights of jurisdiction. For example, the administration, the region administration, and the Supplementary Treaty of Humen between China and province administration. Permission had to be ap- Great Britain gave Great Britain the right to try British proved by all concerning government parties, in- traders who were arrested in China [26, 34–50]. Like- cluding the Emperor himself, which could take up wise, in signing the Treaty of Wangxia between China to months to complete [25, 9–15]. The cumbersome and the United States, Americans gained consular ju- process meant that every prosecution the govern- risdiction rights and the ability to apply their legisla- ment made required a large amount of time and ef- tions for cases involving the arrest, interrogation, and fort from the prosecutor. In addition, according to punishment of Americans [26, 51–57]. The ceding Qing government instructional regulations, failure of the island of Hongkong to British rule through the of government officials to complete their assigned Treaty of Nanking between China and England intro- tasks would result in penalties [15, 87]. In this case, duced the British system of law into Hongkong: district magistrates would face legal punishments if “…His Majesty the Emperor of China cedes to they could not effectively eliminate opium smokers Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., the Is- in their district, which would often be the case if the land of Hongkong…to be governed by such Laws specific legislation was to be implemented. Hence, and Regulations as Her Majesty the Queen of Great it was impractical to use death sentences as a means Britain etc., shall see fit to direct” [26, 33]. to repress mass opium importation. Due to such ceding, Hongkong adopted the Concern for the lack of efficiency of this system Common Law system used in its “mother country” was expressed in letters written to the Emperor Dao- and introduced legislation of the Common Law sys- guang by his Military Confidential Administration tem into the feudal Chinese ruling system. After the officers [21, 388]. The realization of the inconve- Opium War reduced China to a semi-feudal, semi- nience in legislated legal procedures gave way to the colonial country, various other countries, such as germination of conflicts between the absolute need France, Russia, Portugal, and Japan followed Great for opium restrictions and traditional legislation. Britain’s example and imposed their own systems of This exposed the latter’s inefficiency to the govern- law on China [15, 525–546]. ment, ultimately contributing to the actualization of The introduction of a different set of legislation legal reforms [15, 88]. Though the actual effect of into Chinese society created by the shift in jurisdic- this reform idea was far from optimistic, since the tion rights provided a medium for the Western laws Opium Wars soon commenced [15, 88], the signifi- and legislative ideologies to enter the Chinese legal cance of it in pointing out the lack of efficiency in system [29]. Although the Qing government did not Chinese legislations is undeniable. directly adopt Western legislation, the interaction In addition to the interaction stimulated by im- between Chinese society and modern legislation portation of opium, the Opium War also had an im- led to the revision of traditional Chinese legislation. pact upon the Chinese legal system. Aside from be- After the Opium War, European colonial pow- ing a major blow to Chinese sovereignty, the Opium ers became a strong threat to the Chinese feudal War initiated the direct introduction of Western leg- government [4]. In order to preserve the nominal islation into the Chinese legal system, a pattern that existence of the feudal emperor, the government
28 STIMULATING THE MODERNIZATION OF CHINA’S LEGISLATIONS: AN ESSAY ON A LEGACY OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM willingly chose to subdue to colonial pressure and key to the survival of our country. For our culture and adopt western practices. Hence, Chinese legislation our people, there is no other way out!)” [5, 11]. underwent further revision through the puppet gov- Attempts to improve the original legislations ernment under pressure from of the European colo- under the Chinese legal system by “(accepting all nial powers. An example of this is the movement of essence of legislations in the world and adopting preparatory constitutionalism. frontier theories)” stemmed from such mentality of Prompted by her desire to let “[the throne be self-improvement in reaction to colonial interven- permanently protected, and the rights of the em- tion in China [22]. As a result, multiple legislation peror be superior],” the Empress Cixi agreed to the offices were established, aiming to revise the entire proposal of preparatory constitutionalism, which Chinese legal system [36]. aimed to transform the traditional feudal power Compared to the spontaneous will for reform, a structure of China into European constitutionalism more luring bait provided to the Chinese by coloniz- [11]. Five government officials sent abroad by Em- ers was the promise of returning consular jurisdic- press Cixi [22] to investigate Japanese and European tion rights. constitutions, recommend that the first step China “(After negotiation, Great Britain, Japan, Amer- should adopt is to uphold the rule of law [22]. They ica, and Portugal agree to return their consular ju- proposed that to be able to enforce the rule of law, risdiction rights to China under the condition that the country must first improve and unify its legisla- China revise her legislations)” [10, 40]. tion [22]. As a consequence of the movement, the The opportunity of regaining these rights stirred Outline of Imperial Constitution and the Nineteen both the government’s and legal experts’ will to im- Creeds were promulgated. In these documents, Chi- prove Chinese legislation, and it served as an imme- nese legislation ended the feudal system and shifted diate catalyst for legal reform [34, 4216]. Legislation the basis of legislation from protecting the feudal offices were appointed by the government, and legal emperor to guaranteeing rights of people [32]. experts stepped out in the name of retrieving China’s Another crucial way in which European colonial- jurisdiction rights. As pro-improvement activist and ism reshaped Chinese legislations is that it provided the legal expert Shen Jiaben argued in his letter to the Chinese society with an impetus for self-improvement. Emperor: Before it came in contact with European colonizers, “(Western countries pay high attention to con- Chinese society reflected a sense of national superiority. sular jurisdiction rights…But China is deprived of The “Ten Thousand Countries Paying Tribute” paint- such rights because the Western countries consider ing, for instance, depicting countless countries coming our law as unmerciful…As I am appointed to revise to pay tribute to China and the Emperor, demonstrates legislations, I hereby state that I agree the revision the Chinese’s confidence of their political domination of legislations will yield more benefits than simply of the world [3]. However, the failures China endured acquiescing the foreigners’ blames)” [10, 40]; while confronting European colonialism impelled so- In fact, the stimulus provided by the retrieval of cial activists to reevaluate China’s actual situation. In consular jurisdiction rights produced such immedi- a letter directed to Empress Cixi, reformist Qing gov- ate results in appealing to legal reformers that many ernment officials stated their unanimous opinion after historians attribute it as the main reason for legal consideration of China’s position: reform and the modernization of legislations [14]. “(All should acknowledge that, as the national situ- The Modernization of China’s Legislations ation requires, simply mending our system cannot save The interaction with European colonialism us from misfortune any longer. Legal reform is the only pointed out to China the inherent inefficiency of the
29 Section 2. History and archaeology
Chinese legal system and stimulated a wave of legal such as not fulfilling filial piety, were written into reform. With Western legislation introduced into legislation [6]. Situations merely concerning civil China, the subsequent modifications and revisions relationships correspond to specific penal codes of the Chinese Legal System resulted in a system of [28, 16–19]. Under this system, the branch of civil law that alleviated the feudal ideology and was more law was almost completely overlooked due to the compatible with the global situation. legislations’ tendency to shift all cases to criminal From the Han Dynasty until the late Qing, Con- law [12]. Secondly, the common benefit of people fucianism was the guiding ideology behind legisla- was disregarded. For example, in Confucianism ide- tion in the Chinese legal system [31, 122]. The most ology, vengeance is encouraged: The Book of Rites important and unique influence of Confucianism stated that “(killing of one’s father must be avenged ideology on legislation was its strong emphasis on by killing the criminal)” [20]. Correspondingly, leg- morals and ethics. Confucius’ ardent declaration islation in the Qing Dynasty states that if one kills for “[once one restrains oneself and observe the ritu- vengeance, penalties must be extenuated [31, 280]. als, the world will be humane!]”, shows Confucian- The third defect is that the status of law in the society ists believed in the absolute superiority of rituals in was limited. Legislation was viewed by Confucianists the society [38, 151]. “Ritual” was originally a set as an auxiliary of morals [39]. Though in the Ming of principles of conduct aiming to sustain the patri- and Qing Dynasties, the relative status of law slightly archal clan system established in the Western Zhou increased, legislation in ancient China was still nev- Dynasty [7, 7] and it was later used to indicate all er considered as an independent binding standard principles of conduct guided by morals [38]. Hence, [39, 198]. Thus, considering its subordinacy and the Confucianists upheld the legislative ideology of Rule subjective nature of morals, the authority and fair- of Rituals, which emphasized the importance of ritu- ness of law might have been doubted by its subjects. als over law: The overemphasis of morals on legislation was “(If guided by government orders and regulated later ameliorated by the introduction of “constitu- by penalties, the common people will try to avoid tionalism” and the preparatory constitutionalism punishments but will not have a sense of shame; if movement. The Outline of Imperial Constitution guided by virtue and regulated by rituals, the com- promulgated in the movement was the very first leg- mon people will have a sense of shame and abide by islation to shift the basis of Chinese law from morals what is required of them)” [38, 61–62]. to rights and began the process of severing the ties The absorption of Confucianism legislative ide- between morals and legislation [22]. Rights of the ology into the legal system resulted in a moralization Emperor were limited to what was provided in the of legislations that was known as “the fusion of ritu- constitution.The last nine provisions in the docu- als and law.” In other words, the traditional moral and ment were specifically designed to legally guarantee ethical principles in Chinese culture were completely the rights of the common people [22]. Moreover, inosculated into the conduct principles established the organization of law codes experienced a revolu- by law; the criteria of law are exactly the same as tion in the New Penal Codes of Great Qing. It aban- those of morals [32, 7]. doned the traditional form of Chinese legislation The fusion of rituals and law brought substan- and adopted the modern European format of code tial defects to the Chinese legal system. Firstly, leg- that simplified the originally verbose structure and islation became too complicated and fragmentary, categorized civil law as a separate branch [32, 270]. consisting of cumbersome components and lacking Although the Outline of Imperial Constitution and logical organization. Violation of moral qualities New Penal Codes of Great Qing did not completely
30 STIMULATING THE MODERNIZATION OF CHINA’S LEGISLATIONS: AN ESSAY ON A LEGACY OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM resolve all the existing defects caused by the fusion legislation had three major problems: inequality of of rituals and law, they marked a critical transition law between different social statuses, inequality be- towards disconnecting legislation and rituals. tween objects of law enforcement, and inequality of Though Chinese legislation was moralized, pe- law between genders. nal codes, in stark contrast, were denounced by The ancient Chinese society inherited a tradition the colonizers as being too cruel [10, 40]. Indeed, of having stark social hierarchies from the patriarchal compared to synchronous legislation in the Euro- clan system of Western Zhou Dynasty. It was an im- pean countries, Chinese legislation during the Qing portant principle in the Chinese legal system that law dynasty represented physical cruelty. The Chinese was only strictly binding for the lower class, and not word for “penalty” is “xing,” whose original meaning so for the upper class [39, 258]. The idea of inequal- could be traced back to “battle,” “kill,” and “massacre” ity between different social statuses was reflected in [7, 7]. Thus, it is literally evident that punishments legislations. for criminals in ancient China were intended to be “(If a criminal belongs to the eight privileged physical and harsh. Penalties in the Qing Dynasty as groups, then sentencing him to death must be first written in Legislations in Great Qing included wear- consulted with the Emperor; if his crime is not so ing metal collars or chains, serious flogging, dismem- serious as to be banished, then his punishment must bering the body, banishment, and death by behead- be alleviated to a gentler level)” [33]. ing [33]. The cruelness of the penalties reflected that The privilege laws recorded by Legislations of human rights guaranteed to normal citizens under Great Qing and Investigation of Penal Codes in Past the feudal legislations were infinitesimal. The belit- Dynasties elevated the privileged groups from the tling of human rights in such legislation was out of normal legal procedures, creating inequality between step with the rest of the world and provided impe- nobilities and the common [18, 9–11]. Inequality tus for social upheavals as modern western ideolo- was perpetuated by the Rule of Rituals. Because the gies poured into the Chinese society from the gates ultimate purpose of Rule of Rituals was to preserve opened by European colonialism [18, 7–9]. When the morals of the society and its people, many of the Western legislation and modernized ideologies were legislations were made with sheer consideration of made accessible, the pro-improvement activists saw morals and none that of the objective, absolute fair- the necessity to revise the penal codes. Shen Jiaben, ness. The category of special laws regarding “Shelter- after studying the laws of other countries, proposed ing and Hiding of Relatives” is one example: the deletion of the penalties that sentenced one to “(If one accuses his/her parents or grandparents, death by dismemberment, beheading, chopping up her husband or her husband’s grandparents, he/she one’s corpse after natural death, punishing relatives shall be flogged one hundred and be imprisoned for of the criminal, and stitching ink into the flesh of the three years…)” [33]. criminal [18, 1–5]. His proposal was debated heat- This category of law clearly states that, in order edly within the Qing society and its influence was to maintain the virtue of filial piety, one must never limited by various hindrances, but the most contro- accuse one’s close relatives, regardless of whether versial legislation in the traditional Chinese legal the relative is guilty or not. Because of the varying system was exposed for alteration. range of legal fairness, this phenomenon signifies the In addition to the fusion of ritual and law and inequality between subjects of law enforcement. In- the harsh penal codes, the inequality inherent in the equality along gender lines was evident as well. In Chinese legal system was another prominent weak- one of many examples, the Legislations of Great ness that was incompatible with modern society. The Qing starkly differed in the punishment of a crimi-
31 Section 2. History and archaeology nal who killed his father from that of a criminal who of Chinese culture and caused patriotic dissenters killed his mother [33]. to argue against legal reforms. In the Qing Dynasty, Inequality in the Chinese legal system was aimed such an incompatibility caused serious discord in the mainly to preserve the feudal pyramid power struc- imperial court. ture. However, it brought the common benefit of peo- “(Government officials in all states rejected and ple under serious threat. During the period of legal attacked the new Qing penal code because they reform in the late Qing dynasty, under the influence thought it was a defiance of rituals – or specifically, of the western concept of “human rights” and “equal- that it does not have a code punishing fornicating ity,” the inequality inherent in Chinese legislations was with unmarried women)” [12]. challenged [31, 381]. Legal reformer Shen Jiaben first But it is not only a problem of past concern. The proposed to promote legal equality in his letter: question of whether China made the right decision “(The key to ruling lies in law. If law reflects in- to replicate certain Western legislation, or more gen- equality, then the faith of common people in the rul- erally, the question of whether or not China should er would be shaken…Hence, in order to pacify the imitate the patterns of more developed countries, is common people, we must first equalize all aspects of still under heated debate even today. law)” [18, 15–17]. The second aspect of incompatibility occurred He proposed specifically the implementation of within the entity of current China, or more accurately nullifying the legislation providing for privileged pro- between mainland China and Hongkong. Incompat- tection of nobilities and the trading of servants. The ibility between these two parties exists in the aspect of brainchild of Shen Jiaben’s legal reform, the Active legal systems. The bulk of China’s modern legislation Penal Code of Great Qing, fully realized his ideology belongs to the Civil Law System. During the period of [31]. Although the penal code was only active for a legal reform, China transplanted the Civil Law system short period of time in late Qing, it was substantially of France and Germany through partial replication of crucial in expressing new legislative ideologies in the the legislation system of Japan [19, 26]. The promul- critical transition period of Chinese legislation. gation of the Complete Book of Six Codes during the Significance of the Modernization period of the Republic of China marked that the Civil Because Chinese legislations incorporated many Law system was substantially integrated into China’s different bodies of law as references in the legal re- legislation [32, 276–289]. In Hongkong, on the other form movements, incompatibilities arose as conse- hand, colonial transplantation of the British system of quence. This was manifested in two ways: incom- law took place, leaving Hongkong with a legacy of the patibility between original Chinese legislation and Common Law system [26 33]. the newly introduced Western legislation, and the Although the “One Country, Two Systems” pol- incompatibility of different legal systems within con- icy of China, which preserved Hongkong as a semi- temporary China. autonomous region, guaranteed that the two legal In the process of legal reform, disputes arose in systems could coexist, the unavoidable intersections China regarding to what extent traditional legislation of the two legal systems causes problems. There are that was strongly connected with China’s culture of indeed fundamental differences between the two valuing morals and ethics be abandoned in favor of systems, from their historical origin to their preser- adopting foreign legislation. Because of the ties be- vation of liberty [9, 180–192]. The incompatibility tween traditional Chinese culture and Chinese leg- in legal systems is especially manifested in the recent islation, revision of legislation or digressions from disputes regarding the extradition bill between main- former ideologies were considered as a disregarding land China and Hongkong which forced the two sys-
32 STIMULATING THE MODERNIZATION OF CHINA’S LEGISLATIONS: AN ESSAY ON A LEGACY OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM tems of legislation to collide. In an interview by VOX, environmental resources in check. The limitation of Claudia Mo, Pro-democracy legislator of Hongkong, controlling powers on the sea directly restrained ex- protested against the recently proposed extradition ploitation of maritime environments, contributing bill, stating her disapproval of China’s legislations to the protection of environmental resources on a and legal system. Mo said, “(China), where there’s global scale. This indirect effect of European colonial no fair trial, no humane punishment, and completely expansion generates a positive influence in that it in- no separation of powers…” [23] The incompatibility creased the viability of the entire human community is intensified by the post-colonial ideological intro- and therefore raised sustainability. duced into Hongkong by the United Kingdom in an The shift from the traditional feudal Chinese effort to continue its influence on its former colony. legislation to adopting western legislative ideolo- Recorded by professional newspaperman I. Epstein gies guaranteed an elevation of human rights. Such in the 1946 Far Eastern Survey, Hongkong under an elevation is in accordance with the consolidation Britain colonization did not enjoy the freedom of of sustainability of the society. democracy, or any political rights at all: On the other hand, before the intervention of Eu- “It is indisputable that the port [Hongkong], has ropean colonialism altered Chinese legislation, there grown, under British administration, from nothing- were laws in the Qing Dynasty strictly restricting ness to a powerful material and trading position. But private-operated exploitation of environmental re- its political life is dominated by a few thousand Brit- sources. For example, documented in Legislations of ish…its citizens have no political rights and do not Great Qing, the Emperor ordered the enforcement of vote…” [8]. legislation restricting privately operated mining [33]. But after the return of Hongkong to China in Although the intention of such laws wasn’t to protect 1997, “democracy” and “human rights” that were the environment but only to stifle the development “guaranteed” by British rule became its major weap- of private enterprise, it still indirectly accomplished on against China. the protection of natural resources by limiting exploi- The modernization also raised the problem of tation. After the massive introduction of capitalism sustainability. From one view, because of maritime from European colonialism, however, such legislation expansions during European colonial period, mari- was considered unnecessary and out of date and was time environments became targets in conflicts of in- deleted accordingly. Thenceforth, economic devel- terest. Global institutions initiated international laws, opment of private enterprises had a renaissance, but specifically, the United Nations Convention on the exploitation of the environment mushroomed along Law of the Sea, to balance international powers on with it. This change in legislation rapidly deteriorated maritime environments and keep competition over the environmental resources of China. References: 1. Air Slate Legal Forms Inc // Law and Legal Definitions. US Legal. URL: https://definitions.uslegal. com/l/legal-system 2. Allom Thomas. Chinese Opium-Smokers. Retrieved from “Digital Collection” of Beinecke Rare Books and Manuscript Library. – P. 1804–1872. URL: https://brbl-zoom.library.yale.edu/viewer/1110110 3. Anonymous painter. Ten Thousand Countries Paying Tribute [万国来朝图]. Collected in the Palace Museum, Beijing. 4. Chi Yunfei, comp. Emperor Guangxu & Emperor Xuantong, Chronicles of Qing Dynasty – Vol. 12. – Beijing: People’s Publishing House. 2000. – 8643 p.
33 Section 2. History and archaeology
5. Commercial Press Compiler Office, comp. New Legislation of the Qing Dynasty 1901–1911. – V. 1. Shanghai: Commercial Press. 2010. – 831 p. 6. Compiling Group for the Qin Tomb of “Sleeping Tiger”, comp. Bamboo Slips from the Qin Tomb of “Sleeping Tiger [睡虎地秦墓竹简]. – Beijing: Cultural Relic Publishing House. 1978. 7. Editorial Committee, ed. The First Chinese Dictionary [说文解字: 最新整理全注译本] – V. 2. – Bei- jing: China Bookstore. 2010. – 2622 p. 8. Epstein I. Hongkong: Past and Present// Far Eastern Survey, – V. 15. – No. 8. 1946. – P. 113–115. 9. Hamilton P. The Civil Law and the Common Law // Harvard Law Review, – V. 36. – No. 2. 1992. – P. 180–192. DOI:10.2307/1329739. 10. Huai Xiaofeng, ed. Archives of Legal Reform in Late Qing Dynasty – V. 2. – Beijing: China University of Political Science and Law Press. 2009. – 716 p. 11. Jian Bozan & Zeng Tianting. References for the General History of China – V. 7. – Beijing: ZhongHua Book Company. 1966. – 336 p. 12. Jiang Yong. Legislation of China in the Past 50 Years // TsingHua Law Journal – V. 2. 2006. – P. 251–271. 13. Li Guoliang & Yin Chunming. Discussion of the Qing Dynasty Court Dress [清代冠服制度刍议] // Journal of Wenzhou University. – V. 23. – No. 03. 2010. – P. 85–89. 14. Li Qicheng. Consular Jurisdiction and the Reason for Legal Reform in Late Qing [领事裁判权制度与 晚清司法改革之肇端] // Comparative Law Studies, – No. 4. 2003. – P. 16–28. 15. Mao Haijian. Collapse of the Imperial China: Restudy of the Opium War. Shantou: Joint Publishing Books. 2017. – 588 p. 16. Marx Karl & Engels Friedrich & Pascal Roy. The German Ideology [Chinese Translation]. – Beijing: People’s Publishing House. 1961. – 728p. 17. Pomeranz Kenneth. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Econ- omy. Princeton N. J.: Princeton University Press. 2000. – 300 p. 18. Shen Jiaben. Investigation of Legislation: Document of Mails [历代刑法考·附寄簃文存] – V. 1. – Bei- jing: Zhonghua Book Company. 1985. – 2348 p. 19. Shen Jiaben. Investigation of Legislation: Document of Mails [历代刑法考·附寄簃文存] – V. 6. – Bei- jing: Zhonghua Book Company. 1985. – 2348 p. 20. The Book of Rites: Qu Li [礼记·曲礼] // gushiwen.com. Accessed January 4, 2020. URL: https://so.gushiwen.org/guwen/bookv_3137.aspx 21. The First Historical Archives of China. Documents of the Opium Wars. – V. 1. – Tianjin: Tianjin Ancient Books Publishing House. 1992. – 811 p. 22. The Palace Museum Collection of Ming and Qing Historical Sources. Archives of Preparatory Constitu- tionalism in Late Qing, – V. 1. – Beijing: ZhongHua Book Company. 1979. – 1074 p. 23. VOX. Hongkong’s Huge Protests, Explained. Retrieved from Transition Studies at URL: https://envi- ronmentaljusticetv.wordpress.com/2019/08/06/hong-kongs-huge-protests-explained‑2 24. Vries Peer. The California School and Beyond: How to Study the Great Divergence // History Com- pass, – V. 8. – No. 7. 2010. – P. 730–51. 25. Wang Licheng. Analysis of the Anti-Opium Policies before the Opium War [鸦片战争前夕的禁烟决 策评析] // Journal of Lanzhou University, – No. 4. 1990. – P. 9–15. 26. Wang Tieya. Collection of Ancient International Treaties between China and Foreign Countries – V. 1. Shantou: Joint Publishing House. 1957. – 2742 p.
34 STIMULATING THE MODERNIZATION OF CHINA’S LEGISLATIONS: AN ESSAY ON A LEGACY OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM
27. Wang Zhonghan. History of Qing Dynasty – V. 11. – Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 1987. – 6972 p. 28. Wu Jingxiong. Legislative Philosophy Research. – Beijing: TsingHua University Press, 2005. – 378 p. 29. Xiong Zhiyong. From the Treaty of Wangxia to the Conflict in Sino-American Diplomatic History [从‘望厦条约’的签订看中美外交史上的一次交锋] // Modern History Studies, – No. 5. 1989. – P. 5–16. 30. Yan Yong. Clothing Hierarchy of Qing Dynasty [清代服饰等级] // The Forbidden City, – No. 10. 2008. – P. 70–81. 31. Yang Honglie. History of Chinese Legal Thoughts. – Beijing: Commercial Press. 2017. – 423 p. 32. Zeng Xianyi & Zhao Xiaogeng. A Legal History of China, 5th ed: 7. – Beijing: China Renmin University Press. 2016. – 334 p. 33. Zhang Rongzheng, Liu Yongqiang and Jin Maochu, eds. Legislation of Great Qing. – Tiajin: Tianjin Clas- sics Publishing House. 1993. – 910 p. 34. Zhao Erxun, ed. Historical Records of Qing: Penalties [清史稿·刑法志]. – Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 1998. –493p. 35. Zhao Shiyan. Clothing and Hierarchy [服饰与皇权] // Master’s thesis, Tianjin University of Science and Technology. 2016. 36. Zhu Shoupeng, comp. Donghua Records of Guangxu Emperor [光绪朝东华录] – V. 4. – Beijing: Zhon- ghua Book Company. 1958. – 6048 p. 37. Zhu Xi comp. Collection of the Four Classics [四书章句集注]. – Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 2011. – 365 p. 38. Zhu Xi, comp. The Four Classics with Annotations [四书集注]. – Changsha: Yuelu Press. 2004. – 415 p. 39. Zhu Xi. Collection of Zhu Wengong [朱文公文集]. – Taipei: Commercial Press. 1979. – 128 p.
35 Section 2. History and archaeology
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-36-45 Michael Yu, is a forth former student at the Lawrenceville School in New Jersey of the United States E-mail: [email protected] THE UNITED STATES IN1942: SCARED, RACIST, AND DIVIDED Abstract. In this analysis of Japanese American Internment Camps during World War II, con- cealed and otherwise unknown features of internment camps are brought into the light. The events leading up to internment, during internment, and even after internment are all scrutinized closely as to their relations to racism and discrimination. Additionally, the dark side of American culture is ex- posed through the careful ciphering of information regarding the treatment and lives of the Japanese Americans in the internment camps. This paper ultimately reveals what life was like for the Japanese Americans following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and their experiences with American racism. Keywords: Japanese and American in World II, Pearl Harbor, Japanese internment camps. On December 7th, 1941, the Imperial Japanese While the response of the U.S government to Pearl Navy Air Service launched a surprise attack on the Harbor is seen today as a violation of American rights, naval base at Pearl Harbor, causing the deaths of 2.403 in 1944, Americans strongly supported the ostensibly people [15]. The attack ignited feelings of racism and strategic actions the government took to ensure safety fear that were already deeply rooted within the hearts nation-wide. In the days following Pearl Harbor, the of Americans. Following the attacks, President Roo- United States formally declared war on Japan and en- sevelt issued Executive Order 9066, which stripped tered World War II as an allied power. Many Americans away the rights of Japanese Americans. This enabled believed that any Japanese American in their commu- the military to forcibly relocate 110.000 Japanese nities could be a potential spy. For this reason, many Americans residing on the West Coast to the midwest. Americans believed that it was in the nation’s best in- Upon their arrival, they were instantly ostracized and terest to relocate Japanese Americans to internment expelled from local communities, leaving them with camps where they could be monitored and eventually no place to go. Their daily lives began to change before released back into society if they were deemed loyal. A their eyes as they realized that American citizens had poll issued by the American Institute of Public Opin- begun discriminating against them without hesitation. ion following the attacks on Pearl Harbor stated that Following their immediate rejection from the mid- 93% of Americans agreed that “Japanese aliens” should west, the military ordered the Japanese Americans to be relocated [14]. A further “59%” believed that even move into temporary assembly centers, which eventu- those who were citizens should be relocated [14]. This ally led to their transfer into internment camps. These popular opinion, alongside the government’s appar- camps were packed full of Japanese Americans who ent desire to preserve the safety of the nation, pro- were interned for crimes they had never been con- vided an opportune moment to relocate the Japanese. victed of. Although the U.S government’s response to However, it was truly the buried feelings of racism and Pearl Harbor appears to be strategic on a surface level, fear that sparked this unconstitutional use of federal in actuality, it represents and demonstrates the level of power. With the momentum of American support, contemporary American racism. the government was able to relocate 110.000 Japanese
36 THE UNITED STATES IN1942: SCARED, RACIST, AND DIVIDED
Americans. Additionally, while it appeared to society how the Japanese Americans had gone from living that the government did this out of their sense of duty normal, American lives to being persecuted and seg- towards maintaining national security, upon deeper regated overnight. Americans became scared of and analysis, the decision reveals the fragility amongst the persecuted those who they had grown up with, gone American people and the complete lack of a cohesive to school with, and even worked with. This racist re- society. Over a period of a few days, American citizens action, which had stemmed from a desire for security, went from being brothers and sisters with those in caused the Japanese to react with demonstrations of their communities to being outright shunned and de- their fidelity to the state and its principles. However, nounced as traitors who did not belong. This fragility the notion of security was only a surface-level reason reveals the inherent sentiment of fear and racism that for the suddenly racist attitudes toward the Japanese. was so deeply rooted in society. A catastrophic event In reality, it was the Americans’ collective, underly- was necessary to bring this latent feeling to the surface. ing fear of cultural diversity that caused this reaction. The U.S government’s response to the attacks on Despite the desperate pleas of Japanese Americans, Pearl Harbor stripped Japanese American’s of their they were nevertheless vacated from their homes and identities and subjected them to racism from the forced to abandon their lives. public. Immediately following Pearl Harbor, many The mass relocation of Japanese Americans into American lost faith in the image of the perfect soci- internment camps was facilitated through the War ety that they had previously accepted. Out of fear, Relocation Authority (WRA). The WRA was a civil- they accepted a revised notion of America, one that ian agency “created to care for the excluded popula- was based on cultural homogeneity rather than di- tion” following the issue of Executive Order 9066 versity. Therefore, they supported the government’s [11]. Its primary purpose was to plan and construct racist response. Following Executive Order 9066, the internment camps for the Japanese to live in Japanese Americans’ sudden loss of rights led to “Jap- through the duration of the war. Through its plan- anese owned restaurants being boycotted, businesses ning and preparation of these camps, the WRA even- being vandalized, and other Japanese-American- tually constructed eight different internment camps. owned property being destroyed” [13]. Some lost However, simply relocating the Japanese into these their homes, stores, farms, and other prized posses- camps was not the only purpose for the WRA. With- sions that they had dedicated their lives working for. in the camps, an additional purpose of the WRA was A famous photograph taken in Oakland, California, “to set up functioning communities behind barbed the day after the attacks, displays the instantaneous wire, [establish] educational programs, recreation effects on race that the attack unleashed [12]. The facilities, newspapers, and other elements of com- photograph depicts a Japanese American-owned munity life” [11]. It was tasked with the responsibil- restaurant struggling amidst the aftermath of Pearl ity of re-creating the lives of the Japanese Americans Harbor. The photograph shows the restaurant with and providing them with as much of a normal life the phrase “I am American” on its storefront win- as possible. The WRA accomplished this by creating dow, which demonstrates the severity of the racism institutions to resemble those of the outside world, and the pleading that Japanese Americans had to go such schools and shops. This was an enormous task, through in desperate attempts to convince society seeing as it had to create brand-new communities that they too were American [12]. Phrases of this that would function cohesively despite the com- kind were also used in order to distance themselves munities being made up of Japanese Americans from the growing suspicion that they were not pa- who had been discriminated against and forced to triotic. Additionally, the photograph demonstrates relocate. Additionally, the WRA was responsible
37 Section 2. History and archaeology for creating jobs and designating certain salaries for after internment provides glaring evidence that the na- each of those jobs. The WRA ingeniously utilized tion only cared about preserving a culturally-Amer- the detainees “to perform most tasks in the camps. ican nation. The urgency with which the Japanese Employees were paid a flat rate of $14 per month Americans were forced to move with demonstrates for ordinary work, and capped at $19 per month for the government’s desire for society to believe that this doctors and dentists, “a scale deliberately set lower was a matter of national security. The government than the minimum pay for American GIs” [11]. The wanted to convey the idea that they had to be moved WRA was able to efficiently structure and construct immediately in order to secure the western states from the communities by utilizing the detained Japanese potential threats of spies and further attacks. However, Americans to manage and run daily life in the camps. the fact that the public response openly used deroga- Through its formation, the WRA was responsible for tory terms and filthy language to harass the Japanese managing nearly everything related to the Japanese shows that the appearance of security was just that: an American detainees inside of the internment camps. appearance. It was masking the true, underlying senti- Amid the tension between the American and Jap- ment of racism. The racism itself was a cover for taking anese races following Pearl Harbor, President Roos- away property, stores, and accelerating the process of evelt and the military decided to forcibly and rapidly taking away the Japanese. The event of pearl harbor relocate the Japanese Americans. They had been giv- created a perfect opportunity for the Japanese to be en “six days to wrap up their lies and deal with their taken away under the pretense of security. The racism property before reporting with only what they could ultimately disenfranchised them and took away their carry to temporary assembly centers” [9]. Six days human and economic value, revealing the underlying to completely wrap up an entire life before moving racist values that society had tried to keep suppressed into a prison illuminates the dehumanizing ordeals but ultimately failed to do so. that Japanese Americans experienced. They were not Despite the underlying suspicion the govern- given the time to properly handle their expenses and ment had, it still attempted to replicate the daily lives assets. Japanese Americans were forced to sell their of Japanese Americans in order to make them feel as “houses..farms, stores, and restaurants, hurriedly and if they were not in prison. In the camps, the govern- at steep discounts, often for pennies on the dollar” to ment allowed interned Japanese Americans to open Americans who came in from across the country [2]. schools, churches, farms, and newspapers. Sports In effect, the rapid liquidation of Japanese-American were also introduced to unite interned communities assets provided a great opportunity for reabsorbing and “recapture a small part of their pre-war lives” [3]. and expanding wealth. Americans saw this as a gold- These newly-established institutions served a higher en opportunity for economic benefit. Without caring ideological function that was not realized by both the for what was happening to the Japanese, Americans American public and the interned Japanese. While quickly bought up their property for “pennies on the unknown to the public and the internees, these in- dollar,” oftentimes leaving the Japanese Americans stitutions were supported by implied values of what with nothing in their names; more significantly, they it meant to be American. In the schools, Japanese would return to their former lives following intern- American children learned standard American cur- ment with nothing, and would be forced to restart riculum, alongside the social codes of the country [2]. Americans had essentially discovered a method and how to be a loyal citizen; due to this, schools of converting their racist views of the Japanese into a became centers for re-education in order to influ- prosperous economic venture. The government’s lack ence the young minds of the Japanese Americans of care for the well-being of the Japanese Americans and turn them against their motherland to create
38 THE UNITED STATES IN1942: SCARED, RACIST, AND DIVIDED loyal American citizens. Additionally, sports served rest of the country that its policy was justified, and an institutional purpose by promoting teamwork, a that those Japanese Americans forced to live in the collective identity, and competitiveness. It gave the internment camps were happy” [9]. In this video, interned Japanese Americans an outlet for their emo- the government showed only the seemingly happy tions; but, in actuality, sports were also introduced parts of camp life, ensuring a lopsided public display with deeper intentions. The government manipu- of the conditions and emotional strain faced by the lated the values within sports to change Japanese interned Japanese. The depiction of the Japanese as Americans’ beliefs about their communities. This carefree within the camps came with the goal of re- directed their loyalty towards American beliefs and moving any doubt about mistreatment and abuse. induced a sense of competition against their home Moreover, the government was eager to show that country. These were the true goals the American lives within the internment camps “took on a sem- government pursued and were not realized by many blance of normality” [9]. It was determined to con- of the interned Japanese and American people. As a vince the public that the American values which it nation, Americans believed that the response to Pearl represented were still upheld within the internment Harbor was appropriate given that it occurred dur- camps. It wanted to demonstrate that life was not ing a time of crisis. Furthermore, they believed that much different from the outside world. As stated in Japanese Americans were being given opportunities the video, “[the government] set the standard for the within the camps to recreate their lives. However, in rest of the world in the treatment of people who may reality, the government was able to mask its true in- have loyalties to an enemy nation. We are protecting tentions of reeducating the Japanese by portraying ourselves without violating the principles of Chris- the existence of these institutions as methods of rep- tian decency” [9]. A basic understanding would licating the former lives of the Japanese Americans. show that this belief of the government established In effect, it is impossible to say that the facilities the idea that the Japanese Americans were a potential were provided by the government out of goodwill. threat to the security of the United States. However, The government wanted nothing to mar the image on a deeper and more technical note, the quote ex- of America as a perfect society with infinite oppor- presses the notion that American values are greater tunities and welcoming arms for all. At the time, than those of the Japanese. Furthermore, it called the American economy was driven by the steady upon religion as a way for justifying this act through influx of immigrants looking for opportunities to its belief that it was justified because their actions did make something out of their lives. The government not “[violate] the principles of Christian decency” understood the importance of this immigrant labor [9]. Essentially, the American government justified and did not want to be perceived as immoral and what was a racist act with references to American nationalistic following its decision to intern people value, their security, and religious beliefs. It drew of foreign races. Concerned about global opinion on its persona as a Chirstian nation, supported by surrounding its actions, the government understood liberal values, in order to justify its racist policies. that the internment of the Japanese had to be done Additionally, the government wanted to portray the with caution and in a manner that appeared to be video in a manner that would demonstrate the fun- beneficial to both parties. This suggests that the gov- damental values of America in hopes that the Axis ernment attempted to replicate life for the Japanese powers would treat their prisoners of war in the same Americans in the camps to protect the nation’s per- way. It said that “we are protecting ourselves,” further fect image. Additionally, in a U.S. propaganda film showing the idea that the government was portray- from 1942, the government attempted to “assure the ing their relocation of the Japanese with the basic be-
39 Section 2. History and archaeology lief of national security. The internment camps were tion. With the Japanese Americans out of the picture, utilized to demonstrate to the world that the United Americans would be one step closer to a culturally- States was treating its interned prisoners kindly by uniform nation. providing them with adequate necessities to live a In spite of widespread racism that allowed Ameri- comfortable life. cans to not only accept the internment of Japanese Americans believed that the relocation of Japa- Americans but to take pleasure in it, some Americans nese Americans was in the best interest of both par- stood up for their beliefs and the rights of all citizens. ties. In their minds, the ordinary lives of Japanese These Americans observed the racism that was evolv- American would be preserved in the internment ing in society and decided to take action and speak up camps. At the same time, American citizens would for those who had no voice. A woman wrote to the no longer need to worry about the threat of spies and Post Intelligencer stating that “there was a prejudiced would move one step closer to a culturally-American and [unreasoned] attempt underway in the country nation. According to this way of thinking, Japanese to spearhead a movement to make this a ‘white man’s Americans would experience less racism and segre- country’” [5]. Her courage to speak against the com- gation because they would be confined to homog- mon social belief shows that not all Americans were enized communities, rather than interspersed in the willing to abandon the values that the country was broader population. Additionally, American citizens founded upon. She expressed the belief that the mass believed that the interned Japanese would have the removal of the Japanese was based on racism and was opportunity to obtain jobs that might not be avail- unreasonable. She spoke against the anti-diversity able to them in the outside world because of compe- campaign that was ravaging through American soci- tition with white Americans. Americans collectively ety. This campaign showed the distinction between believed that interment benefited the Japanese as a the guise of security and the actual racist ideology way of justifying their own implicit racism and fear. through which the cover was supported. The rac- Despite their apparent concern, society did not truly ism was not a fabrication of reality or a product of care about the well-being of Japanese Americans. In hindsight. It was available to those who saw it in their a letter to the editor in theSeattle Post Intelligencer, time; some saw it for what it truly was, and were not one American woman echoed the majority belief of okay with it. Those who spoke against the process of Americans: “it was a joy to be able to pass about the internment exemplified core American values in the marketplaces without having to hear the monkey-like face of politicians who were unnerved by the realiza- jabber of a lot of Japs” [5]. Her blatantly racist tone tion that America had become too diverse and there- towards the Japanese Americans demonstrates the fore needed immediate restructuring to preserve its belief that they were inferior to Americans because cultural and political nature. of their cultural differences. The derogatory terms The dehumanizing living conditions that were and phrases strongly support a racist view against forced upon the Japanese Americans illuminates the Japanese. Additionally, her instant disregard of the extent and power of American racism. Japanese other languages demonstrates how the country’s val- American families were herded into tiny rooms which ues of inclusion and equality were being completely were “about ten by twenty feet and empty except for abandoned. America’s desire to be free from cultural three folded army cots on the floor. Dust, dirt, and diversity suggests that the country was motivated wood shavings covered the linoleum that had been more by fear of outsiders than a need for security. laid over manure-covered boards” [12]. The Ameri- Americans were selfish, racist, and ultimately only can government simply did not even care enough to cared about maintaining a culturally-American na- relocate them into housing for human beings. Instead,
40 THE UNITED STATES IN1942: SCARED, RACIST, AND DIVIDED through the government’s racist views, they chose to “An elderly man attempted to flee and was shot and forcibly remove the Japanese Americans from their killed” [6]. The guards did not hesitate to kill Japa- homes and send them off to small shacks that were nese American internees if they disobeyed the camp’s meant for animals. The descriptions that Japanese rules and regulations. Society saw the Japanese as Americans provided following the war demonstrates aliens who would never be humans, much less Ameri- the undeniable similarities of their living condition to cans. Their maltreatment further demonstrates that those of animals. The “wood shavings…and manure- national security was just a cover for the government covered” floors demonstrate how animals formerly to relocate the Japanese and subject them to unpar- occupied this area – Japanese Americans were com- alleled racism and discrimination, the true reasoning pletely dehumanized through their living conditions behind internment. Regardless of the circumstances, [12]. Additionally, the miniscule space of “ten by the government’s go-to response for dealing with all twenty feet” in which entire families were expected problems Japanese-related was violence. Essentially, to live in resembles the small and compact enclosures it was an extension of American racism which mani- that farm animals experienced [12]. The space was fested in denying the humanity and nationality of the by no means suited for human residence. Japanese people that were being interned. Americans had to sleep on army cots on the floor just Job salaries in the internment camps were a prime a few inches away from the manure that covered the example of the extent and reach that racism had on floors. Their relocation deprived them of what, at that the Japanese American community. The internes were time, would have been considered to be the standard paid monthly by means of the WRA, which provided for living conditions: a simple bed frame and mattress numerous job opportunities for interested Japanese to provide comfort. This was a very dark chapter in Americans. Upon their immersion into the commu- American history because it illustrates how easy it is nity of the camps, Japanese Americans took up these for a group to be bestialized and treated as if they were jobs in order to earn money to provide basic goods, mere animals. In effect, American racism dehuman- such as food and clothes, for their families. At first, ized Japanese Americans and subjected them to hor- they were not paid because Americans did not ap- rendous living conditions. prove of Japanese Americans having the opportunity Within the internment camps, the Japanese to make money since the internees were perceived Americans experienced incredibly dehumanizing by society as traitors and spies. However, in order to treatment. The camps were “surrounded by armed maintain positive and a seemingly humanitarian rep- guards and barbed-wire fences,” creating an overarch- utation amidst the international community, the U.S. ing sense of fear amongst the Japanese [1]. They were government decided to provide paying jobs within forced to live within the confines of the fences and the camps. These jobs ranged from “journalists…ca- had to do what was told of them by the guards or face shiers [in stores]…cooks… (and) carpenters” [4]. consequences. The idea of violence was embedded Much to the surprise for Japanese Americans, their in the very structure of the internment camps. This pay no matter what job they had “[did not] exceed architecture of penalizing structures that these camps that of an Army private” [9]. Army privates at the time were built from illuminates that it was not only there had some of the lowest paying salaries because of the to house people, but to violently control, manipulate, millions of Americans that were enlisting to help fight and punish them. Hidden from the public, the camps the war cause. Many of the Japanese Americans previ- provided the government with the unique opportu- ously held much higher paying jobs that allowed for nity to unleash its anger regarding Pearl Harbor upon more comfortable and luxurious lifestyles. However, the innocent, Japanese Americans. In one instance, inside of the camps, reality instantly changed: they
41 Section 2. History and archaeology were paid next to nothing. Much like the removal productive complications” [5]. If an American were to of the Japanese was made under the false pretenses experience reproductive or fertility complications as of security, the limited job pay was presented as an a result of working these dangerous jobs, the Ameri- opportunity to make a living even while being de- can economy would lose a bit of value that would be tained. In reality, this was a direct result of the rac- compounded over time as the potential generations ism that provided the structure for American society of children would cease to exist. This would lead to and the government. The decision for limited pay enormous unrealized economic consequences in the was made through the influence of American racism future. Therefore, the government found it beneficial for foreigners, which kept the wheels spinning in an to use the Japanese aliens to do this work. Moreover, endless cycle of persecution against foreigners. The by allowing the Japanese Americans to work in jobs American government effectively absorbed labor at that benefitted the war cause, the government was a cheaper cost by allowing the Japanese Americans able to maximize the country’s production output. to have jobs. They were able to increase profit mar- If Japanese Americans were to not make these items gins and generate more income because of the low such as camo nets, Americans would have to be relo- salaries of the internees. In essence, the implementa- cated from their current jobs to contribute towards tion of structuralized racism within the internment making them. However, since the Japanese Americans camps enabled the government to exploit the Japa- were forced to work this job, Americans were able to nese Americans at an economic level. Job salaries perform other tasks to benefit the country’s economy. within the internment camps exemplified the reach Additionally, each of the Japanese Americans working and power that American racism had on the lives of these dangerous jobs were paid at considerably lower the Japanese Americans. rates than normal Americans working their jobs would Despite the misconception that Japanese Ameri- be paid. This enabled the government to allocate ad- cans benefited from the jobs they were given, in reality, ditional capital towards other ventures and war-time they were often exploited for labor at the economic efforts instead of paying the Japanese more money. benefit of the United States. While Japanese Americans Through the economic exploitation of internment la- were indeed paid for their work, many of the physical bor, the American government was effectively able to labor tasks required grueling amounts of work in poor reduce its costs at producing goods and maximize the conditions. For instance, “[Japanese Americans] as- countries production output. signed to work on the camo net project lacked proper At the end of World War II, Japanese Americans facemasks, which led them to suffer chemical burns, were terrified to return to their former lives because pneumonia, and fertility and reproductive complica- the latent racism of American society had been re- tions” [5]. The Japanese Americans were assigned to vealed. Despite spending the duration of the war liv- many of the dangerous jobs during the war. While they ing meagerly inside of the internment camps, “general were paid for these jobs, they were clearly exploited hostility made some Japanese Americans fearful of by the American government for economic purposes. leaving the camps and re-entering U.S society” [10]. The American government believed Japanese Ameri- Before they had left for the internment camps, Japa- cans held less social value than an American did; due nese Americans had clearly seen how the American to this, it would be an economically prosperous deci- public felt about them. They knew that even after the sion to capitalize on the opportunity to use an under- war over, the racism that Americans had for them valued worker to perform a dangerous job in order to would not simply just fade away. Discrimination and avoid potentially harming the socio-economic value segregation would persist following the war. Back in of an American through injuries and “fertility and re- the former communities of the Japanese Americans,
42 THE UNITED STATES IN1942: SCARED, RACIST, AND DIVIDED
“community leaders, especially [those] in the Pacific secuted and forced into detention centers because Coast states, resisted Japanese settling in their com- of their citizenship, race and ethnicity remains the munities. Graffiti of racial slurs and threatening physi- driving factor behind their forced relocation. Just like cal harm appeared on buildings. Hostile signs placed the Japanese Americans, the color of the immigrants’ in store and [on] cafe windows announced [that] Japa- skin and their hereditary status influences society’s nese [persons] would not be served” [10]. It was as if degradatory views towards them. Additionally, the the Japanese Americans’ worst fears had come true. conditions of these detention centers are utterly Although the war was over, their lives could never be dehumanizing and sometimes worse than those of the same again. They simply were not accepted back the internment camps. Inside the detention centers, with welcoming arms. For those who elected to go “parents and children have been held for days, weeks, back to their homes, it was made abundantly clear or even months in cramped spaces, sometimes with through Americans’ use of racism that they were not no access to soap, toothpaste, or places to wash their welcome. Americans used everything in their power hands or shower” [8]. Clearly, migrants are deprived to bar the Japanese Americans from American com- of basic necessities that even the Japanese Americans munities. This bore a slight resemblance to how the had access to in the internment camps. This is appall- Japanese Americans were treated during their reloca- ing. Despite the Japanese Americans being detainees tion into internment camps. At first, they were forcibly during a time of war, these migrants are being held taken from communities in an attempt to isolate the in horrendous conditions during an era of prosperity Japanese and keep them under the eye of the Ameri- and growth. This goes to show that America’s racial can government. Ironically, after their release into so- tensions have not improved since World War II. In ciety, the Japanese Americans were still isolated, only fact, it may have gotten even worse. in a different way. They were barred from communi- Migrants in the detention centers are forcibly re- ties, almost as if the communities had set up imaginary located based on their ethnicity and migrant status. walls to prevent the Japanese Americans from settling These factors ultimately boil down to race, which down there. American, through their racism, wanted causes their deprivation of basic necessities and an op- to show the Japanese that they had to leave and never portunity to prosper within the borders of the United come back. The isolation of the Japanese Americans States. Thus, the government is targeting minority from American communities seemingly gave the groups. This is similar to what occurred with the Japa- Americans a false sense of security, when, in reality, nese Americans after Pearl Harbor, in what appears to their decisions to keep the Japanese Americans from be a racial cleansing of any unwanted ethnic groups American communities was fueled through racism. that do not fit with the image of a perfect American Despite the Japanese Americans’ desire to be accepted society. These conditions are so dehumanizing that into society, American racism had persisted through- even children are dying – something that rarely hap- out the war, and affected the lives of the Japanese pened in the internment camps. Yazmin Juarez and Americans at every turn. her daughter, Mariee, who was 19 months old, were Shockingly, present-day treatment of migrants released from the ICE detention center after 10 days. in detention centers along the US-Mexico border During those 10 days, Mariee developed a viral respi- bears a striking resemblance to that of the Japanese ratory infection and “was hospitalized for six weeks… Americans in internment camps. Like Japanese- [however] ‘all of the hard work of these doctors came American before them, migrants are “[deprived] too late,’ Juarez said, ‘Mariee died on what is Mother’s of liberty for migration-related reasons” [7]. While Day in my country. When I walked out of the hospital these immigrants from foreign countries are per- that day, all I had with me was a piece of paper with
43 Section 2. History and archaeology
Mariee’s handprints in pink paint” [8]. The conditions for animals; This only furthered the dehumanization in these centers are so dehumanizing that simply be- of the Japanese Americans. Japanese Americans could ing there for a little over a week can cause death. This not even escape racism during their daily lives in the is shocking, considering that some people have spent internment camps. Their situation was exploited by months there, and are lucky to be alive given this no- the American government, which used the Japanese tion. Despite the best efforts of doctors, Mariee could for economic gain while they struggled to survive on not be saved from the brink of death because of the a day-to-day basis. Ultimately, even after the govern- severe effects that the detention center had on her ment allowed them to leave the internment camps, health. Interestingly enough, when Mariee’s mother Japanese Americans still experienced American rac- begged for “deeper exams…they (the detention fa- ism. They were cursed out of their former communities cility’s medical staff) sent us back to our room” [8]. and barred from coming back, causing some Japanese Thisfurther demonstrates the mistreatment of the im- Americans to not even want to leave the internment migrants. Inside of the internment camps, the intern- camps. Shockingly, they would rather stay inside of the ees had access to basic healthcare in order to maintain internment camps than attempt to return to their for- their physical well-being. However, in these detention mer lives. What’s even more striking is that compared centers, professional doctors are completely ignoring to the present-day treatment of illegal immigrants, the life-threatening illnesses. This illuminates the fact Japanese Americans appeared to be living modestly. that these immigrants are being isolated from society This illuminates that American racism has not quelled based upon racial prejudice. Ultimately, the present- since World War II, in fact, it has only proceeded to be- day treatment of migrants in detention centers is far come worse and more degrading towards the victims worse than that of the Japanese Americans in the in- of discrimination. Ultimately, American racism has ternment camps because of the intensified racism and completely dehumanized the ethnic groups that have discrimination that is targeted at the migrants. fallen victim to it. While we might understandably be Despite the strategic appearance of the U.S gov- afraid of outsiders and “caravans of people” arriving at ernment’s response to Pearl Harbor, in reality, its in- our countries borders, we are truly only afraid because ternment of the Japanese Americans symbolizes the we have been educated by the politicians of the pres- degree of racism that was embedded in American soci- ent to fear that. However, it is crucial for our nation ety. Japanese Americans were discriminated against as and world’s future to never succumb to this fear again. a result of racist American beliefs following the attacks Now, we are faced with an issue that bears a striking on Pearl Harbor. This quickly gave the government the resemblance to one of the darkest moments of our na- opportunity to use the pretense of national security to tion’s past, and it is critical that we learn from our past forcibly relocate the Japanese Americans; in actuality, mistakes to develop as a society. Just as many of us to- this happened because of the xenophobic views of day have looked at the events that unfolded following both American government and society. Furthermore, Pearl Harbor with disgust and astonishment, we are yet American racism eventually resulted in the conditions again faced with a moment of migrant crisis that future of the internment camps being similar to those meant generations may look back on with outrage. References: 1. Bannai L. K. (2008). Japanese American Internment. In D. S. Tanenhaus (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Su- preme Court of the United States. – Vol. 3. – P. 7–12. – Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved from URL: http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3241200501/UHIC?u=lawr21149&sid=UHIC &xid=723e5006
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2. Behind the Wire. “Immigration – Japanese.” Library of Congress. URL: https://www.loc.gov/teachers/ classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/immigration/alt/japanese4.html/ Ac- cessed: August 7, 2019. 3. Chapman Stephanie, Nicole Sobota Keener and Courtney Whitemore. “Prisoners at Home: Everyday Life in Japanese Internment Camps.” DIgital Public Library of America. Last modified July 2015. URL: https://dp.la/exhibitions/japanese-internment/ Accessed: April 30, 2019. 4. DPLA. “Prisoners at Home: Everyday Life in Japanese Internment Camps.” Digital Public Library of America. URL: https://dp.la/exhibitions/japanese-internment/employment/types/ Accessed: August, 11, 2019. 5. Hinnershitz Stephanie Dawn. “Lessons From the Incarceration and Forced Labor of Japanese Americans During World War Ii.” Scholars Strategy Network. Last modified May 30, 2018. URL: https://scholars. org/brief/lessons-incarceration-and-forced-labor-japanese-americans-during-world-war-ii/ Accessed: August 11, 2019. 6. History. com. “Japanese Internment Camp.” History. Last modified April 15, 2019. URL: https://www. history.com/topics/world-war-ii/japanese-american-relocation#section_9/ Accessed: May 1, 2019. 7. International Detention Coalition. “What Is Immigration Detention?” International Detention Coalition. URL: https://idcoalition.org/about/what-is-detention/ Accessed: August 17, 2019. 8. Joung Madeline. “What Is Happening at Migrant Detention Centers? Here’s What to Know.” TIME. Last modified July 10, 2019. URL: https://time.com/5623148/migrant-detention-centers-conditions/ Accessed: August 17, 2019. 9. Mcneary Allison. “U.S Propoganda Film Shows ‘Normal’ Life in WWII Japanese Internment Camps.” History. Last modified February 19, 2019. URL: https://www.history.com/news/japanese-american- internment-camps-wwii/ Accessed: April 30, 2019. 10. “Okubo, Mine.” In Primary Sources, – P. 155–167. – Vol. 4. of Prejudice in the Modern World Reference Library. Detroit, MI: UXL, 2007. Global Issues in Context URL: http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/ CX2831400096/GIC?u=lawr21149&sid=GIC&xid=513c9f75/ Aaccessed: April 29, 2019. 11. Robinson Greg. “War Relocation Authority.” Densho Encyclopedia. URL: https://encyclopedia.densho. org/War%20Relocation%20Authority/ Accessed: August 10, 2019. 12. Staff Bio. “Japanese Internment Camp Survivors: In Their Own Words (PHOTOS).” Biography. URL: https://www.biography.com/news/japanese-internment-survivors-stories‑75th-anniversary-photos/ Last modified February 15, 2017. 13. “Stanley Jerry.” In Primary Sources, edited by Barbara C. Bigelow, George Feldman, Christine Slovey, and Kelly King Howes, – P. 85–95. – Vol. 4. of World War II Reference Library. Detroit, MI: UXL, 2000. Global Issues in Context URL: http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3411800094/GIC?u=lawr21 149&sid=GIC&xid=0b758692/ Accessed: April 28, 2019. 14. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Americans and the Holocaust.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. URL: https://exhibitions.ushmm.org/americans-and-the-holocaust/main/us- public-opinion-on-japanese-internment‑1942/ Accessed: May 4, 2019. 15. Visit Pearl Harbor.org. “How many people died at Pearl Harbor during the attack?” Pearl Harbor Visitors Bureau. URL: https://visitpearlharbor.org/faqs/how-many-people-died-at-pearl-harbor-during-the- attack/ Accessed: May 1, 2019.
45 Section 2. History and archaeology
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-46-52 Minenko Lyudmyla Mykolayivna, postgraduate student in specialty 032 “History and Archeology” National academy of managerial staff of culture and arts, E-mail: [email protected] APPLIED ASPECTS OF THE MUSEUM HEURISTICS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MILITARY-HISTORY OF UKRAINE IN THE PERIOD1995–2013 Abstract. The purpose of the article is a research of the influence of the chosen model of the heu- ristic museum search system on the efficiency of completing of the stocks of the National Museum of Military History of Ukraine in the period 1995–2013. The scientific novelty is the establishment of the peculiarities of the processes of scientific completing of the stocks under the influence of dis- ciplinary and cognitive museum heuristics. Keywords: National Museum of Military History of Ukraine; scientific completing of the stocks; model of the heuristic museum search system; museum heuristics; disciplinary museum heuristics; cognitive museum heuristics. Миненко Людмила Николаевна, Национальная академия руководящих кадров культуры и искусств, аспирантка по специальности 032 «История и археология» E-mail: [email protected] ПРИКЛАДНЫЕ АСПЕКТЫ МУЗЕЙНОЙ ЭВРИСТИКИ НАЦИОНАЛЬНОГО ВОЕННО-ИСТОРИЧЕСКОГО МУЗЕЯ УКРАИНЫ В ПЕРИОД 1995–2013 ГГ Аннотация. Целью статьи является исследование влияния выбранной модели системы эв- ристического музейного поиска на эффективность комплектования фондов Национального военно-исторического музея Украины в период 1995–2013 годов. Научной новизной является установление особенностей процессов научного комплектования фондов под влиянием дис- циплинарной и познавательной музейной эвристики. Ключевые слова: Национальный военно-исторический музей Украины; научное комплек- тование фондов; модель системы эвристического музейного поиска; музейная эвристика; дис- циплинарная музейная эвристика; познавательная музейная эвристика. Необходимость усовершенствования меха трансгрессией общества и переходом к рыноч- низма функционирования музейной сферы ным отношениям [3]. Известно, что функциями в Украине определяется условиями интеграции музеев является выявление, сбор и пополнение в европейский и мировой музейный простор, фондов культурными ценностями, их исследова-
46 APPLIED ASPECTS OF THE MUSEUM HEURISTICS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MILITARY-HISTORY OF UKRAINE IN THE PERIOD1995–2013
ние и сохранение, создание на их основе экспо- ния, в то время Музея Вооруженных Сил Украины. зиций и выставок. Названные функции являются Верхняя хронологическая граница – фиксирует характерными формами сохранения и популя- историческую веху музея и шести его филиалов ризации национальной истории, просвещения в статусе Национального. Это был период устой- и гуманистическо-воспитательной деятельности чивого развития, что, по нашему убеждению, дает среди граждан, реализуемых через различные возможность объективно оценить полученные процессы музейного научного поиска, одним достижения, проанализировать условия полу- из важных элементов которого выступает «му- чения положительных результатов. Кроме того, зейная эвристика» [5]. В настоящее время «му- верхняя хронологическая граница принята во вни- зейная эвристика» еще не стала объектом само- мание из-за трансгрессивных событий в Украине стоятельного научного исследования. Труды по в 2013–2014 годах, когда территория Автономной изучению «музейной эвристики» представлены Республики Крым, где функционировали два фили- в малом количестве, поэтому целостной теории ала НВИМУ в г. Севастополе, была аннексирова- по этому новому научному направлению еще на Российской Федерацией. Сегодня информация не выработано [4]. Однако, этот инструмента- о дальнейшей судьбе этих филиалов неизвестна. рий активно используется музеями при научном К тому же, в середине 2013 года произошла смена комплектовании собственных фондов, который руководящего состава музея, что привело к измене- представляет собой непрерывные процессы вы- ниям приоритетов его деятельности. Источнико- явления во внешней среде предметов музейного вой базой исследования стали регуляторные акты значения и их сбора [6]. Постоянное обновление государственных учреждений, регламентирующих фондов историческими ценностями служит важ- музейную деятельность, ведомственные норма- нейшим фактором обеспечения жизнедеятель- тивно-правовые документы, а также внутренние ности музея. При этом выявление и сохранение документы музея (документальный фонд музея), культурной информации о музейных предметах, научные издания НВИМУ. ее критический анализ, с точки зрения правдиво- Теоретическое обоснование и практическое сти и достоверности, и последующее построение использование термина «музейная эвристика» экспозиций, и выставок, с подачей провенанса му- в своей научной работе рассмотрели украинские зейного предмета в историческом контексте, яв- ученые В. Карпов, Ж. Денисюк, А. Збанацкая [4]. ляется основой музейной эвристики [7]. Именно В то же время австрийский музеолог Ф. Вайдахер на таких принципах, с использованием компетен- обосновал необходимость рассматривать эври- ций руководящего состава и ведущих специали- стику, учитывая особое отношение человека к ре- стов, базировалась деятельность Национального альности, как поиск потенциальных носителей военно-исторического музея Украины (НВИМУ) музеальности, то есть – признаков по которым в период 1995–2013 годов. определенный объект можно отнести к катего- Научная новизна статьи заключается в том, рии пригодной к экспонированию. «Эвристику» что на основе анализа документальных источни- и «критику» ученый обозначил как составляю- ков и опубликованных историографических мате- щие методики музеальной селекции. Именно пер- риалов впервые освещены особенности системы вичный анализ исторической ценности в правди- эвристического музейного поиска в ходе научно- вости и достоверности, по мнению Ф. Вайдахера, го комплектования фондов НВИМУ в указанный предоставляет возможность включения предмета исторический промежуток. Нижняя хронологиче- в музейные фонды [1]. Авторское определение ская граница исследования определяет год созда- понятия «музейная эвристика» и преимущества
47 Section 2. History and archaeology
модели системы эвристического музейного поис- менять его начали недавно. Фактически сейчас ка в процессе исторического исследования пред- происходит комплексное обоснование значения ложила Л. Миненко [5]. В тоже время, Н. Горская и содержания этой исследовательской работы, в своей работе обоснованно показала примене- как отдельного направления музейного дела. ние в повседневной деятельности музея понятий Стоит отметить, что система музейной эври- «эвристика» и «музейная эвристика» [2]. Од- стики базируется на применении: максимально нако прикладные аспекты научного комплекто- широкой и разноисточниковой осведомлённо- вания фондов с использованием инструментария сти, компетенции, интуиции, межличностных музейного научного поиска и с конкретизацией связей и других возможностей, и ресурсов ис- места, и роли дисциплинарной, и познавательной следователей. музейной эвристики, исследованы не были. В контексте музейной деятельности, В. Кар- С целью анализа этой проблемы, как отдельно- пов, Ж. Денисюк, О. Збанацкая «музейную эв- го направления музеологических исследований, ристику» рассматривают как «науку о музейном а также для практической оценки процессов ком- поиске, теорию и практику организации такого плектования музейных фондов, через авторское поиска». Относительно восприятия музейного представление модели системы эвристического предмета посетителем, в ходе познавательного эв- музейного поиска на примере Национального во- ристического поиска ученые указывают на един- енно-исторического музея Украины, предлагаем ство общих свойств: информативности (источник решить следующие задачи: информации), репрезентативности (полнота от- –– охарактеризовать современные подхо- ражения эпохи, явления, среды), аттрактивности ды к определению содержания термина (вызывание интереса внешними характеристика- «музейная эвристика», в целом, а также ми и эстетичным видом) и экспрессивности (наве- «дисциплинарная музейная эвристика» вать ассоциации и осуществлять эмоциональное и «познавательная музейная эвристика», воздействие) [4]. в частности; Н. Горская «музейную эвристику» не разде- –– визуализировать модель системы эвристи- ляет и определяет ее как «демонстративно-пред- ческого музейного поиска НВИМУ в пери- метную коммуникацию в музейной экспозиции од 1995–2013 годов; при распространении информации через музей- –– предоставить авторскую оценку сложив- ный предмет в процессе проведения экскурсии шейся модели. или музейно-образовательного мероприятия для Комплектование музейных фондов является любой аудитории» [2]. непрерывным процессом. Данный вид деятель- В 2016 году исследовательница А. Никонова ности является ключевым в жизнеобеспечении пришла к выводу о необходимости научной диф- музея и базисным для всех направлений музей- ференциации термина «музейная эвристика». ной работы. Процессы комплектования музейных Фактически было выделено два направления раз- фондов непосредственно связаны с отдельным вития «музейной эвристики». Первое направле- направлением музеологических исследований – ние – «дисциплинарная музейная эвристика», «музейной эвристикой». второе – «познавательная музейная эвристика». Исследование термина «эвристика» доста- По мнению ученой, как правило, «дисциплинар- точно широко представлено в трудах украинских ной музейной эвристикой» овладевают музейные и зарубежных ученых. В то же время термин специалисты, «выявляя и сохраняя историко- «музейная эвристика» мало исследован. При- культурную информацию в музейных фондах, а за-
48 APPLIED ASPECTS OF THE MUSEUM HEURISTICS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MILITARY-HISTORY OF UKRAINE IN THE PERIOD1995–2013
тем актуализируют ее в музейной экспозиции». Анализируя использование методов «познава- «Познавательная музейная эвристика» связана тельной музейной эвристики» в НВИМУ в пери- «с обучением методам получения и освоения од 1995–2013 гг. отметим, что посетителям были историко-культурной информации массовым по- доступны такие источники получения информа- сетителем музея» [7]. По сути, «познавательная ции о музейных ценностях: музейная эвристика» формирует базовые методы – научные справки и справочные материалы донесения выявленной информации посетителю, (по запросу); влияя на дальнейшее качество «дисциплинарной – унифицированные паспорта на музейные музейной эвристики». предметы и описания фондовых коллекций В процессе «познавательной музейной эври- по разделам (по запросу); стики», посетитель может получить информацию – тематико-экспозиционные планы выставок [7]: с этикетки; от экскурсовода; из электронной (по запросу); базы музейных фондов, где указана информация – научные и научно-популярные статьи в пе- о музейном предмете (особенности предмета, чатных изданиях НВИМУ, монографии, история попадания в музейные фонды, почему научная литература (библиотеки НВИМУ был изготовлен именно этот предмет, каким об- и филиалов); разом, кто заказчик (получатель, собственник) – рассказ экскурсовода (при условии заказа предмета (объекта), в чем его репрезентатив- экскурсионного обслуживания); ность, другая информация), а также с сайта музея – этикетаж (пояснительные тексты и аннота- (текстовые и визуальные материалы по экспози- ции к залам в форме фоновых фотографий ции или выставке, задачи с вопросами, которые с информацией, и к экспонатам – этикетки). можно решить только находясь в экспозиции, ис- При этом, открытие частей экспозиции и вы- пользуя другие методы получения информации ставок дополнительно сопровождались размеще- о музейных предметах). нием информации на сайте, в социальных сетях, Как видим, «познавательная музейная эв- газетных публикациях. Для усиления заинтересо- ристика» достаточно трудоемкое направление ванности и стимулирования посещения музейных научной деятельности, ведь каждая экспозиция мероприятий, излагался провенанс особо ценных (выставка) содержит значительное количество экспонатов. смыслов, которые должны вызвать интерес у по- Несмотря на все, считаем, что на практике, сетителя. Известно, что музейная экспозиция (вы- одним из весомых направлений «познавательной ставка) интересна, когда происходит ее активное музейной эвристики» должно быть исследование обсуждение в обществе или, запускаются еще не влияния информации об историческом периоде истолкованные темы. Именно тогда посетитель (личности, учреждении) через музейный объект привлекается к участию в исследовательском по- (предмет) на сознание посетителя. Ведь главны- иске. Кроме того, характеризуя «познавательную ми задачами музейной эвристики являются: фор- эвристику» стоит акцентировать внимание на мирование социально-культурных потребностей том, что музейные специалисты, при построении общества в историко-культурной информации экспозиции и выставок, должны учитывать мето- о прошлом и поиск, и отбор необходимой ин- ды, этапы получения информации (музейный PR), формации, для сохранения устойчивого развития ее интерпретацию, связанную с уровнем образо- общества [7]. вания посетителя, качеством государственной В отличие от «познавательной музейной пропаганды и тому подобное. эвристики», целесообразность использования
49 Section 2. History and archaeology
«дисциплинарной музейной эвристики» вызва- исследовать, обобщать и актуализировать оп- на необходимостью поиска музейного предмета тимальные варианты формирования музейных и информации о нём в режимах, которые уже не экспозиций, и выставок через построение соот- являются обычными техническими процессами. ветствующей эвристической модели системы му- В частности, когда возникает вопрос поиска опре- зейного поиска для целенаправленной организа- деленной необходимой исторической ценности ции музейной деятельности. и информации о ней для создания экспозиции, Один из вариантов модели системы эвристиче- выставки или иного музейного продукта. Именно ского музейного поиска может представлять собой при таких обстоятельствах у музейных сотрудни- комплекс относительно обособленных и взаимос- ков начинается активно-творческая, нестандарт- вязанных элементов, которые через наработанные ная научно-исследовательская работа, связанная коммуникации, соответствующий документоо- с необходимостью не только максимизации источ- борот, используя необходимый ресурсный по- ников получения информации, но и с углублением тенциал, налаженные подсистемы планирования, имеющихся, и с использованием новых знаний. организации, контроля и мотивации деятельности В случае с военными музеями, главной целью дис- субъектов поиска, обеспечивают качественные циплинарной музейной эвристики, для научных результаты музейной деятельности с целью содей- сотрудников, является выявление военно-истори- ствия формированию должного уровня развития ческой ценности и провенанса, включение в фонд и/или удовлетворения духовных, культурных, ин- и создание музейного продукта, который пред- теллектуально-просветительских, информацион- ставляет собой целостный завершенный результат ных потребностей посетителя. Именно такая мо- экспозиционно-выставочной, научно-фондовой, дель была сформирована работниками НВИМУ информационно-музейной деятельности музея, в период 1995–2013 годов (рис. 1). который предлагается посетителю. Обычно «дис- Предложенная на (рис. 1) визуализированная циплинарная музейная эвристика» начинается модель системы эвристического музейного по- с системного анализа имеющейся в музее фондо- иска сформирована как результат анализа дея- вой основы, а далее выходит на уровень, который тельности НВИМУ в период 1995–2013 годов. не ограничивается внутренней средой. В частности, работа научных сотрудников музея В нашем исследовании главный акцент мы де- предусматривала обязательную актуализацию лаем на опыт использования «дисциплинарной информационного поля музейных предметов музейной эвристики» сотрудниками Националь- в созданной экспозиции (выставке) для активно- ного военно-исторического музея Украины. Мы осознанного восприятия и понимания музейного разделяем мнение А. Никоновой о необходимо- продукта с целью формирования надлежащего ин- сти разделения направлений развития музейной теллектуального, культурного и патриотического эвристики на дисциплинарную и познавательную, уровня каждого посетителя. Кроме того, проис- и предлагаем собственную трактовку содержания ходили научная переоценка музейных продуктов термина «дисциплинарная музейная эвристика». и фондов, обучение и повышение профессиона- По нашему мнению «дисциплинарная музейная лизма сотрудников с целью совершенствования, эвристика» – это отдельное научное направление целенаправленности и активизации «дисципли- развития «музейной эвристики», способствую- нарной музейной эвристики». щее более содержательному наполнению спец- По нашему убеждению, использование пред- ифических процессов комплектования фондов, ставленной модели системы эвристического музей- предоставляющее возможность основательно ного поиска НВИМУ на практике, объединившей
50 APPLIED ASPECTS OF THE MUSEUM HEURISTICS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MILITARY-HISTORY OF UKRAINE IN THE PERIOD1995–2013
познавательную и дисциплинарною музейную эв- позволяла профильным специалистам и предста- ристики, облегчало понимание содержания про- вителям всех заинтересованных сторон, кто имел цессов и направлений комплектования музейных желание быть результативным участником процес- фондов, очерчивало круг перспективных заинте- сов научного комплектования музейных фондов, ресованных сторон, которые нужно было привле- упорядочить приобретенные компетенции и спо- кать, служило своеобразной памяткой при фор- собствовать формированию эффективного музей- мировании целей и определении мотивационных ного менеджмента. мероприятий. Кроме того, предложенная модель
1.Библиотеки
9.Ме жду- народные 2.Архивы контакты
Дисциплинарная музейная эвристика
8.Государ- Музейные фонды 3.Этно- ственные и графические общественные учреждения институции Музейные продукты
Познавательная музейная эвристика
Музейный предмет
7.Археологи- 4.Другие ческие Посетитель учреждения музеи
5.Частные коллекции и 6.Экспедиции носители нематериального культурного наследия
Рисунок 1. Визуализированная модель системы эвристического музейного поиска Национального военно-исторического музея Украины по состоянию на 1 января 2014 * * Источник: сформировано автором по результатам исследования Для более весомой оценки влияния «дисци- учитывать, что эвристика, максимально актив- плинарной музейной эвристики» на результаты но возникает между субъектами поиска и вне деятельности музейных учреждений необходимо музея. На практике существует определенное
51 Section 2. History and archaeology
разнообразие эвристик (библиотечная, архивная, Фактически совместными усилиями руковод- археологическая и другие). Опыт работы НВИ- ства и научных сотрудников к концу 2013 года МУ показывает, что увеличение разновидностей в НВИМУ была создана среда познавательной «дисциплинарной эвристики», обеспечивало и дисциплинарной музейной эвристики, которая создание комплексной базы данных, аккумули- обеспечивала его устойчивое развитие. Такая по- ровавшей информацию необходимую для выра- становка вопроса целенаправляла всех участни- ботки эвристической мысли. Такая база данных ков процессов поиска. В итоге, каждый субъект содействовала сотрудничеству и развитию каж- поиска занимал свое место и выполнял необходи- дого участника системы эвристического музей- мые функции, что способствовало достижению ного поиска, обеспечивала синергетичность при положительных результатов. Одновременно, оста- получении конечного результата, его максималь- вались научно-прикладные перспективы для их ную достоверность, полноту содержания и, при разнообразия и улучшения. определенных обстоятельствах, оперативность. Список литературы: 1. Вайдахер Ф. Загальна музеологія: посібник. Пер. з нім. В. Лозинський, О. Лянг, Х. Назаркевич. – Львів: Літопис, 2005. – 632 с. 2. Горська Н. Музейний освітній продукт як різновид евристичної освіти. Музейна педагогіка – про- блеми, сьогодення, перспективи: мат-ли П’ятої наук.-практ. конф., – Київ, Україна, 28–29 вересня 2017 року. – Київ: Національний Києво-Печерський історико-культурний заповідник. – С. 31–34. 3. Карпов В. Військове музеєзнавство у період трансгресії суспільства 1989–1991 років. 2018. URL: https://www.academia.edu/36185347/ Військове_музеєзнавство_у_період_трансгресії_суспіль- ства.docx/ (дата звернення: 18.03.2019 р.) 4. Карпов В. В., Денисюк Ж. З., Збанацька О. М. Музейна евристика: теоретичні основи та практична реалізація. Бібліотекознавство, документознавство, інформологія. – № 1. 2017. – С. 19–26. 5. Міненко Л. Евристична модель музейного пошуку в історичному дослідженні. Музеї та реставра- ція у контексті збереження культурної спадщини: актуальні виклики сучасності: мат-ли Міжнар. наук.-практ. конф., – Київ, Україна, 06–07 червня 2017 року. – Київ: НАКККіМ, Асоціація рестав- раторів України, Видавець О. Філюк. – С. 181–191. 6. Музеєзнавство: словник базових термінів. Укладач-упорядник Л. М. Міненко. За заг. ред. к. і.н., пол- ковника Карпова В. В. – Київ: Фенікс; НВІМУ, 2013. – 152 с. 7. Никонова А. Музейная евристика: pro et contra. Международный журнал исследовательской куль- туры. – № 3. 2016. – С. 9–16.
52 CICERO’S RHETORICAL BALANCE IN THE FIRST CATILINARIAN ORATION
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-53-61 Jonathan Fu, Phillips Academy, Andover, MA E-mail: [email protected] CICERO’S RHETORICAL BALANCE IN THE FIRST CATILINARIAN ORATION Abstract. The Catilinarian Conspiracy, the infamous duel between two opposing ideologies of Rome, spelled the beginning of the end for the Roman Republic, but it also gave rise to several of the most legendary yet controversial Latin texts, the Catilinarian Orations. In 63 B.C, Marcus Tul- lius Cicero (Cicero), having been given sole ownership of the consulship by his fellow consul, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, in exchange for the governorship of Macedonia at the end of the year, uncovered a conspiracy led by the ambitious but failed-aristocrat, Lucius Sergius Catilina.This discovery prompted Cicero to make four impassioned proclamations – two to the senate and two to the public – entitled the Catilinarian Orations. These orations contain a wealth of complex rhetoric, obscure speech, and advanced logical strategy. Cicero’s strategic, effective, and efficient utilization of the balance between inaction and action is one of the key components of the First Catilinarian Oration. It helped to build his credibility as a powerful but logical and reasonable consul with the Senate, to establish his own wisdom and reason, and to confuse and agitate Catiline, eventually forcing him to act irrationally (an attempt to flee) and thus establishing the end for Catiline and the conspiracy itself. As a result, this brilliant rhetorical strategy (the balance) was the catalyst for Cicero’s rise to the peak of his life as a lawyer, politician, orator, and consul, to name a few. It is in the First Catilinarian Oration that Cicero thrives with his passion, reason, and unequivocal power as consul of the Roman Republic. Keywords: Rhetorical Balance, Catilinarian Oration, Rome, Cicero. The Catilinarian Conspiracy, the infamous duel ate and two to the public – entitled the Catilinarian between two opposing ideologies of Rome, spelled Orations. These orations contain a wealth of complex the beginning of the end for the Roman Republic, rhetoric, obscure speech, and advanced logical strat- but it also gave rise to several of the most legendary egy. TheFirst Catilinarian Oration establishes what yet controversial Latin orations, the Catilinarian Ora- William Batsone refers to as Cicero’s “consular ethos” tions (M. Tulli Ciceronis in L. Catilinam Orationes). [1]. Describing this attempt to establish his own abil- In 63 B.C, Marcus Tullius Cicero (Cicero), having ity as an orator and consul in a time of immense cri- been given sole ownership of the consulship by his sis, Batsone writes as follows: “The First Catilinarian fellow consul, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, in exchange is…about interpreting Cicero, about who he is and for the governorship of Macedonia at the end of the what it means to have and to have had him as consul; year, uncovered a conspiracy led by the ambitious it is about what he has done, what he plans, what he but failed-aristocrat, Lucius Sergius Catilina (Cati- knows, and what he has said. In rhetorical terms, this line) [11]. This discovery prompted Cicero to make speech constructs and presents Cicero’s version of four impassioned proclamations – two to the sen- his consular ethos…primarily to display Cicero, his
53 Section 2. History and archaeology passion and his reason, his wisdom and providence, this paper will perform a detailed analysis of the ef- his powers of oratory” [1]. fectiveness and efficiency of his rhetorical strategy, This “display” of the height of Cicero’s powers as focusing on his portrayal of the artificial dilemma an orator and consul is exemplified by Cicero’s most between inaction and action. At the same time, this ingenious rhetorical weapon, a metaphorical spear paper will demonstrate how Sallust’s third-person constantly jabbing into the back of the indecisive perspective in Bellum Catilinae reveals Cicero’s con- senate. Throughout the speech, Cicero creates an struction of that artificial dilemma. artificial balance between inaction and action, forc- Cicero came from a wealthy landowning family ing every senator to reconsider their dedication to in 106 B.C. [8] However, despite their wealth, his the survival of Rome. Lying primarily within the First family was not one of the ancient patrician fami- Catilinarian Oration, undoubtedly the most famous lies who controlled almost all of the power in the of the four, this rhetorical balance is the key to Ci- Roman Republic. This blemish in his background cero’s main objective: drag the Senate out of passiv- would later prove to be both Cicero’s weakness and ity and establish his own power as consul. However, strength. In 81 B.C, Cicero began his storied career as Cicero’s rhetorical balance was not only a ploy to a trial advocate, most often arguing for the defense. rouse the Senate, but also a plan to direct a flustered It was here, in his role as a lawyer and orator, that Catiline out of Rome into the Manlian Camp, a trap Cicero gained the popularity, confidence, and skill designed to completely annihilate the Catilinarian required to jumpstart his political career. Eventually, Conspiracy. Coupled with these aims, Cicero may after winning several elections for lower government have had another reason to employ such a strategy: positions on the political ladder, Cicero ran for con- responsibility as consul. Having just received the sul in 64 B.C as a novus homo (new man), the term unbridled powers of the senatus consultum ultimum, used to describe a man who was the first in his family he was unsure of exactly how to advance into such to serve in the consulship. He relied on his oratory murky territory [9]. His rhetorical balance may have prowess, reputation as a court advocate, and hon- been another method of controlling his responsibil- esty to defeat Catiline, the arrogant patrician who ity by calling upon the Senate to help. promised to cancel all debts, including his own. The To defend against the rhetorical power of Cicero lack of an advantage from a patrician background, himself, who may have edited his speeches before the same disadvantage that had plagued him for his publication, the perspective of a second author must entire life, became one of the factors that helped win also be utilized. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), him the consulship. However, with the Catilinarian a Roman politician, tribune, and historian was also Conspiracy on the horizon, his consulship proved to present during the Catilinarian Conspiracy. In his be an eventful one. own work, Bellum Catilinae (The War of Catiline), Sallust’s background and rise into politics were Sallust offers a vastly different view of both the con- relatively similar to that of Cicero. He was born in spiracy and Cicero’s rhetoric in the First Catilinarian 86 B.C to a local family of prominence at Amiter- Oration. In this paper, I will analyze both the First num, an ancient Sabine town around 50 miles north- Catilinarian Oration and overlapping passages from east of Rome [6]. However, his family’s social pres- Bellum Catilinae. Cicero’s nuanced rhetorical strategy tige, wealth, and influence meant nothing against a was one of several key components that compelled select circle of well-established families [5]. Similar the largely passive Senate and eventually forced Ca- to Cicero, Sallust was forced to “break into” the po- tiline to undermine his own conspiracy through his litical scene, and thus he “naturally identified him- own irrationality. In analyzing Cicero’s seminal text, self with the ‘people’s party’ and always remained
54 CICERO’S RHETORICAL BALANCE IN THE FIRST CATILINARIAN ORATION a consistent democrat” [6]. However, most of Sal- As Langerwerf makes clear, the Catilinarian Con- lust’s major political achievements occurred in the spiracy was the pinnacle of Cicero’s career as an ora- latter portion of his life, when he was able to hold the tor, politician, and Roman. His excitement in this office of tribune in 52 B.C and serve closely under moment is discernible in the opening lines of his first Julius Caesar. After his expulsion from the senate, oration, replete with his impassioned fury, and like- Sallust served under Julius Caesar from 49–44 B.C, wise in his nuanced rhetorical strategy, which is often performing various duties including the governor- submerged cleverly beneath a veil of anger or despair. ship of Africa until Caesar’s ill-fated death in 44 B.C. By subordinating his strategy in this way, Cicero’s al- [5]. Due to his wealth and connections to several of low his design to creep stealthily in the minds of the Caesar’s later successors, “Sallust retired from pub- senators and of Catiline himself. Sallust, on the other lic life, and returning to the ambition of his younger hand, was in a completely different situation, reeling days, devoted his leisure to Roman history. He died from the fall of the Republic and resting in his final in B.C35, leaving his house and gardens to his sis- days. His varying prose, modeled after Thucydides’, ter’s grandson. These afterward became the favorite demonstrates Sallust’s wild swing of emotions as he resort of Nero, Nerva, and other Roman emperors” grieves over the demise of his Rome [6]. In the end, [6]. Although the Catilinarian Conspiracy occurred despite their stylistic differences, these two authors in 63 B.C, in the relatively early stages of Sallust’s and their respective works collided in 63 B.C to re- life, an important understanding of Sallust’s entire veal the true nature of Cicero’s now-famous orations adult life must still be established. This is because before the Senate and against Catiline. Sallust probably wrote Bellum Catilinae during the Alongside childhood friends like Julius Caesar, Ci- latter half of the first century B.C, most likely around cero grew up as political crises began to overwhelm the year 43 B.C (he refers to Caesar and Cato in the the Roman Republic [4]. By Cicero’s time, several past tense, signifying that he is writing after the Ides major flaws had undermined the entire system [11]. of March in 44 B.C) [5]. His later political life and Corruption was rampant as rich Romans often bribed troubles have left significant traces on most if not all voters and trial jurors. Provincial governors (usually of Bellum Catilinae. retired consuls or tribunes) extorted money from Both Cicero and Sallust had underlying political people in their provinces. Military generals and lead- motivations in their respective works that are critical ers used their own armies to support radical political towards understanding their rhetorical strategies. In demands. These flaws, along with a stagnant Senate, “To Have Daring is Like a Barrier: Cicero and Sallust created a growing sense of tension in Rome, eventually on Catiline’s Audacia,” Lydia Langerwerf writes. resulting in the Catilinarian Conspiracy. Cicero’s suppression of Catiline and his followers Cicero’s First Catilinarian Oration, given on No- was the making of his consulship and the crowning vember 8th, 63 B.C, utilizes endless lines about failed moment of his political career…it is obvious that both plots, lamentable state of affairs, and absurd inaction delivery and publication served a political purpose… (of the Senate, the consuls, and Cicero himself), all Sallust is clearly not in the business of exonerating in order to question why the Senate and he himself Cicero, and offers a nuanced portrait of the consul, are not acting more swiftly and harshly. However, but…his account was written in the aftermath of the the Senate at this moment in time still had not com- murders of certainly Caesar and Cicero, marking the pletely bought Cicero’s story, as few rational men end of the Republic…The story of Catiline offered would listening to accounts of fire and worldly de- him an opportunity to lament the fall of the Republic struction. Thus, Cicero had only one clear option: and the role of a degenerate aristocracy in that fall [7]. explain the dire situation in excruciating detail and
55 Section 2. History and archaeology emotion, aiming to make the Senate uncomfortable the speaker’s lack of confidence as he half-heartedly and force them to reconsider their status as Romans attempted to convince a skeptical Senate about Ca- both in mind and heart. This balance between in- tiline’s extreme crimes. However, Cicero’s brilliant action and action is exemplified in theCatilinarian usage of interrogatives to spur on the Senate leaves Orations in countless moments, large and small, but each statement open-ended, forcing the Senators to there are several vital passages that stand out most reconsider their own future and their own vision of prominently, especially when juxtaposed with paral- Rome with the destructive Catiline in mind. lel passages from Sallust’s Bellum Catilinae. Cicero furthers this objective by directly intro- Cicero utilizes this rhetorical strategy from the ducing his rhetorical strategy. In the latter section commencement of his speech. His opening passages, of Chapter 2, he states that the “strong men seem Chapters 1 and 2, some of the most famous in all of to do enough for the state” [3]. This line may be in- Latin literature, are full of rhetorical questions, terpreted as a simple motivational line to unite the [1] May I ask you to what end will you continue Senate and weaken Catiline. And it is. However, this to abuse our patience, Catiline? For how long even line is actually Cicero’s first direct clue towards his will that fury of yours mock us? To what end will overarching rhetorical strategy in the First Catilinar- your unrestrained audacity boast itself? Didn’t the ian Oration. His words are searing, an attempt to dis- night guards of the Palatine, didn’t the watchers of courage Catiline while also scolding the Senate for the city, didn’t the fear of the people, didn’t the gath- their inability to approve the emergency decree and ering of all the nobles, didn’t this most fortified place enable Cicero to crush the conspiracy. The passive of holding the senate, and didn’t the expressions of voice of videmur (we seem) coupled with the adverb the faces of these men move you? Do you not per- satis (enough) alone confirm Cicero’s interior fury at ceive that your plan is exposed, do you not see that the Senate. It is this line, made intentionally weak in your conspiracy now has been binded and is being the sea of powerful rhetoric, that stands out as the held in the knowledge of all these men? Which of entrance of Cicero’s rhetorical balance. us do you think is ignorant of what you have done In Chapter 31 of Bellum Catilinae, Sallust reveals last night and the night before, where you have been, Cicero’s intentions behind the rhetorical balance and whom you have assembled, and what plan you have embodies it with a different perspective: seized? [31] By such proceedings, the citizens were [2] Oh the times, oh the conduct! The senate struck with alarm, and the appearance of the city was understands these things, the consul sees this; how- changed. In place of that extreme gaiety and dissipa- ever, this man still lives. Lives? Yes, in truth he even tion, to which long tranquility had given rise, a sud- comes into the senate, he becomes a partner in the den gloom spread over all the classes; they became public council, with his eyes he marks the murder anxious and agitated; they felt secure neither in any for each of us. We however, the strong men, seem to place, nor with any person; they were not at war, yet do enough for the state, if we avoid the madness and enjoyed no peace; each measured the public danger weapons of that man [3]. by his own fear [6]. By utilizing rhetorical questions at the very begin- Instead of attacking Catiline and the Senate ning of his speech, Cicero already begins to impose a (as Cicero indirectly does in his opening), Sallust key aspect of his rhetorical strategy onto the Senate: focuses in on the heart of Rome, its citizens. He de- self-reflection and self-questioning. He does not state scribes the feeling of impending doom seeping into his attacks directly. Direct statements like these would the previously “tranquil” city. In his version of the have had little weight and would have demonstrated events, the citizens are in a state of partial limbo, liv-
56 CICERO’S RHETORICAL BALANCE IN THE FIRST CATILINARIAN ORATION ing in a state of fear, not yet entrenched in a war but so horrible a crime may not be seen to have existed in still unable to enjoy peace in their own sacred home- this city, and not to have been chastised [3]. land. Sallust has taken Cicero’s artificial balance and Cicero is referencing an event in Catiline’s past placed it into a different, but equally important sec- when, in a difficult decision between a lover, Aurelia tor of Rome. The people, too, are waiting for Cicero Orestilla, and his own son, Catiline decided to elimi- and Senate to act, to restore the pleasure of life and nate the latter, as Sallust explains, to banish Catiline and the dark fear he inspires. Sal- [15] […] At last, when he was smitten with a lust takes Cicero’s argument a step further, discussing passion for Aurelia Orestilla, in whom no good man, what Cicero likely felt was somewhat unnecessary in at any time of her life, commended anything but her a belligerent and fiery opening. beauty, it is confidently believed that because she Cicero produces a passage-long alliteration in hesitated to marry him, from the dread of having Chapter 1, repeating the “q” sound at the beginning a grown-up step-son,he cleared the house for their of each line (quam, quem, quid) [3]. This repetition marriage by putting his son to death [6]. supports the message by ingraining the power of Sallust’s brief but vital explanation reveals an im- each statement into the minds of the Senators and portant trait of Cicero’s phrasing. Cicero often ex- by establishes the charismatic charm of an orator plains an event or action disparaging Catiline before who makes listeners numb and passive. Most im- stating, “but I pass that over.” This rhetorical device, portantly, however, Cicero is able to begin the long known as praeteritio, is one of Cicero’s signature process of balancing inaction and action. One word strategies. By employing this strategy, Cicero ap- in Chapter 2, Vivit? (Lives?), filled with intense dis- pears to be generous or wise, as he decides that there belief and indignity, is all but enough to make it are other aspects of Catiline’s “wickedness” that are clear that Cicero’s intends to act [3]. Whether it be even more concerning than such a horrible action execution or exile (a debate that will rage through- as the murder of one’s own son. In addition, Cicero out the Catilinarian Conspiracy), Cicero again un- is able to stir up fury, indignance, and shock within leashes a bitter curse against the Senate and, as he the senators without utilizing any invectives or direct will feign, himself. Cicero opens with a powerful attacks. He crafts a passive-aggressive argument and and clear objection to the Senate’s inaction, and again balances action and inaction, albeit in a differ- he follows that opening with a direct attack against ent form. Cicero first hints at a possible outburst of both Catiline and the Senate, while also feigning an invectives or attack against Catiline, but then utilizes attack against his own inaction. praeteritio to establish his own strength and wisdom. This sense of “lacking” or inaction ties directly Despite Catiline’s unspeakable past actions, Cicero to one of Cicero’s most prominent grammatical makes himself appear to be able to continue on and structures in the First Catilinarian Oration and in his focus on the matter at hand without becoming wildly works as a whole. Cicero often utilizes the phrases, emotional or unfocused. The Senate must ask itself, “But I will not talk about that” or “But I pass that “If such an action is passed over by Cicero, then what over.” He utilizes the latter in this passage when he has Catiline truly done?” is criticizing one of Catiline’s suspected past crimes, However, despite the fiery yet nuanced opening [14] What? When lately by the death of your for- and underlying grammatical structure that develops mer wife you had made your house empty and ready his central conceit,, perhaps the most convincing for a new bridal, did you not even add another incred- motivation and objective of Cicero’s rhetorical bal- ible wickedness to this wickedness? But I pass that ance comes into play in Chapters 3 and 4. Cicero over, and willingly allow it to be buried in silence, that introduces the senatus consultum ultimum (Ultimate
57 Section 2. History and archaeology
Decree of the Senate) in order to urge the Senate, be explained by the fact that the Senate was already intimidate Catiline, and pressure both parties to act, well-informed about such a decree (as they were while also relieving pressure from himself, the ones to grant it). [3] […] We have the resolution of the senate Nevertheless, Cicero utilizes this moment to against you, Catiline, violent and severe, the council further his rhetoric, training his focus on the “lack- of the republic nor the authority of these ranks are ing” (Chapter 3) of the consuls, nos, nos, dico aperte, not lacking: we, I speak clearly, the consuls are lacking. consules desumus (Chapter 3) [3]. The repetition [4] […] For we have a resolution of the senate of the word nos (we) and the emphatic use of the of this type, in truth, having been enclosed in the law first person are direct evidence of Cicero’s unique books, as if having been concealed in a sheath, from rhetorical device. In what would appear to be a which the resolution of the senate has been decided poignant concession, Cicero is actually revealing that you, Catiline, must be killed [3]. his brilliant strategic power by causing confusion It was mentioned in the discussion above that, among both the Senate and Catiline. The repeti- in his opening, Cicero was attacking the Senate for tion mentioned previously and the emphatic first its inaction and hesitance. Here, Cicero takes a step person confirm Cicero’s underlying objective. The back, admitting that the Senate has already granted Senate would have listened to the opening of the him a certain resolution of immense power, the speech with indignance, indecision, and even anger senatus consultum ultimum. This decree is the key to at Cicero’s fiery words questioning their inaction understanding Cicero’s decision to balance inaction (especially Vivit? in Chapter 2). Catiline would and action in the First Catilinarian Orations. have responded with fury and indignance equal Sallust gives a concise but vital explanation of the to that of Cicero. Cicero realized this. In an argu- decree, while also providing important contrast, con- ment, pure anger can only go so far. In most cases, text, and understanding for both Cicero’s frustration even the most meticulously crafted outbursts only at the Senate’s inaction and the subsequent employ- succeed in making the opponent equally furious. ment of his rhetorical strategy: However, an open concession of the kind that Ci- [29] […] The senate, accordingly, as is usual cero makes leaves the opponent with little oppor- in any perilous emergency, decreed that the consuls tunity for rebuttal. In addition, his use of the word should make it their care that the commonwealth should desumus (we are lacking) is somewhat ambiguous receive no injury. This is the greatest power which, ac- when it is translated to English. This translation cording to the practice at Rome, is granted by the uses “lacking,” but it can also be translated as “fail- senate to the magistrate, and which authorizes him ing,” “neglecting,” “missing.” However, “lacking” to raise troops; to make war; to assume unlimited reveals the most about Cicero’s rhetorical strategy control over the allies and the citizens; to take the by demonstrating his objective of confusing the op- chief command and jurisdiction at home and in the ponents (Catiline as well as the Senate) before he field; rights which, without an order of the people, lands a devastating, shocking blow. That blow, in the consul is not permitted to exercise [6]. Cicero’s case, was his declaration that, “the resolu- The senatus consultum ultimum, in candid tion of the senate has been decided that you, Cati- words, granted a man the powers of a dictator for line, must be killed” (Chapter 4) [3]. In one line, six months, an action that would have appeared as Cicero immediately connects the two objects of his a minor sacrifice for the sake of the future of the Catilinarian Orations and gives both the Senate and Roman Republic. Cicero does not include such an Catiline each an enormous shock. Cicero has set a explanation in his own speech. This omission can clear objective in front of the Senate: to destroy the
58 CICERO’S RHETORICAL BALANCE IN THE FIRST CATILINARIAN ORATION conspiracy with the utmost power and authority. If whole. Even after receiving thesenatus consultum ul- not, Cicero implies, then their collective “lacking” timum, Cicero continues to implore the Senate to act. will lead to the downfall of the Roman Republic. The entire basis of his rhetorical balance, his artificial However, Cicero’s main objective in this compo- balance between inaction and action, is explained by nent of the First Catilinarian Oration is not just to Cicero’s own confusion and hesitation at a critical attack the “lacking” of himself and the Senate, but to time. He doesn’t choose to directly attack Catiline, control his own power and responsibility, attempting nor does he choose to simply execute or exile him to consult the Senate and work together to defeat the without hesitation. Cicero realizes that the senatus evil of Catiline. In “Cicero and the Senatus Consul- consultum ultimum carries a heavy burden for its user, tum Ultimum,” Th. Mitchell writes, and that its imperium is only as strong as the consilium Several times, [Cicero] portrays the consuls as that supports it. possessing imperium only, while the Senate alone has In this case, as Mitchell suggests, Cicero is insist- consilium. There is an obvious contrast between the ing that his duty is only to implement the Senate’s two terms; imperium representing executive power – policy decisions, attempting to pry himself away the authority to translate policy into action, and con- from the dictator-like powers that the Senate has silium representing the power to formulate policy. already granted him [9]. This action may be inter- Clearly, Cicero did not believe that the role of the preted as a cowardly or irrational move. Some may Senate ended when it delivered its consultum ultimum. argue that Cicero was attempting to relieve himself It continued as the body with summum consilium, and of the duties as the consul who had been granted consequently it continued as the director of the con- the powers of the senatus consultum ultimum. Some sul’s subsequent actions. Cicero would not, therefore, may propose that Cicero was pressuring the Senate agree with modern historians who consider that a to act so that he would not have to bear the burden consul was entitled by virtue of a consultum ultimum and responsibility that came with enacting powerful to use his discretion in taking any action in defense decisions. In this final case, his fury and anger in the of the state, and that the responsibility knew that he First Catilinarian Oration would constitute a ploy to was carrying out the wishes of the Senate, for it was protect himself from the consequences of the sup- the Senate, and not the consuls, which was placed in pression of the Catilinarian Conspiracy. supreme command as a result of the ultimate decree. It is true that Cicero was pressuring the Senate That this represented his reasoning is strongly sup- to act. However, it was not to avoid the responsibil- ported by all his subsequent allusions to his handling ity and burden that came with the power. Indeed, of the crisis. From his first extant speech after his con- Cicero was attempting to embody responsibility. sulship to his last rhetorical efforts in the Philippicae, He was working tirelessly throughout the First Cat- he presents an unchanging defense of his action. He ilinarian Oration to urge the Senate to act, to provide insists that the punishment and sentence of the con- further plans so that he, in his own interpretation, spirators were the duty of the Senate, and that his role could use the senatus consultum ultimum and actually as consul was merely to implement the decisions of implement those decisions. Cicero was caught in a that body. He protests the confusion of responsibility “confusion of responsibility,” and he was truly caught which his enemies continued to create, and his posi- in a balance between inaction and action, a balance tion on that responsibility never varies [9]. he later chose to exemplify throughout the First Ca- This interpretation of Cicero’s rhetorical bal- tilinarian Oration. Nevertheless, despite his uncer- ance reveals the extent to which Cicero was willing tainty, Cicero, in his peak moment of utmost power, to work for the benefit and salvation of Rome as a utilized his most effective attribute: oratory. It is with
59 Section 2. History and archaeology his unwavering dedication to the Roman Republic his overarching and multifaceted bal. In fact, it is the and unrelenting determination, in conjunction with multifaceted aspect of this rhetorical strategy that the Senate, to decimate the Catilinarian Conspiracy makes it unique. Cicero is able to attack from several that Cicero was eventually able to combine his at- directions using a singular weapon, utilizing gram- tacks into one rhetorical strategy stretching across matical constructions, emphatic rhetoric, and inner the breadth of the First Catilinarian Oration. turmoil. This versatility is brilliant. In a time of tre- Cicero’s recognition of his responsibility as consul mendous chaos in both the Roman Republic and his and passion for the Roman Republic is evident in his own position as consul, having been presented with later rejection of the First Triumvirate, as he may have the powers of the senatus consultum ultimum mere been asked by Caesar himself to be a founding mem- weeks before his famous First Catilinarian Oration ber [8]. Cicero denied participation because he knew given at the Temple of Jupiter Stator, Cicero reigned the inner intentions and consequences of this type of in his emotions and utilized his famed skills of logic organizations, perhaps even before the three men, and oratory. In part due to this enduring, brilliant Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus realized themselves. He rhetorical strategy of balancing action and inaction foresaw that a group of men working for the primary in the First Catilinarian Oration, Cicero was able interests of each other was no longer working for the to achieve his objectives of receiving the complete primary interest of the people of the Roman Republic. backing and urgency of the Senate, destroying the And so, Cicero realized that the downfall of the Re- Catilinarian Conspiracy, and establishing his powers public was near. As his political career declined, he re- as both orator and consul. signed himself to writing, crafting several of his great- Cicero’s strategic, effective, and efficient utiliza- est works as the days of the Republic waned, as so did tion of the balance between inaction and action is the days of his life. Nevertheless, Mitchell explains, his one of the key components of the First Catilinarian original viewpoint during the Catilinarian Conspiracy Oration. It helped to build his credibility as a power- never wavered [9]. Even through the toughest periods ful but logical and reasonable consul with the Sen- of life, as the Roman Republic fell and the powerful ate, to establish his own wisdom and reason, and to men around him fell, Cicero maintained that it had al- confuse and agitate Catiline, eventually forcing him ways been the duty of the Senate to enact policies and to act irrationally (an attempt to flee) and thus es- punishments. This position never varies, even after he tablishing the end for Catiline and the conspiracy was executed by servants of Mark Antony as punish- itself. As a result, this brilliant rhetorical strategy (the ment for Cicero’s series of harsh invectives brought balance) was the catalyst for Cicero’s rise to the peak upon Antony in the Phillipicae. of his life as a lawyer, politician, orator, and consul, Each of Cicero’s carefully placed rhetorical de- to name a few. It is in the First Catilinarian Oration vices – the Vivit? in Chapter 2, the “lacking” of the that Cicero thrives with his passion, reason, wisdom, Senate and of Cicero himself, the praeteritio, and oratory prowess, and unequivocal power as consul of the senatus consultum ultimum – combine to form the Roman Republic. References: 1. Batstone William W. “Cicero’s Construction of Consular Ethos in the First Catilinarian”. In Transactions of the American Philological Association. N.p.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, n. d. Previously pub- lished in Transactions of the American Philological Association 124 (1994): 211–66. URL: https://www. jstor.org/stable/284292
60 CICERO’S RHETORICAL BALANCE IN THE FIRST CATILINARIAN ORATION
2. Cicero Marcus Tullius. First Oration Against Catiline. Translated by William Jennings Bryan and Francis Whiting Halsey. Accessed: September 2, 2019. URL: https://www.bartleby.com/268/2/11.html 3. O Tempora! O Mores! Cicero’s “Catilinarian Orations”: A Student Edition with Historical Essays. Com- piled by Susan O. Shapiro. Student ed. Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture 30. N.p.: University of Oklahoma Press, 2005. 4. “Cicero: Defender of the Roman Republic.” Constitutional Rights Foundation. Accessed: September 2, 2019. URL: https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria‑23–3-b-cicero-defender-of-the- roman-republic 5. Crispus Gaius Sallustius. Bellum Catilinae. Translated by Bill Thayer. Accessed: September 2, 2019. URL: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.ht 6. Crispus Gaius Sallustius, and Marcus Tullius Cicero. Sallusts Catiline, With Parallel Passages From Ci- cero’s Orations Against Catiline. Compiled by Jared C. Sallust. – London, UK: FB&C, 2015. Originally published as Gai Salusti Crispi Bellum Catilinae (Norwood, MA: Norwood Press, 1900). 7. Langerwerf Lydia. “To Have Daring Is Like a Barrier’: Cicero and Sallust on Catiline’s Audacia”. In Greece and Rome. Previously published in Greece and Rome 62 (October 2015): 155–66. URL: https://www. researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/2047586392_Lydia_Langerwerf 8. Lloyd James. “Cicero.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified January 15, 2013. Accessed: Sep- tember 2, 2019. URL: https://www.ancient.eu/Cicero 9. Mitchell Th. N. “Cicero and the Senatus ‘Consultum Ultimum. “In Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschich- te”. N.p.: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1971. Previously published in Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Winter/Spring 1971. – P. 47–61. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435179 10. Ramsey J. T. “Introduction.” Introduction to Sallust’s Bellum Catilinae, by Gaius Sallustius Crispus, 1–26. Compiled by J. T. Ramsey. 2nd ed. – New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2007. 11. Wasson Donald L. “Cicero and the Catilinarian Conspiracy.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modi- fied February 3, 2016. Accessed: September 2, 2019. URL: https://www.ancient.eu/article/861/cicero – the-catiline-conspiracy
61 Section 3. Cultural studies
Section 3. Cultural studies
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-62-67 Kozek Mykola Ivanovich, postgradute student, Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts E-mail: [email protected] WATER IN THE RITUAL CALENDAR OF THE BUCOVYNA HUTSULS Abstract. The article reveals the essence of water use in the ritual calendar of the Ukrainians of Bukovyna Hutsulhschyna. Characteristic features of the worship and use of water on the basis of field studies in the villages of Putylskyi district, Chernivtsi region are considered. New features of worship and use of water in the rituals calendar of the ethno-cultural region of Ukraine, Bukovyna the Hutsulhschyna are analyzed. Keywords: Bukovyna Hutsul region, water, rituals, tradition, culture, the Hutsuls, Jordan, Christ- mas Eve. Козек Николай Иванович, аспирант Киевского национального университета культуры и искусств E-mail: [email protected] ВОДА В ТРАДИЦИОННОЙ КАЛЕНДАРНОЙ ОБРЯДНОСТИ ГУЦУЛОВ БУКОВИНЫ Аннотация. В статье раскрывается сущность использования воды в календарной обряд- ности украинцев Буковинской Гуцульщины. Рассматриваются характерные особенности в че- ствовании и использования воды на основании полевых исследований в селах Путильского района Черновицкой области. Анализируются новые черты почитания и использования воды в календарной обрядности этнокультурного региона Украины – Буковинской Гуцульщины. Ключевые слова: Буковинская Гуцульщина, вода, обряди, традиция, культура, гуцули, Иор- дан, Сочельник. Вода с древних времен в обрядности многих всей своей жизни – от крещения и до похорон. индоевропейских народов считалась животвор- В календарной обрядности буковинских гуцулов ной, очищающей и целительной. Украинцы ис- освященная вода выполняла защитные и оздо- пользуют святую воду в обрядности в течение ровительные функции, являлась своеобразным
62 WATER IN THE RITUAL CALENDAR OF THE BUCOVYNA HUTSULS
«оберегом» здоровья и благополучия гуцулов, варивая при этом: «Не купається хліб у воді, але защищая их хозяйство от возможных бед. В те- я у здоров’ї та силі» (Не купается хлеб в воде, но чение календарного года гуцулы освящали воду я в здоровье и силе), затем набирал воду и говорил: в Первый и Третий Сочельник, на Иордан, Сре- «Не беру я води, але молоко, мед і вино» (Не беру тение Господне, Пасху, Проводное воскресенье, я воду, но молоко, мёд и вино) [5, 125]. Святого Юрия, Медовый и Яблочный Спас. На Буковине, как в целом на Западной Украи- На Сочельник (6 января), пока хозяйка гото- не, в день Святого Василия бытует обычай купа- вила праздничные блюда, хозяин щел в церковь ния Маланки. (Маланка – украинский народный на первое в году освящение воды, чтобы прине- праздник связан с традиционным переодеванием сти ее до начала Святого ужина. Эту воду гуцулы в фольклорных персонажей: Маланку, Василия, употребляли первой во время святвечерней тра- козу, медведя, и других. Главным персонажем пезы, так как считали ее животворной и целебной праздника является Маланка, роль которой ис- (с. Пидзахаричи, Путильский район, Черно- полняет переодетый в женщину мужчина). Участ- вицкая область). В большинстве гуцульских сел ники «Маланки» открывали свое торжественное посуду с освященной водой для умерших род- действо вечером 13 января, а на следующий день ственников ставили на праздничном столе или односельчане загоняли маланкарей в воду, что- на подоконнике. Взрослых колядников, которые бы смыть с них образ язычества. Смывая с себя начинали колядовать от Рождества Христова и до оболочку временных персонажей (зверя, предка, апостола Стефана (9 января), сначала угощали демона), происходило своеобразное очищение святой водой (с. Мариничи, Путильский район, и перерождение участников ряженья, они имели Черновицкая область). право снова быть полноценными членами социума Использование воды в этот период года было [7, 200]. Без такого обрядового купания участни- присуще славянам еще до принятия христиан- ки «маланки» считались безбожниками и они не ства. Центральным событием, что открывала по- имели права заходить в церковь на богослужение. степенное движение к весне было зимнее солнце- Утром на третий Сочельник (18 января), ко- стояние. Считалось, что в этот день вода обладает торый в народе еще называют «Голодная кутья», целебными свойствами, поэтому было принято в церквях святили воду. После освящения воды купаться, чтобы иметь здоровье [2, 47]. гуцулы на улице поливали ею друг друга, желая Вечером 13 января (накануне Василия Вели- при этом здоровья, сил и дождаться следующего кого) гуцулы гадали на удачу. Они брали стакан года (с. Малый Дихтинец, Путильский район, с чистой водой, сливали туда из яйца белок и ста- Черновицкая область). Хозяин, принеся из церк- вили на подоконник. Утром смотрели, что обра- ви святую воду, войдя в дом, приветствовал всех зовалось в воде, на что похожа фигура: если на присутствующих: «На многа літ и на здоров’є та здания (дома, замки и т. д.) – будет удачный год, шєстє из водицев» («На много лет и на здоровье если ничего не сформировалось, то и никаких из- к счастью из водой»). А все домашние отвечали: менений в течение года не произойдет (с. Шепот, «Дєкуємо! Дай Боже на многа літ усім людем до- Путильский район, Черновицкая область). брим, тай нам посполу, шо в цім дому» («Спаси- По верованиям гуцулов, особые очиститель- бо! Дай Бог на многие годы всем людям добрым, ные свойства вода приобретала на Святого Васи- и нам что в этом доме») [10, 30]. лия (14 января). В полночь хозяин брал обрядовый Праздник Иордан (19 января) на Буковинской хлеб, который назывался «Василием» и шел с ним Гуцульщине имеет несколько названий: Видорщи, к водоему, там трижды мокал хлеб в воду, приго- Богоявление, Крещение, Иордан. В этот день по
63 Section 3. Cultural studies
всей Украине, и во многих православных странах периода на Гуцульщине было большим грехом сти- мира святят ритуальную воду. За несколько дней рать одежду в воде, мыть пол, или как-то осквернять до Крещения на местных реках Черемош, Пу- воду, потому что считали ее святой в любом виде (с. тилка, Серет и Сучава, если они покрыты льдом, Стебни, Путильский район, Черновицкая область). мужчины вырубали изо льда крест и престол для На Сретение (15 февраля), как и на Сочель- священника, вокруг которых ставили ели и елки ник, украинцы святили в церкви свечи и воду. как украшения праздника. Когда священник на- Вода, освященная в этот день, обладает целебны- чинал святить воду, толпа охотников, пришедших ми свойствами от различных болезней, особенно на праздник, начинали стрелять из ружей, само- от сглаза (отрицательной энергии). Гуцулы ис- палов вверх – этот обряд охотники объясняли тем, пользовали сретенскую воду в течение года от что еще на Герасима (17 марта) собираются вол- «злого глаза» и завистливых людей, а также для ки и их надо разогнать стрельбой [12, 43]. После обрядовых действий, связанных со своим скотом. освящения проруби мужчины мочили в воде ноги, Сретенской водой хозяева кропили скот, когда вы- говоря при этом: «Єк остра вода, так аби мені гоняли ее после зимовки на пастбище, давали пить острі були ноги через рік» («Какая острая вода, коровам после отела, кропили конюшни от злых чтобы такие острые ноги были целый год»). Это духов [3, C. 248]. Важным было на Сретение свя- обрядовое действие предотвращало опрелости тить воду в новой посуде – так она сохраняла свои ног при работе в сапогах в течение года [11, 209]. целебные свойства [1, 139]. По верованиям гуцулов, Иорданская вода име- Весенний период чествования воды, насы- ет целебные свойства, поэтому принеся ее домой, щенный в основном задабривальными ритуала- хозяин орошал ею свой двор (хозяйство), огороды, ми как жертвенного, так и гадального характера. чтобы был урожай и не было сорняков, скот – что- В языческие времена люди задабривали водную бы плодился, семью – чтобы здоровые были (с. Ше- стихию жертвоприношением. Крестьяне вери- пот, Путильский район, Черновицкая область). В ли, что весенние паводки не отступят до тех пор, с. Яблуница Путильского района, Черновицкой пока они не отдадут воде жертву. Обычно при области бытует обычай – после освящения воды таких паводках люди бросали в реку кур или до- идти в центр села и раздавать ее «за прости Бог» машний скот [4, 57]. тем, кто на работе, или по определенным причи- В Пасхальный четверг гуцулы вставали до вос- нам не смог прийти на освящение воды в церковь. хода солнца, чтобы умыться непочатой водой (ко- Хозяин также разводил освященную воду с ко- торую никто еще с утра не использовал). Счита- лодезной и напаивал скот, говоря при этом: «Щоб лось, что тот, кто умоется такой водой, в течение здорова була, як ця вода» («Чтобы здоровая года не будет иметь кожных заболеваний. Такая была, как эта вода»). Брызгали свяченой водой традиция бытует почти по всей Украине. в этот день пчел, чтобы не роились летом [6, 95]. На Пасху гуцулы вместе с «дорой» (паска) свя- Девушки на Видорщи набирали из проруби освя- тили воду, которую после окончания службы упо- щенной воды, наливали ее в большую миску, на дно требляли первой. В селе Пидзахаричи Путильского которой клали ягоды калины или красное ожерелье, района, Черновицкой области бытует традиция да- и умывались этой водой, чтобы лица были румяные вать на Пасху ведро святой воды «за прости Бог». [1, 118]. Богоявленскую воду принято хранить в те- Важно, чтобы ведро было новое и металлическое. чение целого года в надежном месте. От Иордан и до В начале ХХ в. вместо металлических ведер «за Св. Афанасия (31 января) священник ходил по прости Бог» давали деревянные гарчики (посуда крестьянским домам и освящал их. В течение этого для сквашивания молока) с водой.
64 WATER IN THE RITUAL CALENDAR OF THE BUCOVYNA HUTSULS
Вернувшись из церкви домой, хозяин кропил Старожилы Гуцульщины верят, что от Свя- пасхальной водой домашних животных (кроме того Юрия (6 мая) начиналась настоящая весна, свиньи) и поил их, добавив к обычной воды ос- животворные дожди и обильная роса. Целебные вященную. Занеся в дом пасхальную корзину, свойства приписывали росе на рассвете этого дня. хозяйка наливала в большую миску колодезную Старые люди, которые плохо видели, собирали воду, разбавляла ее святой и туда же добавляла рано утром росу, чтобы умыть ею глаза, а у кого освященную писанку и монеты. Затем все члены болела голова, то омывали голову. Девушки умы- семьи умывались этой водой, а писанкой крестили вали лицо, чтобы быть красивыми [4, 73]. лицо накрест (с. Малый Дихтинец, Путильский На Гуцульщине распространен обычай вече- район, Черновицкая область). Монеты исполь- ром перед Юрием класть на крыши «колешень» зовали в ритуальной воде, чтобы был достаток (конюшни) подойники и ведра с водой, чтобы за в течение года. Освященную пасхальную воду ночь собрать «манны-росы». До восхода солнца хранили целый год, а прошлогоднюю – выливали на Юрия окропляли росой с подойников коров, на грядки и деревья, которые еще не плодили. а водой из ведер – овец, приговаривая при этом: В Пасхальный понедельник, который еще «Икий гість, такий колач! Абесте тілько дава- называют «волочильный», или «поливаль- ли молока, кілько води ріка. Єк у головицях на ный» существовала традиция обливать водой весні прибуває води – так и ти, маржинко, при- незамужних гуцулок. Еще до восхода солнца, будь манни з трави» («Какой гость, такой ко- как только девушки шли по воду к колодцу, их лач! Чтобы столько давали молока, сколько воды уже ждали, спрятавшись, ребята. Как только река. Как в погреб натекает весной воды – так девушка зачерпала воды – парень обливал ее. и вы, коровы, наберите молока из травы») [10, Обычно парни поливали только своих деву- 48]. Утром на Юрия в церкви святили соль, моло- шек – чужих не вольно. Воду лили на голову или тую пшеницу и воду. Позже давали попробовать на одежду, за что девушка давала парню писанку скоту, чтобы на нее не имели влияния ведьмы. [2, 289]. На следующий день девушки обливали Часть святой воды добавляли в ведро к обычной парней. Интересен факт, что в «поливальный» воде и поили коров, а остальную воду использо- понедельник парни обливали девушек целый день, вали в случаях, если скотину укусит змея, ласка, а ребят в «поливальный» вторник годилось об- и т. п. (с. Малый Дихтинец, Путильский район, ливать только к обеду [12, 85]. Обряд с Пасхаль- Черновицкая область). ным поливом в основном бытовал на Западной В летний период пребывания скота и овец Украине. Гуцулы верят, что если в пасхальный по- на горной долине «ватаги» (главные в долине) недельник парень и девушка будут облиты водой, использовали воду в обрядовых действиях, на- то летом будут идти дожди, будет урожай, девушка правленных обеспечить удачный сезон – чтобы выйдет замуж за своего парня, а парень женится не было потерь ни среди доверенных ему живот- на своей девушке [3, 121]. ных, ни среди пастухов, гонильникив и т. д. После В Проводное воскресенье (воскресенье после зажигания на долине живой ватры (огонь), стар- Пасхи) давали «за прости Бог» ведро воды (в древ- шина брал обгоревший уголь и бросал его в таз ности вместо ведер давали деревянные кружки), с водой, которой затем крестил двор, стаю, вымя колач, писанки и тому подобное. Все это давалось коров. Остальную воду заливал в бутылку и со- через могилу умершего родственника. Священник хранял ее в течение всего летнего сезона [3, 316]. в этот день освящает кладбище (с. Пидзахаричи, Летняя обрядность, связанная с культом воды, Путильский район, Черновицкая область). наиболее отчетливо проявлялась в праздновании
65 Section 3. Cultural studies
Ивана Купала, который отмечают 7 июля. Хри- Спас (19 августа). Этой водой поливали сады, стианство веками боролось за уничтожение, по их чтобы были плодородные. мнению, этого «языческого» праздника, однако Во времена язычества воду освящали огнем. Для искоренить купальскую обрядность так и не уда- такого обрядового действия набирали воду в посуду лось. В конце концов священнослужители окре- с места, где сходились три реки в одну, и проливали стили 7 июля как день святого Иоанна Крестителя. эту воду через пламя в другую посуду [2, 43]. В этот день до восхода солнца люди шли в поле, что- Воду на Андрея (13 декабря) девушки исполь- бы покачаться в росе. Считалось, что человек, ку- зовали для гадания, где она символизировала сво- паний в такой росе, не будете иметь в течение года еобразную преграду, разделяла берега между влю- фурункулов, чесотки и других кожных заболеваний бленными. Символическая переправа со своего [9, 16]. В давние времена гуцулки, придя умываться берега на берег к суженому давала возможность в купальской росе, говорили такую молитву: девушкам, которые гадают, узнать свою судьбу. «Водичко, ти ничко, ти омиваєш два береги, При гадании девушка наливала в миску воду и кла- Трету середину, четверте каміннє, п’яте коріннє. ла на нее соломинки, как мостик. Затем ставила Обмий личко молодички від чарів і образи, эту посуду под кровать и ложилась спать. Если Щоб була гожа, весела, як церква серед села». суженый появлялся во сне и переводил девушку («Водичко, ты ничко, ты омываешь два берега, через мостик, то быть им вместе [8, 111]. Третью середину, четвертые камни, пятые Гадали гуцулки в ночь перед Андреем и над корни. ручьем. Девушка, желающая узнать о суженом, Омой лицо женщины от чар и обид, находила узкий ручеек и клала через него прутик Чтобы была хорошая и веселая, как церковь с однолетней ивы, говоря при этом такие слова: среди села.») «Хто мене має брати, би дав мені наніч знати». И на этих словах умывали трижды лицо, мо- («Кто меня должен принимать, дал бы мне на лились и шли домой (с. Яблуница, Путильский ночь знать»). После этого с противоположной район, Черновицкая область). стороны дома переходила по ивовом мостику Утреннюю воду, принесенную до рассвета и тихонько шла в дом спать (ни с кем не говоря, 7 июля, хранили в доме в течение года. Ее исполь- даже если кого-то и встретит). Ночью, как прави- зовали при лечении болезней и применяли против ло, должен был присниться суженый (с. Плоская, колдовства [3, 463]. Путильский район, Черновицкая область). На Гуцульщине люди верили, что большую Следовательно, вода для жителей Буковин- силу имеет вода «непочатая», или «живая» ской Гуцульщины как в дохристианские, так вода – такой считается вода, набранная из колодца, и в христианские времена была и является це- ручья или реки к восходу солнца, в которой еще лебной, животворной и очищающей энергией никто не умывался и не набирал в посуду. Целеб- всего живого на Земле. В результате исследо- ной считается и вода, которая расположена в ме- вания мы выяснили, что вода в календарно-об- сте, где сходятся три ручья в одну реку, или вода, рядовой культуре гуцулов Буковины имеет как набранная из трех или семи колодцев – такую воду общеславянское, так и собственную неповто- использовали при гаданиях [2, 43]. римую обрядность, которая сформировалась на Украинцы верили, что на Маковея (14 августа) фоне длительной изолированности края и спо- вода имела лечебные свойства [12, 125]. В этот соба бытования гуцулов с отличительными день в церквях на Гуцульщине с зельем и медом ос- чертами от общей части Украины. Значитель- вящали и воду. Также ее освящали и на Яблочный ное количество языческих обрядов, связанных
66 WATER IN THE RITUAL CALENDAR OF THE BUCOVYNA HUTSULS
с водой, на Буковинской Гуцульщине сохрани- початую» воду в обрядах в течение календар- лось более отчетливо благодаря поздней хри- ного года, гуцулы обеспечивали себе и своему стианизации и длительном периоде двоеверия хозяйству благополучие, здоровье, силу и защи- в данном регионе. Используя святую или «не- щались ею от злых сил. Список литературы: 1. Воропай О. Звичаї нашого народу // Етнограф. Нарис. – Київ: АТ Обереги, 1993. – 579 с. 2. Іларіон, митрополит. Дохристиянські вірування українського народу: Іст. –реліг // моног. 2-ге ви- дання. – Київ: АТ Обереги, 1994. – 424 с. 3. Килимник С. Український рік у народних звичаях в історичному освітленні. – Том ІІ. – Київ: АТ Обереги, 1994. – 528 с. 4. Ковтун А. Вода й вогонь в українських легендах та віруваннях. – Київ: Успіх і кар’єра, 2015. – 144 с. 5. Кожолянко Г. Етнографія Буковини. – Т. 3. – Чернівці: Золоті литаври, 2004. – 392 с. 6. Кожолянко Г. Духовна культура українців Буковини. – Чернівці: Прут, 2007. – 403 с. 7. Курочкін О. Українські новорічні обряди: «Коза» і «Маланка». – Опішне: Українське народознав- ство, 1995. – 392 с. 8. Музиченко Я. Від Романа до Йордана: обряди, символи, страви. – Львів: Свічадо, 2011. – 138 с. 9. Хоткевич Г. Гуцули й Гуцульщина. – N.J.: друк. «Свободи» 83. 1920. – 32 с. 10. Шекерик-Доників П. Рік у віруваннях гуцулів. – Верховина: Гуцульщина, 2009. – 352 с. 11. Шухевич В. Гуцульщина / Четверта частина / Видання друге. – Верховина: Гуцульщина, 1999. – 304 с. 12. Яківчук А. З роси і води. – Чернівці: Місто, 2003. – 172 с.
67 Section 4. Philology and linguistics
Section 4. Philology and linguistics
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-68-70 Altaeva Gulnar, Ph.D., Associate Professor Moldabayeva Ainur, Senior teacher Aynakulova Zhanat, Senior teacher, Kazakhstan E-mail: [email protected] TERMINALIZATION OF DIALECT LEXIS Abstract. The given work describes terminalization of dialect lexis in Kazakh terminology. Also the norms of literary language and different ways of terminalization of regional lexis were defined. Keywords: terminalization, lexicon, dialect, kazakh language, terminology, synonyms, zonal vo- cabulary. Regional vocabulary and its specific features are language: matches – sulfur, spruce, shark, shi, burner, the most studied problem on the part of correspond- lighter; plasterer – log, basin, dirt, plaster, stone, etc. ing scientists. It is evidenced by the works of such sci- There are similar lexical differences in the meaning entists as S. Amanzholov, Zh. Doskaraev, sh. Sarybaev, of individual words. In both the literary language and A. Nurmaganbetov, S. Omarbekov, O. Nakysbekov, the dialect, words are sometimes spoken alike and N. Zhunisov, K. Kaliev, T. Aidarov, Zh. Bolatov, who have different meanings, for example, the word saw is have specially studied the dialectology of linguistics. used in a sense that is good in one place or bad in one The term “Dialect” means a set of features that place. In the same way, the word hell is understood are not of a national character, are used only in cer- everywhere in the sense of home and grave. Aunt tain places, a separate area, a territory with languages is used in the means of father, somewhere brother, that are characteristic of it. In this sense, a dialect is sometimes sister. Discipline is spoken in the sense of an integral part of a folk or national language. a resolution, an instruction, a command” [1, 153]. Literature can be dialect only if it differs from the Dialects are part of national lexicon, but they are norm. In a dialect, the universal word in a literary lan- not nationwide. After all, most of them have under- guage may be pronounced differently. For example, in standable alternatives to the national language. The the local language, as in the literal language, the con- dialectical vocabulary is subdivided into relevant dia- sequences instead of saying consequences; slaughter lects according to S. Sarybayev, improper dialects, instead of name; The ruinous is ripe, the rude is the and semantic dialects. G. Kaliyev subdivided into rude, the rude is the dry. There are several variants of actual lexical dialectisms, ethnographic dialectisms. some words in the literary language in the local folk The scientist arguing that dialectic words are mostly
68 TERMINALIZATION OF DIALECT LEXIS not included in the lexicon of the literary language, Here, too, there is enough ground for the dialect to be but also that they need to be introduced into the termed. The aforementioned similarities are a com- literary language if the words that express a certain mon feature of the concepts being compared. concept are missing in the literary language. In the Abay district of the East Kazakhstan region, In Kazakh terminology, terms used in the termi- due to small significant changes used in the meaning nology of dialectical lexicon are not very common. of the organization by collectives, in some regions For example, terms used in certain areas of Aktobe, of Turkmenistan, Karakalpakstan and Aktobe, Ky- West Kazakhstan, and other languages are among zylorda regions, used in the meaning of customs the biological terms. In the dectolithic dictionary of and traditions, they are terminated and included in the Kazakh language this word is translated as “bone officially approved terms. The list may also include porridge, porridge. Streets “, 1988. The Special Dic- terms such as a collegiate board, sovereignty, sover- tionary of Biology, which was released, defines the eignty, darkness, suburbs, d anscalpels” [4, 237]. term tuff (bar) as “waste of the pulp that is left in ani- When performing combat techniques with weap- mal feed for sprites.” Also, the Explanatory Diction- ons in the Russian version, the butt is wrapped with a ary of the Mining and Metallurgical Industry has the word used as a dialect when drawing up this military following definition of the porous word: “0.01 mm order, i. e., folding into a crowd. The term” Line”, used to several mm granular gap in one of the common as an alternative to the term” Line”, means “gutters materials. Natural or artificial materials with closed in the field” only in the Western region. In military or interconnected cavities. The porosity is material terminology, the term “side (right and left) part of that has a cavity size of 30–80 percent” [2, 57]. the military frontier” is formed on the basis of the As you can see, the term is formed due to the dialect “ 1. wall of the house; 2. soul, brow.” similarity of the notion of the dialectic word with There are also some dialectical words used as alter- the similarity of the terminological meaning (put, natives to words that have no analogues in common. waste and food, hollow, formations, swamp, stop wa- These are: sheets (squats), rolls (quarter), dumplings ter). The word document used in the Narynkol and (pelmeni), etc. Most of the words in the above dialog Kegen districts of Almaty oblast is now one of the are included in the ten-volume dictionary of the Ka- officially approved terms in the term [3, 3]. zakh language. We assume that misinterpretation has In the field of biology, the term darkness is derived had a significant effect on their termination. from the term dialect shaman. In the dialectological The differences in dialects and dialects of the -Ka dictionary the word darkness means “a place for a zakh language are uneven in nature. Among them night overnight in a pasture”. The terminological dic- are linguistic features of ancient times, phenomena tionary defines the term as “resting place for animals of local language development, and differences aris- without a permanent shelter”. A distinction is made ing from the influence of other languages (most of- between the two definitions, where the word darkness ten Turkic languages). This suggests that words and in local terminology means the nightingale of animals personalities, the phenomena of sound, which today with shelter, and in the terminology the darkness is seem to be 9 locally distinct from the literary lan- the nightingale of animals without such permanent guage, have undergone centuries that have passed shelter. However, there are more similarities between through very complex processes. Generally speaking, differences. First of all, both are the places where the the Kazakh gorges have the following relationships: animals spend the night; secondly, both of them are a) the gorges speak the native languages (Uzbek, Ta- temporary shelters, and third, both of them are on tar, Kyrgyz) etc. b) relationship; b) the relationship pastures, in the mountains. is outside the settlement. of the goruses with the non-native, system languag-
69 Section 4. Philology and linguistics es (Russian, Arabic, Persian); c) the relation of the only as the old sarkynshaga. Such phenomena may goruses with the literary language; d) the relationship not occur in the language of young people. In contrast of the halls. The scope and prevalence of dialectical to local features, which were not of a national charac- features in the Kazakh language is not the same. The ter in the Kazakh language, were used only within a range of features may be as small as one or two or certain area or can not be raised to the level of a liter- the same area, but the range of features is wider than ary language. They can be divided into three groups: the isoglossal boundaries. For example, in the north- lexical, 10 phonetic, and grammatical features. From west it is pronounced forehead (choir), choir (tamai), the point of view of the numerical ratio of these three tenend (tenk), and the word khagdai is khagadai – a groups, there is a more predominance of phonetic large phenomenon that is found not only in one dis- and grammatical features” [5, 22]. trict or one region, but also in several areas (Aktobe, When considering this problem, it turns out that Uralsk, Guryev). And the range of phenomena is regional vocabulary is termed in two different ways. limited to individual areas or regions. For example, The first is terminating through a literary language. in the Makanchi and Urdzharsky areas of the Semi- That is, this word, used in a certain region, entered palatinsk region corn is called bormi, pormi, water- the literary language and passed into General use, melon melon, melon thyme. One phenomenon, due passed into the terminological field and was used in to the different names of the same thing in different the terminal sense. This group includes words such places, there are several synonyms and duplicates in as a necklace, the cob, the bloody. The second is the the Kazakh gorges. By the extent of their distribution, direct terminology of local words. In this case, the the entire territory of Kazakhstan is divided into two, dialect word is derived from the number of terms, three and even 5–6. There are three main features: passing immediately into a certain terminological ethesh-kazaz, kudagay-kudagi, cervynagash-suagash- field without switching to General use. Words such kuente-komte-komys-yinagash; Dough-thin breads as: deadlock, collective, process, darkness, are termi- and loaves of bread divide the territory of Kazakh- nated in this second way. stan by 5–6. Dialect differences do not apply to the Dialectologists who study the zonal vocabulary same extent. If someone is often used, then someone of the Kazakh language say that “a rich vocabulary is is used very rarely. A number of features of mass hous- a group of dialect vocabulary” – that is, the role of ing, has taken a number of now in Kazakhstan there this Fund in enriching the terminological vocabu- are many, not only elderly, elderly people, preserved lary, which has been used very little so far. References: 1. Sarybayev Sh., Nakysbekov O. Regionak lexis of Kazakh language. – Almaty, 1989. 2. Sarybayev Sh. Problems of Kazakh linguistics. – Almaty: Аrys, 2000. 3. Kaliev G. Lexicology and phraseology of modern Kazakh language. – Almaty, 2006. 4. Dialektological dictionary of Kazakh language. – Almaty, 2007. 5. Zakirov M., Elemesov K., Khaiymov K. Russian and Kazakh dictionary of biological terms. – Almaty, 1988.
70 MANAGING BETWEEN PRIVATE UNIVERSITY’S JOINT TRAINING PROGRAM AND VIETNAM BUSINESS NOWADAYS
Section 5. Management
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-71-74 Nguyen Huu Nang, Van Lang University, Vietnam E-mail: [email protected] MANAGING BETWEEN PRIVATE UNIVERSITY’S JOINT TRAINING PROGRAM AND VIETNAM BUSINESS NOWADAYS Abstract. Managing between Private University’s joint training program and Vietnam business is the main condition to constantly increase it’s quality education in trend of Knowledge Economic and International Economic Integration thoroughly. On the basic of the relation between private University’s joint training and business as well as it’s management program, this article shows some fundamental proposals to enhance them. Keywords: Joint Training, Private University, Business, Vietnam. 1. Introduction In the trend of globalization and international In development trend of modern society, high integration, development of private universities in quality human resource has becoming essential need Vietnam become an indispensable requirement for and the key resource in the system force of the devel- education socialization. Private universities have af- opment countries in the world as well as in Vietnam. firmed role of the national education system in high- The main objective of the renewal management be- quality training human resources for the develop- tween the Vietnamese education system of Universi- ment of economy and society. ties in general and private Universities in particular, According to conception of Organization for contributing to the workforce with increasing quality Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), (talent, professional ability, bravery …) in order to Private Universities are “controlled by the non-gov- bring efficiency in the exploitation, use resources and ernmental organization (for example company or bring more value benefits to social. This is an overall business) in which, most off all the board’ members impact process with multiple solutions, comprehen- are appointed by private organizations” [10, 8]. At sive measures. In which, managing between Private the second Clause, Article 7, Chapter I of Vietnam- University’s joint training program and Vietnam busi- ese University Education Law in 2012 is defined: ness is always the extremely important measure, that “Private education institution belongs to social or- directly effect on renovating process, comprehensive ganization, social organization- occupation, private education and training; create a solid basis to promote or individual economic organization, which invest country’s sustainable economy development [1; 2]. and build up material facilities.” 2. Contents of the study The system of Vietnam private universities are 2.1. The Practical and the Theoretical constantly developed both training quantity and Private Universities in Vietnam scale. There are currently 63 private universities,
71 Section 5. Management which have a large of students in Vietnam. They have directly evaluate quality of training in private univer- taken part in training multi- sectorial and areas, most sities, minimizing the cost of recruitment as well as of them have had spacious and modern material fa- retraining of labor resources after recruitment. cilities, in which are Van Lang Private University, Toward the private universities, the associated Eastern International University, Hong Bang Inter- training management will ensure steadily the de- national University, Thang Long University, FPT velopment process, take more practical benefits for University, … both immediate and long term, such as: consulted by Roles of Managing between Private University’s joint the organization recruitment, exchanged of informa- training program and Vietnam business. tion on science, advanced technology, the demand Willhelm Humboldt- a philosopher German, for human resources in the present time and the fu- who had formerly taken the initiative in jointing ture. And so it has the way to build, redesign content training between education institution and busi- of training programs more appropriate, contribute ness. According to him, besides training, education to improving the quality of training as well as to find institution joint business. And so public universi- the output varies for students. Also through the as- ties in general and private universities in particular sociated training management helps private universi- know the interaction that take benefits to all of them. ties to increase financial resources through revenue The popular joint training level of private universi- from the commercialization of research products, is ties and businesses are: Receiving training students, a method to the mobilization of resources for the re- practically visiting, supporting costs and teaching search activity, teaching staff, faculty and researchers and learning equipment. Moreover, there are higher schools. At the same time, continuously improve the joint training level: exchanging knowledgement, reputation and its position before the high require- technology; investing in studying, developing to get ments, the diversity of the labor market. and transfer technology; commercializing the results Thus, it can be showed that the training coop- and providing products, services to society. eration management of private universities and Viet- Managing between Private University’s joint nam business is the objective needs, derived from training program and business has an important role the demand for practical interests of both them. As in directing to keep the development of orientation main interests is the survival and development, train- and constantly increasing the quality, effect follow to ing activities of the private universities towards labor the target before. resource with the necessary skills and attitudes for Nowadays, technology has contributed to be the business. On the other hand, it is also the practi- more and more positive in economic organization, cal needs of the business, they are not only training so management of Private University’s joint training partners, but also training transfer, or indirectly take program and business is more and more essential and part in the intensive training process for their future popular. As through management in order to ensure human resources. business well-performing its role as the beneficiary, Actual situation also the origin of the demand for training, the sub- Along with the strong development of science ject promotes the resolution needs of training high and technology, the process of opening exchanges, quality human resources for private universities as integration of the international economy in Vietnam well. Ensuring that businesses search for invention, has posed increasing demand for quality educational high feasibility science and technology products to products for each tertiary education institutions in apply, and making competitive market and sustain- general, private universities in particular to meet the able development as well as allowing businesses to development needs of the production and business
72 MANAGING BETWEEN PRIVATE UNIVERSITY’S JOINT TRAINING PROGRAM AND VIETNAM BUSINESS NOWADAYS of enterprises. This inevitably requires the training of to universalize clearly Government’s circulars and private universities must constantly innovate both in regulations, especially: Circular No.29/2017/TT- terms of content, programs and training methods in BLĐTBXH dated December 15th, 2017 of the Min- the direction close to the actual needs of social prac- istry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs “Regulat- tice. During this time, the management was initially ing joint training program”; Circular No. 07/2017/ brought positive results such as: good at cooperating TT-BGDĐT dated March 15th, 2017 of the Ministry training program in many activities, especially in sci- of Education and Training “Issuing regulations on entific research, technology transfer with enterprise’s jointing training program”. Therefore, students can needs (in the fields of agriculture – forestry – fishery; develop initiative and creativity to ensure the quality the social sciences and humanities, information and of the output product and job opportunities. communications technology; economics – business Secondly, promoting to build statute, training administration, engineering – technology …); semi- program; inviting business to join in training as well nars on training programs, standards of output, prac- as appreciative process, appraised the outputs. Es- tice and training of professional skills for students in pecially, concentrating on researching and grasping the community of businesses; activities promotion thoroughly legal documents that mention to instruct of cooperation signed on training workforce as well to organize joint training in detail; clearly regulate as scientific research, product development accord- the duties and obligations both private universities ing to the business order business, … The results and business. have made the education and training of Vietnam Thirdly, guiding to increase relationship between private universities better, caught up with the trend private universities and businesses such as: Vietnam of development in the world. Chamber of Commerce and Industry (VCCI), Busi- On the other hand, there are some restrictions, ness Chambers and Associations, Young Business- especially in synchronization of the methods as well man Association, Businesswoman Association, as the content of management. Firstly, it didn’t have Trade Association… In which, concentrating on effective measures to promote long-term cooperative maintaining both graduate students, especially busi- programs yet. Secondly, private universities’ reve- ness graduate students and universities because it is nues between the transfer of technology and scientif- important the connection. ic research is quite low. Thirdly, there are not enough Fourthly, being good at innovating the content the number of private universities’ inventions and and training program to respond the practical need of technological transfer. Lastly, it only concentrated business. In which, ensuring to make plan of training training activities, supplying the labor, not focused program and have good outputs for student; timely on researches of science and technology… catch up with information requirement of the major 2.2. Some measures to improve the effectiveness or human resource area which business wants is in of management of joint training activities of private the future. And inviting business’ managers to train universities with enterprises in Vietnam today students. Moreover, encouraging lecturers, staffs and In situation of industrial revolution 4.0, training students to join business and exchange experiment with practical applications in social needs is the core and difficulties between training program and reality. element. In the next time, there are some basic solu- 3. Conclusion tions to improve the quality as well as effectiveness: In the context of globalization, integration and Firstly, universities sometimes arrange education development as well as strong impact of Fourth In- activities, help students are aware of the importance dustrial Revolution (Revolution 4.0), training pro- of jointing training program. Particularly, it needs gram between private university and enterprises is
73 Section 5. Management an objective necessity demands. To constantly im- improve the efficiency of management that guide proving the high quality of universities’’ training for and regulate the appropriate plan through specific labor resources of enterprises, it requires constantly methods. References: 1. Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam. Resolution No. 29-NQ / TW dated 04/11/2013 of fundamental and comprehensive innovation in education, serving industrialization and modernization in a socialist-oriented market economy during international integration, – Hanoi. 2013 2. Ministry of Education and Training. Circular No. 20/2010 / TT-BGDĐT and Circular No. 45/2014 / TT-BGDDT 12.17.2014 of Ministry of Education and Training, providing for content, order of, and procedures for the transformation of people-founded universities into private ones, – Hanoi. 2010. 3. Communist Party of Vietnam. Resolution 33-NQ/TW of the 9th Meeting of the Party Central Commit- tee of the 11th tenure on building and developing Vietnamese culture and people meeting the demand for national sustainable development, – Hanoi. 2014. 4. Communist Party of Vietnam. Document of the 12th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam, National Political Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2016. 5. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, the 2012 Higher Education Act, – Hanoi. 2012. 6. Tran Van Quyen. “Cooperation model between schools and enterprises in scientific research, training and utilization of human resources in order to improve access to reality”, Scientific Conference, Lac Hong University, Ho Chi Minh. 2012. 7. Prime Minister. Decision No. 122/2006 / QĐ-TTg, the transformation of people-founded universities into private ones, – Hanoi. 2006. 8. Prime Minister. Decision No. 61/2009/QĐ-TTg issued regulations on organization and operation of private universities, – Hanoi. 2006. 9. Tran Phuong. Hanoi University of Business and Technology, Scientific and technical publishing house. 2011. 10. Standing Committee of the National Assembly. Report on the results of monitoring “the implementation of policies and laws on the establishment of schools, investment and quality assurance training for higher education” at the 12th session of the 7th National Assembly (06/05/2010), – Hanoi. 2010.
74 FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF TEACHING THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN UZBEKISTAN (ON THE EXAMPLE OF CREATIVITY V.I. ANDRIYANOVA AND I.N. STYRKAS)
Section 6. Pedagogy
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-75-78 Akhmedova Laylokhon Tolibzhonovna, Doctor of Education, Professor of Uzbekistan State University of World Languages E-mail: [email protected] FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF TEACHING THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN UZBEKISTAN (ON THE EXAMPLE OF CREATIVITY V.I. ANDRIYANOVA AND I.N. STYRKAS) Abstract. The article is devoted to the history of the development of teaching methods of the Rus- sian language and literature in the Republic of Uzbekistan. The works of scientists V. I. Andriyanova and I. N. Styrkas, who made a certain contribution to the development of the theory and practice of teaching the Russian language and literature in Uzbekistan, are analyzed. Keywords: methodology, Russian language, literature, education, commented reading, literary text, principle of continuity. Ахмедова Лайлохон Толибжоновна, доктор педагогических наук, профессор Узбекистанского государственного университета мировых языков E-mail: [email protected] ИЗ ОПЫТА ПРЕПОДАВАНИЯ РУССКОГО ЯЗЫКА И ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ В УЗБЕКИСТАНЕ (НА ПРИМЕРЕ ТВОРЧЕСТВА В.И. АНДРИЯНОВОЙ И И.Н. СТЫРКАС) Аннотация. Статья посвящена истории развития методики преподавания русского язы- ка и литературы в Республике Узбекистан. Анализируются труды учёных В. И. Андрияновой и И. Н. Стыркас, внёсших определённый вклад в развитие теории и практики преподавания русского языка и литературы в Узбекистане. Ключевые слова: методика, русский язык, литература, образование, комментированное чтение, художественный текст, принцип преемственности. Современная методика преподавания русско- на ценнейший опыт педагогов-словесников про- го языка и литературы в Узбекистане опирается шлого, стремится учитывать уроки этого опыта
75 Section 6. Pedagogy
и развивать лучшие традиции отечественной шко- экспериментальной работы в разных регионах ре- лы. История методической мысли неразрывно спублики, широкого опытного обучения, а также связана с развитием русского языка и литературы, учете достижений русской лингводидактики, про- именами известных деятелей науки и культуры, грессивных подходов в обучении русскому языку литераторов и педагогов, которые были первыми как родному, русскому языку как иностранному, авторами учебных пособий, руководств, статей иностранным языкам, наконец, тенденций нового по проблемам теории и истории словесности, педагогического мышления и концепции непре- по вопросам воспитания и обучения. Огромный рывного образования в Узбекистане. вклад в развитие методической мысли в Узбеки- Несомненное достоинство научных трудов стане внесли выдающиеся учёные А. В. Миртов, В. И. Андрияновой, на наш взгляд, – апробация Е. Ш. Мирочник, В. А. Чиннова, С. М. Махмудова, основных теоретических положений на пред- М. А. Зальдинер, Ф. И. Губина, В. И. Андриянова, ставительных научных конгрессах, симпозиу- М. А. Батырова, И. Н. Стыркас и др. мах, конференциях, а также активное внедрение В рамках данной статьи проанализируем результатов исследования в школьную практику труды ученых-методистов В. И. Андрияновой – в подготовительных классах, начальных, 5–9-х и И. Н. Стыркас, проработавших многие годы на- классах, в классах с углубленным изучением рус- учными сотрудниками Узбекского научно-исследо- ского языка и литературы, во внеклассной работе, вательского института педагогических наук имени на факультативных занятиях, на занятиях с уча- Кары Ниязи и внёсших несомненный вклад в раз- щимися-допризывниками и т. д. Это программы, витие теории и практики преподавания русского лексические минимумы, ситуативные минимумы, языка и литературы в Республике Узбекистан. методические пособия, фономатериалы, разда- Яркий след в методике преподавания русско- точные дидактические материалы и др. Ученый- го языка и литературы оставила Валентина Ива- педагог также занималась разработкой проблем новна Андриянова – доктор педагогических наук, изучения русского языка и литературы в школах профессор, ученый-педагог и методист с много- республики с русским языком обучения в услови- гранными научными интересами и огромным ях многонационального состава учащихся с пре- педагогическим исследовательским опытом ра- обладанием детей-представителей тюркских на- боты. Она разработала принципиально новую циональностей. Они составляют от 40 до 60–70% коммуникативную модель обучения русскому и выше от общего количества учащихся в классах. языку узбекских школьников, а именно устно- Данный фактор обусловил необходимость учета речевому общению на этом языке как основной принципа разумного и гармоничного соотноше- формы коммуникации с учетом специфичности ния как национальных реалий, так и общечелове- и системно-интегративной сущности этого по- ческих ценностей (образно говоря, «и восточная нятия, определила и обосновала структурный, мудрость, и весь мир») в содержании языкового концептуальный и научно-методический уровни и литературного материала и методов его изуче- системы обучения узбекских школьников устно- ния и усвоения [1]. речевому общению на русском языке, базирую- На развитие методики русского языка и ли- щиеся на анализе истории развития методиче- тературы и совершенствование его преподава- ской мысли в Узбекистане с дореволюционного ния большое влияние оказали фундаментальные периода до начала 90-х годов, учете многооб- труды не менее известного учёного Республики разия практики обновления школы, передового Узбекистан, кандидата педагогических наук, про- педагогического опыта, данных многоаспектной фессора Инны Николаевны Стыркас.
76 FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF TEACHING THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN UZBEKISTAN (ON THE EXAMPLE OF CREATIVITY V.I. ANDRIYANOVA AND I.N. STYRKAS)
В научных трудах И. Н. Стыркас получили от- обобщения. Основная задача изучения литерату- ражение и развитие такие методические идеи как: ры на завершающем этапе общего среднего обра- учет психологических особенностей восприятия зования, по мнению И. Н. Стыркас, – продолжение произведений русской литературы учащимися работы по приобщению учащихся к основным узбекской школы; лексическая подготовка и сло- истокам духовных ценностей русской культуры, варное обеспечение процесса анализа художе- развитие и совершенствование навыков свобод- ственного текста; отбор материала для комменти- ного и самостоятельного чтения литературных рованного чтения и определение различных видов произведений разных жанров и видов, воспита- комментариев и форм их презентации в зависимо- ние нравственных качеств на материале русской сти от жанра произведения, целей и задач урока; и мировой, в том числе узбекской, литературы. По осуществление взаимосвязи комментированного утверждению учёного, более конкретная реализа- чтения с другими видами работы над текстом ху- ция принципа преемственности в изучении лите- дожественного произведения [2]. ратурного материала находит свое преломление После обретения Республикой Узбекистан не- в следующих аспектах: зависимости, потребовалось коренным образом – В определении целевой установки обучения пересмотреть содержание образования. Вместе предмету, а именно: приобщение учащихся к луч- с возрождением духовных ценностей наступило шим образцам русской и мировой художествен- возрождение педагогической науки, значительно ной литературы, формирование их эстетических обновленной, с новыми темами, педагогическими вкусов и ценностных ориентаций, развитие позна- технологиями, новыми приоритетами. Как инте- вательной и творческой активности, формирова- ресно было открывать для себя богатейшее насле- ние читательских вкусов и читательской культуры, дие выдающихся мыслителей Востока и особенно- развитие и обогащение эмоционально-образной сти Узбекистана. Как много появилось источников речи учащихся. Поэтапное усложнение и углубле- бесценных педагогических мыслей, взглядов уче- ние поставленной цели осуществляется за счет ных и просветителей – всего того, что многие годы подключения дополнительных задач. К примеру, оставалось вне поля зрения педагогов-исследова- в программах для 5–9 классов, по сравнению с на- телей. Мощным импульсом для педагогического чальным этапом, добавляются такие задачи, как и методического поиска и обновления послужи- «формирование навыков самостоятельной рабо- ла «Национальная программа по подготовке ка- ты с текстом», «развитие художественно-творче- дров Республики Узбекистан», которая выдвинула ских способностей» и др. в ряд актуальных такие проблемы, как «Личност- – В содержании самого литературного мате- но-ориентированное обучение и воспитание», риала. На начальном этапе учащимся для изуче- «Интегративное обучение основам наук в обще- ния и текстуального ознакомления предлагаются образовательной школе», «Преемственность художественные произведения преимуществен- в системе непрерывного образования» и ряд дру- но о детях и для детей, несложные и доступные гих. В рамках проекта «Обеспечение преемствен- стихотворения и рассказы, связанные со знаме- ности в содержании литературного образования» нательными датами, с наблюдениями за природой, И. Н. Стыркас определила особенности процес- тексты о животных. В средних классах представ- са становления творческого читателя на разных лены произведения с более сложной проблема- ступенях обучения – от наивно-реалистического тикой, имеющие мировое значение. Отбор про- отношения к искусству (литературе) к формиро- изведений осуществляется с учетом возрастных ванию критического мышления и философского особенностей и интересов учащихся, специфики
77 Section 6. Pedagogy
восприятия художественной литературы. В про- содержания производится с учетом профессио- граммах определенное место занимают также нальной направленности обучения [2]. произведения узбекской литературы и русскоя- Вышеизложенные положения нашли свою ре- зычной литературы Узбекистана, делается акцент ализацию в разработанных автором учебно-мето- на фактах творческого взаимодействия и взаимов- дических комплексах по литературе. лияния узбекских и русских писателей. В заключение хотелось бы отметить, что в на- – В рекомендуемых методах и приемах рабо- шей стране происходят позитивные изменения ты с программным материалом, где предпочтение в сфере образования и воспитания молодого по- отдается современным педагогическим техноло- коления людей. Обновилось содержание обра- гиям, направленным на активизацию самостоя- зования, в учебных заведениях применяются со- тельной деятельности учащихся, использованию временные информационно-коммуникативные нетрадиционных приемов обучения, способ- и инновационные технологии обучения. Изме- ствующих развитию творческих способностей нился и статус русского языка как учебного пред- учащихся. мета. Расширение международных связей, вхож- – В требованиях к знаниям, умениям и навы- дение нашего государства в мировое сообщество кам учащихся, предусматривающих их поэтапное сделало русский язык реально востребованными усложнение и углубление. Так, выпускники 9-х обществом и личностью. Русский язык также стал классов должны быть знакомы не только с от- в полной мере осознаваться как средство обще- дельными произведениями русских и мировых ния, средство понимания и взаимодействия лю- писателей, но и иметь представления о жизнен- дей, средство приобщения к иной национальной ном и творческом пути выдающихся деятелей ли- культуре и как важное средство для развития тературы, знать основные литературоведческие интеллектуальных способностей школьников, понятия, уметь соотносить произведения разных их общеобразовательного потенциала. И в этом, видов искусств – литературы и живописи, лите- считаем, есть несомненная заслуга выдающихся ратуры и музыки и т. п., уметь выразить в устной учёных В. И. Андрияновой и И. Н. Стыркас по и письменной форме свое отношение к прочитан- проблемам обучения узбекских школьников рус- ному и др. На следующем этапе обобщаются и си- скому языку и литературе – являющаяся золотым стематизируются литературные основы, а отбор фондом русской лингводидактики в Узбекистане. Список литературы: 1. Андриянова В. И. Концептуальные положения разработки альтернативных учебных пособий по русскому языку для 6–7 классов школ Узбекистана с узбекским и другими языками обучения // Гар- монично- развитое поколение – условие стабильного развития, благополучия и процветания. – Таш- кент, 2015. – № 3. – С. 83–110. 2. Стыркас И. Н. Комментированное чтение художественных произведений в старших классах узбек- ской школы: Пособие для учителя. – Ташкент, 2016. – 150 с.
78 MEDIA TEXT AS A MEANS OF FORMING THE VALUE-SENSE ORIENTATIONS OF FUTURE KINDERGARTEN EDUCATORS
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-79-82 Bader Svetlana Alexandrovna, Candidate of Pedagogical Science, Associate of Professor, Head of the Preschool and Primary Education Department State Institution “Lugansk Taras Shevchenko National University” E-mail: [email protected] MEDIA TEXT AS A MEANS OF FORMING THE VALUE-SENSE ORIENTATIONS OF FUTURE KINDERGARTEN EDUCATORS Abstract. The article is devoted to the problem of formation of value-sense orientations of future educators of kindergarten and search for appropriate pedagogical technologies. The author proves that working with media texts makes it possible to understand, critically evaluate and realize the es- sence of values, to accept those, which are necessary for future educators of kindergarten for further professional activity. Among the most optimal types of media texts we have selected: media texts on social networks and on Youtube channel, films, cartoons, video fragments, scientific and educational texts, audio recordings, iconic signs. Keywords: values, value-sense orientations, future educators of kindergarten, text, media text. Introduction. The current socio-economic and Result and discussion. In the process of voca- political situation in Ukraine is characterized by in- tional training, students, including future kindergar- stability, which provokes negative mood among the ten educators, are constantly confronted with the population on the one hand, and the reorientation need to process different types of media texts both of the value system to a more material vector ‒ on the in the classroom and in the non-classroom activities other. This problem is especially acute, when we talk (reading special and fiction in the open access and about student youth, in particular, future preschool on paper, watching video clips, movies, cartoons, fol- educators of kindergarten, as they will in the future lowed by discussion and analysis, etc.). In this sense, become a kind of translators of values for preschool M. Bakhtin’s idea is true that the text is the primary age children. source of all scientific disciplines [1]. Literature review. The problem of formation of The essence of the structure and classification value-sense orientations of future kindergarten edu- of media texts are investigated today in the works of cators is presented by researches of such scientists: T. Dobrosklonskaya, M. Kazak, O. Krasnoyarova, A. Andryunina, S. Gusakovskaya, S. Kaminskaya, K. Stetsyura, etc. We note that the category “media A. Lysenko, O. Padalka, etc. However, the authors text” is analyzed today at the interdisciplinary level and emphasize on the formation of professional value it is the study subject of philosophy, medialinguistics, orientations using traditional technologies for their journalism, psychology and pedagogy. A deep analysis formation, leveling the work with semantic texts, of the scientific literature gives us the opportunity to which include media texts. state, that this definition is considered in the frame- Based on the urgency of the problem, the pur- work of different approaches and is interpreted as: pose of the article is to characterize the essence and –– media-culture, because it can be understood structure of technology for working with media texts as a system of symbols, signs and meanings in terms of its axiological potential. (semiotic-information approach);
79 Section 6. Pedagogy
–– the means of communication in the systems –– integrativity – combining several semiotic “society – personality”, “personality – per- codes, meanings, subtexts into a single whole; sonality” (communicative approach); –– intertextuality / openness – interaction with –– cumulative communication product – media a wide society, being in the field of other texts, product that can be created by any non-pro- the possibility of intercommunication [3, fessional user (modern approach). P. 323; 4]. In our research, we look at media text in terms We consider such characteristics of the media of a multicultural approach. Firstly, the semiotic- text important from the point of view of the didactic informational approach presents copper text as a goal. Firstly, while working with media texts, future reflection of the culture itself, which is interpreted kindergarten educators realize not only the mean- through these texts as meaning streams. Culture ing of the content, but also the subcontext, that has itself, according to K. Stetsyura, becomes a “Mega- a value-semantic content. Secondly, the media text Text” – “a fabric, a web of media texts, which defines is a field for dialogue, exchange of thoughts, mean- human patterns of behavior that can be adhered to ings between the subjects of communication about and inherited” [2, P. 57]. Thus, in the texts are those what they read, saw or heard. Thirdly, the media text values that are professed by culture and society itself, most often synthesizes in itself the influence on the and it is thus embodied in various texts. visual, auditory sensory organs, the emotional and Secondly, the communicative approach to un- personal sphere of the student, which makes it more derstanding the essence of the media text reflects the understandable and close on the one hand, and on semantic space where the interchange and mutual en- the other hand, influences the inner world of the fu- richment of values between subjects (culture in gen- ture kindergarten educator. eral, the subjects of the educational process in higher It is important for our study to determine the education institutions). Thirdly, the problem of criti- types of media texts for the further selection of those, cal analysis of media texts arises especially sharply due that are appropriate to use for the formation of value- to the fact, that each of them carries a different context sense orientations of future kindergarten educators. and can be created by any person, which actualizes We are impressed by the classification proposed by the introduction of technology for the development of O. Krasnoyarova, which distinguishes the following critical thinking in future educators for the formation types in accordance with the given criteria: of positive value-sense orientations. –– by the way of media implementation: newspa- Thus, the media text reflects the value-sense con- per and magazine printed text, television text, text of culture, which makes it possible to use it in radio text, film production, mobile communi- working with future kindergarten educators as a tech- cation text (SMS, chat), Internet text (blog, nology for acquaintance, critical assessment, under- post with comments), alternative communi- standing, awareness and acceptance of positive values. cation texts (rumors, street advertisement); Among the main characteristics of media texts –– according to the method of perception: paper- M. Kazak, O. Krasnoyarova determine: printed text, audio text, screen text, web pub- –– media – the embodiment of the text using lication; various media (newspaper, magazine, televi- –– by subject and type of activity: professional sion, radio, personal computer, tablet, smart- and non-professional journalistic, advertising, phone, etc.); propaganda, PR texts, scientific specialized –– mass character – accessibility of the same text texts (books, articles, monographs); to a significant audience;
80 MEDIA TEXT AS A MEANS OF FORMING THE VALUE-SENSE ORIENTATIONS OF FUTURE KINDERGARTEN EDUCATORS
–– according to the style and subject matter of possess, presented in the studies by E. Kravchishina. the media text: documentary, journalistic, sci- The author supplements the existing classifications entific, artistic, mass-entertaining texts; with the criterion of “according to the purpose of –– on the discourse: socio-political, socio-prob- use”, distinguishing between media texts, informa- lematic, historical, artistic, cultural, philo- tional, educational, for communication, problem sophical, religious texts [4, P. 91]. solving, entertaining, and for the purpose of social The interest to our study is the classification of management [5, P. 51]. media, which future kindergarten educators should Table 1. – Types of media texts and their influence on the formation of value-sense orientations of future kindergarten educators The influence mechanism on the system of Methods of work with media Type of media text value-sense orientations of future kindergar- text ten educators Posts on social net- Understanding the context of content, devel- Methods of developing critical works and comments oping own axiological position regarding the thinking and interactive technol- on them problem. ogies, dialogue, discussion. Films / Cartoons Awareness of the values and axiological mean- Dialogue, discussion, problem- ings of the media text through emotional atic issues, essays, methods of inclusion, empathy, reflection, juxtaposition interactive technology, technol- and rethinking of one’s own value system with ogy for solving moral dilemmas. generally accepted moral norms, and the pro- duction of one’s own value orientations. Video recordings Awareness of values by solving problem situ- Dialogue, discussion, problem- of classes and other ations, comparing and rethinking one’s own atic issues, methods of interac- forms of work with value system with generally accepted moral tive technology, case technology, preschool age children norms, producing one’s own value orientations. technology for solving moral dilemmas. Scientific, educational Definition, understanding and awareness of Dialogue, discussion, method of and other texts in the values through comprehension, reflection and solving moral dilemmas, meth- public domain. rethinking of texts, development of one’s own ods of technology of develop- axiological position, production of one’s own ment critical thinking. value orientations. Audio recordings Awareness of values and axiological meanings Dialogue, discussion, problem- (music, songs, audio through aesthetic pleasure, reflection; produc- atic issues, essays. books) tion of one’s own value orientations. Iconic signs (photos, Awareness of values through emotional living Dialogue, discussion, methods drawings, reproduc- plot and rethinking their own system of values; of interactive technology, essay. tions, infographics) production of one’s own value orientations/ It is obvious that any classifications of media texts gle out those media texts that are appropriate to use in are conditional, however, they make it possible to sin- the process of training future kindergarten educators
81 Section 6. Pedagogy from the point of view of forming value-sense orien- Conclusions. As we can see, today a media text tations in them. To the same, we include: media texts is a powerful means of influencing the personality on social networks (Facebook, Instagram) and the of the future kindergarten educators, since it ac- You Tube channel (posts and comments on them), cumulates a value-sense outline of culture on the films (feature, documentary), cartoons, video clips, one hand, and work with such texts acquires the scientific and educational texts (articles, textbooks, features of the technology of forming value-sense monographs, other texts in the public domain), audio orientations of students on the other. The theoreti- recordings (music, audio books), iconic signs (photos, cal justification of the technology of working with drawings, reproductions, infographics, etc.). media texts in the process of training future kin- We characterize them from the point of view of axi- dergarten educators is the prospect of our further ological potential in the process of training (table 1). research. References: 1. Бахтин М. М. Проблема текста в лингвистике, филологии и других гуманитарных науках // Эсте- тика словесного творчества. – М.: Искусство, 1979. – С. 281–307. 2. Стецюра К. О. Природа та специфіка буття медіатекстів у культурній картині світу сучасного су- спільства // Вісник НТУУ «КПІ». Філософія. Психологія. Педагогіка. Вип. 3’2012. – С. 56–62. 3. Казак М. Ю. Специфика современного медиатекста // Лингвистика речи. Медиастилистика: кол. моногр., посвящ. 80-летию проф. Г. Я. Солганика. – М. 2012. ‒ С. 320‒334. 4. Красноярова О. В. Текст и медиатекст: проблема дифференциации понятий // Theoretical and Practical Issues of Journalism. 2015. – Вип. 4. – № . 1. – С. 85–100. 5. Кравчишина О. О. Формування готовності майбутніх вихователів до використання засобів медіа- освіти у навчально-виховному процесі дошкільних навчальних закладів: дис. … к. пед. наук. – Ста- робільськ, 2018. – 299 с.
82 IMPLEMENTATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION QUALITY ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES — SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE LABOR RESOURCE QUALITY IN VIETNAM TODAY
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-83-86 Vu Van Khoa, MA PhD student, course 39, major in Education Management, Hanoi National University of Education, Vietnam E-mail: [email protected] IMPLEMENTATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION QUALITY ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES — SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE LABOR RESOURCE QUALITY IN VIETNAM TODAY Abstract. The context of globalization and international economic integration has opened a new era for the world development and led to internationalization, competition as well as global coop- eration in higher education. The implementation of higher education quality assurance activities is recognized as an effective tool for the development of highly-qualified human resources, contributing to the social development in various aspects. Accordingly, in order to meet the requirements of the era as well as the requirements of the country’s renovation cause, throughout the course of leading the country’s revolutionary cause, the Communist Party of Vietnam always defines education as a national leading policy and one of the important motivations to promote human resources. Education and training aims to raise the intellectual level, foster talents, train the human resources of Vietnam with the knowledge, skills and behaviors to meet the renovation process. This article deals with the basic contents of the management and implementation of activities to ensure the quality of higher education in order to improve the labor resource quality in Vietnam today. Keywords: Assurance of the quality higher education and labor resources. 1. Introduction to practically contribute to training and retraining of In the cause of building and defending the Social- high quality labor resources, meeting social practical ist Republic of Vietnam and ensuring the quality of needs as well as promoting development speed and higher education in order to contribute to improving prosperity of the nation and the people [3; 4]. the quality of labor resources for the society is paid 2. Contents of the study special attention by the Party and State of Vietnam. 2.1. Concepts related to the implementation of The XIIth Congress of the Communist Party of Viet- higher education quality assurance activities nam affirmed: “Continuing to vigorously and syn- Educational quality chronously renovate the basic elements of education In the field of education, the quality with the prod- and training in the direction of attaching importance uct characteristic of “working people” can be under- to the development of learners’ qualities and compe- stood as the outcome (output) of the educational tencies, striving to reach the advanced level of the ed- process and is expressed in particular in the qualities, ucation of Vietnam in the region” [1; 2]. Therefore, personality values and the values of the labor force the question is to ensure the quality of education and or action capacity of graduates corresponding to the training in general, as well as to implement activities objectives of each training major in the national edu- to ensure the quality of higher education in particu- cation system. With the requirements to meet the la- lar. This is both a content and an urgent requirement bor needs of the labor market, the concept of training
83 Section 6. Pedagogy quality does not just stop at the results of the training Implement activities to ensure the quality of higher process in schools with certain assurance conditions, education such as facilities, lecturers, etc., but also taking into In higher education, the implementation of account the suitability and adaptability of graduates to quality assurance activities is defined as predefined the labor market such as: The rate of employment after systems, policies, procedures, actions and attitudes graduation, professional capacity at specific working to achieve, maintain, and monitor and improve the positions in enterprises, agencies, production and quality. In other words, this is the process of imple- service organizations, and professional development menting the quality management of higher educa- capabilities. However, it should be emphasized that tion through a system of coordinated activities to the training quality must first be the result of the train- guide, organize, ensure, improve and control the in- ing process and be reflected in the professional activi- stitution of quality education; and is the systematic ties of graduates. The process of adapting to the labor and effective impact of management subjects on the market depends not only on the quality of training but teaching and learning process in training institutions. also on other market factors such as supply-demand 2.2. Main contents in implementing activities to relations, labor prices, employment use and arrange- ensure the quality of higher education to improve ment policies of the State and employers, etc. the quality of labor resources in Vietnam Thus, the quality of education is consistent with Mentioning about education is about people. It the educational goals and the quality of learners is must be a long process, cannot be rushed, cannot formed from educational activities under the prede- be subjective, especially can not be avoided when termined goals. The relevance is expressed through implemented incorrectly. The process of organizing educational goals, the needs of learners, the family, and implementing activities to ensure the quality of the community and the society. The quality of educa- higher education has drawn many valuable lessons tion is determined based on: The quality of learning on steps and implementation roadmap. In the cur- environment and input (programs, content, lectur- rent situation, it is necessary to focus on the follow- ers, facilities, finance, management; quality of learn- ing main contents: ing process (teaching methods, learning methods, Firstly, conduct a review, reorganization and re- duration); quality of learning results (acquisition of planning of the network of higher education institu- knowledge, values, attitudes and skills). tions throughout the country. Localities should base Higher education quality on the standards and regulations to ensure the quality In the most general way, the higher education of higher education issued by the Ministry of Educa- quality is to meet the goals set by universities. The tion and Training, organize the review and re-plan- quality of higher education is the level of an inher- ning the network of higher education institutions to ent set of characteristics that meet the social needs. suit the practical social conditions in the area. At the The inherent characteristics are: Ethical qualities, same time, implement accreditation of higher educa- health, knowledge, methods and occupational skills tion institutions on a regular basis to have a basis for of graduates. ranking, stratification and rearrangement of the over- To assess the quality of higher education usually all higher education network in accordance with the based on many criteria, such as: Academic results, abil- needs of labor resources, especially Vietnam’s high- ity of students after graduation can meet job needs, quality labor forces in the context of Vietnam’s deeper have knowledge of skills, qualities, health knowledge and wider international economic integration. to ensure occupational skills, and to meet the needs of Secondly, implement measures to improve the the country’s high-quality workforce [7; 8]. quality of teaching staff and educational administra-
84 IMPLEMENTATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION QUALITY ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES — SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE LABOR RESOURCE QUALITY IN VIETNAM TODAY tors in universities. Accordingly, it is necessary to institutions to accept the transfer of advanced for- complete and promulgate teacher and educational eign programs, use English in teaching as well as administrator standards. Appraise properly the sta- increase the attraction of foreign experts and Viet- tus of quality of teacher and educational administra- namese intellectuals participating in teaching and tor in accordance with the issued codes/standards scientific research. to take measures to develop programs and plans for Sixthly, deploy the development of high quality organizing training and retraining of lecturers and human resources to meet the labor market needs. administrative officers. Adjust the training structure to gradually reduce the Thirdly, deploy to promote the application of in- surplus training professions in the labor market, such formation technology in teaching, learning and educa- as: Accounting, business administration, finance – tional management. Develop the information technol- banking, etc. At the same time, direct to enhance ogy infrastructure and equipment system in the whole training in science, technology and technology. industry in a synchronous and modern manner. Study Control training scale in the direction of reducing and apply flexibly and effectively investment forms, the quotas of industries with low labor demand and including paying attention to information technology low quality of labor resources; gradually increase the and socialization. Promote the application of informa- training scale for industries with high recruitment tion technology in management, direction, adminis- demands and high-quality labor resources [7]. tration and implementation of tasks at higher educa- 3. Conclusion tion institutions in a synchronous and transparent Ensuring the quality of higher education is a very manner. Focus on building a whole sector database important and necessary task in the process of na- for policy-making and management work for educa- tional construction and development of each nation tion and training management agencies [3]. and people in the world in general and in Vietnam Fourthly, deploy to promote activities of auton- in particular. During his lifetime, President Ho Chi omy and self-responsibility for higher education in- Minh once said: “The higher educational level of the stitutions. Encourage higher education institutions people will help us accelerate the economic recovery to exercise autonomy according to the Government’s and democratic development. Improving the edu- resolutions and other relevant legal documents on cational level of the people is also an essential task autonomy in higher education institutions. Proac- to build our country into a country of peace, unity, tively implement higher education institutions the independence, democracy and prosperity.” To imple- assigned autonomy, especially in terms of organiza- ment this content well, many activities should be car- tional structure, personnel, finance and academia to ried out synchronously and appropriately. In which, improve the training quality. first of all, it is required to thoroughly grasp the edu- Fifthly, deploy to strengthen international inte- cational philosophy targeted by the Party and the gration in education and training. In this activity, it State; thoroughly grasp the goal that the education is necessary to pilot new educational models accord- system needs to achieve in order to take appropriate ing to the curriculum framework, curriculum, docu- action measures. At the same time, it is required to ments, testing and evaluation of students’ learning constantly expand exchanges and higher education results in countries with progressive and modern cooperation with countries in the region and around educational background; strengthen the application the world to transfer technology, narrow down the of international standards in the process of formu- gap in the quality of training human resources under lating, renovating programs and organizing training international standards in the context of globaliza- and scientific research; encourage higher education tion and international integration [5; 8; 9].
85 Section 6. Pedagogy
References: 1. Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam. Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW dated November 4, 2013 on radical and comprehensive renovation of Education and Training, meeting the needs of indus- trialization and modernization in the conditions of socialist-oriented market economy and international integration, – Hanoi. 2013. 2. Dang Quoc Bao. Management issues and their application to school management, National Political Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2005. 3. Politburo Secretariat. Directive 40-CT/TW of the Secretariat, June 15, 2004 on “Improving the quality of teachers and educational administrator”, – Hanoi. 2004. 4. Nguyen Huu Cong. Understanding the holistic education view of President Ho Chi Minh, University and Professional Education Magazine, – No. 11. 2000. 5. Communist Party of Vietnam. Resolution of the 9th Conference of the Central Party Committee Ses- sion XI (Resolution 33-NQ / TW) on “Building and developing Vietnamese culture and people to meet requirements for sustainable development of the country”, – Hanoi. 2014. 6. Communist Party of Vietnam. Document of the 12th National Assembly, Central Office of the Party, – Hanoi. 2016. 7. Tran Khanh Duc. Managing and verifying the quality of human resource training according to ISO & TQM, Education Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2004. 8. Pham Minh Hac, Nguyen Khoa Diem. On cultural development and human building in the industrializa- tion and modernization period, National Political Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2003. 9. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Law on Education, National Political Publish- ing House, – Hanoi. 2005.
86 FAMILY AS AN INSTITUTE OF UPBRINGING
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-87-90 Heorhadze Tetiana, PhD student, department of preschool education and social work Melitopol Bogdan Khmelnytsky State Pedagogical University E-mail: [email protected] FAMILY AS AN INSTITUTE OF UPBRINGING Abstract. The article considers the issue that a full-fledged family is the foundation of a healthy society. The concepts of “value”, “family values” and “upbringing” are analyzed. The process of the formation of value orientations of the personality of children is analyzed, and the main factors af- fecting the formation of value orientations of the personality are highlighted. The main components of the family fortress and the priorities of the family upbringing are given. The family is regarded as the highest value and as an institution of moral education. Keywords: children, family, traditions, family values, moral education. For the current situation in Ukraine, the problem among parents show that a significant part of adults of quality, as well as the content and orientation of find it difficult to clearly state the goals of family- ed family education is very relevant, as the country is at a ucation in the preschool and school periods of the turning point in its history. Under the conditions of a child’s development, those qualities that must be military threat, a large migration, an unclear situation formed for him by a certain age [6]. in the world with new viral diseases, a complex and At the moment, there is a contradiction in society difficult transition to a different system of organizing between the need of modern society for reproducing the whole life of people takes place. How can fathers family value orientations necessary for its stability and mothers prepare their children for the constant and the spread of extra-family value orientations in changes of life, about which they themselves have the process of transformation of Ukrainian society. a very vague idea? It is also about the development Under family values it is necessary to understand the of those qualities that will allow children to actively values of fatherhood and marriage, in non-family engage in new socio-economic, military-political, ones – the values of professional growth, personal environmental conditions that have the properties development and achievement on this basis of social of constantly changing. and material status [4, 125–126]. Modern parents are challenged to raise their chil- We can talk about the tension in which society dren in new information-saturated conditions, in the puts pressure on parents and on family education Internet, when technology and the knowledge the itself, since we observe that in modern conditions child needs are changed almost every day. it is not clear what is coming in the future. Who will Parents themselves are in a state of controversy, help the family raise children in accordance with the on the one hand their personal experience, the ex- new requirements of life? Can and in what way the perience of their parents, and on the other, modern modern education system helps to solve this prob- society with its needs, with information progress, lem? How to establish effective interaction of the with new technologies and innovations. family, school, institutions of additional education The results of sociological studies carried out by in solving modern problems of forming conscious- the telegram channel “Laboratory of Childhood” ness and behavior of the younger generation? What
87 Section 6. Pedagogy basic conceptual ideas should be put in the system of Children should respect their parents, reckon with improving the quality of family education? them, not wrangle, obey them, listen to their opin- Recently, we have witnessed an increasing aware- ion, etc. Many researchers believe that the main func- ness by politicians and scientists, as well as the pub- tion of the family is to raise children in the spirit of lic, of the need to build closer ties into the future of national, family values. For this, the necessary work Europe, in particular through the use and strength- should be carried out to instill in the parents the nec- ening of its intellectual, cultural, social, scientific and essary pedagogical skills. To this should be added technological potential [5, 239]. a healthy moral and psychological situation in the The family is an important social institution, family. The family should become a real institution since it reflects a system of values and connections: of moral education for the child. Family relationships marriage and family, economic and legal, ethical and are built on the basis of the needs of the family, from psychological [3, 157]. various spheres of life and forms of life. The intellec- Family is the highest value on Earth, which makes tual culture of parents, pedagogical skills and knowl- the life of every person happy, full, fruitful. But parents edge, their mutual respect and sincerity are very im- must realize that they play an important social role, portant. It is important to systematize family values because every full-fledged family is the foundation of through the study of the entire layer of folk wisdom, a healthy society. Miroslav Stelmakhovich considered traditions and customs that are directly related to the family as the first social and emotional microen- national identity. Researchers emphasize that most vironment in which a person develops and is brought of the unpleasant moments in the life of a modern up from the moment of birth. The educational phe- family are connected with the fact that they do not nomenon, like the family itself, cannot be replaced reckon with folk customs that have been formed over with anything. Vasily Sukhomlinsky wrote that in the the centuries and on the basis of which many healthy family, figuratively speaking, the roots are laid from and morally strong generations of people have grown. which the shoot grows, and branches, and flowers, and That is why we should carefully study the moral heri- fruits; the family is a source whose waters feed the full- tage that we received from our ancestors. flowing river of our state. “Family values” were and do not just remain an At all times, among the Ukrainian people, the important part of Ukraine, they are the very DNA of upbringing of the young generation was most influ- the Ukrainian people. This term usually refers to what enced by the family. The success of paternity of a par- is called a “traditional family,” consisting of a father ticular person depends on his relationship with his who makes money, a mother who keeps a house, and own parents. After all, our life is an extension of our children. But this is not the only thing implied by the parents: there would be no them, there would be us. term. The term “family values” also includes certain We were born, live and raised in a family, just like moral principles that must be respected and passed our parents, grandparents. And so from generation on from generation to generation, as is still the case to generation. Therefore, the family as a union of a in the Ukrainian family. These principles include la- man and a woman is a unique organization, one of bor and social values, such as honesty, reliability, and the most important goals of which is the birth and respect for others, and are not limited to these areas, upbringing of children. The families in which we but are deeply connected with social and political were born are different in wealth, number of chil- conservatism. In recent decades, this term has been dren, level of understanding, family traditions [1, 4]. increasingly used to combat unconventional family According to folk customs, the father and mother patterns or gender roles that are imposed on Ukraine, are considered the most revered people in the family. and they are not natural for our nation.
88 FAMILY AS AN INSTITUTE OF UPBRINGING
A special place in the formation of family values other factors form in modern youth completely dif- of the family belongs to the language. Each person ferent ideas about life. Today they are forced to grow must be fluent in his native language in order to as- up faster, which means they learn faster how to cope similate the cultural heritage of his people with his with the enormous difficulties and stresses inherent help. Language is also one of the connecting links in in our time. A Christian lifestyle affects the life pri- building family relationships. National-moral values orities of the younger generation and the rooting of are assimilated through language, communication, traditional family values such as family respect, mari- upbringing is ongoing. Each person through such so- tal fidelity, trust between family members, respect cial institutions as religion, education, customs and for parents, the importance of having children and traditions assimilates a certain amount of moral stan- raising children, family communication, celebrating dards that carries through his life and which form his family holidays, family and well-being, registered identity. This, in turn, ensures national unity. This marriage, take responsibility for maintaining family process is undoubtedly affected by globalization, the values [2, 49]. clash of Western and Eastern values, the unification In our opinion, family values are a community- and standardization of life, migration, the exchange recognized set of worldviews and moral attitudes of information, including values. about the family, based on the traditional under- There is a kind of “struggle” between value sys- standing of the institution of the family, marital and tems in which it is difficult to win. Often here the parent-child relationships in the family, affect the internal balance is violated, the ability to withstand choice of family goals, ways of organizing the life of opposing challenges. As a result, there is a growing the family and the interaction of its members and danger of losing basic values associated with national provides cultural and demographic reproduction identity. Preservation of family values is necessary in of Ukrainian society. In our understanding, these such areas of public life as education, life, art, litera- are values such as love, care, mutual understanding, ture, culture, language, history. Support and devel- patience, fidelity, respect, compassion, mutual sup- opment of the institution of upbringing and moral port, sincerity, trust, etc. The mentioned values are values, sanctified by history, is an important task for not only important for the effective life of the fam- each state. ily, but also form its basis. So, the mastery of family The revolution in the field of human rights, the values by the young generation can be considered a information explosion, the enormous changes in the prerequisite for its preparation for the creation of a institution of the modern family – all these and many family and successful family life. References: 1. Bukovinsky A. I. Workbook for 11th grade students before the Foundations of the Family course. – K: Pugach O. V., 2019. – 254 p. 2. Fedorova E. V., Heorhadze T.O. Formation of Christian family values in pupils of secondary school // Scientific Bulletin of the Melitopol State Pedagogical University. Series: pedagogy. – Vol. No. 2 (21) – Melitopol: FOP Odnorog T. V. 2018, – P. 45–50. 3. Heorhadze T. O. Analysis of the conceptual apparatus on the problem of the formation of family values among children of school age // Innovative pedagogy. 2019. – No. 19. – Part 1. – P. 156–159. URL: https://doi.org/10.32843/2663-6085-2019-19-1-35 4. Heorhadze T. O. The functioning of the family in the conditions of Ukrainian social policy // Youth and market. 2019. – No. 1(168). – P. 125–129. URL: https://doi.org/10.24919/2308-4634.2019.158764
89 Section 6. Pedagogy
5. Sadovaya T. O., Demyanenko A. N. Analysis of mediaresources for the formation of family values among studying youth // Information technologies in education and science: Collection of scientific papers. – Melitopol: Publishing house of MGPU im. B. Khmelnitsky, 2017. – No. 1(9). – P. 239–242. 6. Telegram channel Childhood laboratory URL: https://t.me/lab_of_childhood
90 MANAGEMENT OF ACADEMIC RESULT ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS AT VIETNAMESE PEOPLE’S MILITARY INSTITUTIONS UNDER CAPACITY APPROACH
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-91-95 Do Manh Quyen, MA, PhD student, course 39, major in Education Management, Hanoi National University of Education, Vietnam E-mail: [email protected] MANAGEMENT OF ACADEMIC RESULT ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS AT VIETNAMESE PEOPLE’S MILITARY INSTITUTIONS UNDER CAPACITY APPROACH Abstract. Management of academic results of students is an important stage to ensure the qual- ity of the educational process. In the face of the requirements of fundamental and comprehensive renovation of education and training in order to provide educational products with high quality, meeting the practical needs of the career of building and step by step modernizing the regular and elite Vietnamese People’s Army, in addition to actively renovating the steps of the educational process, it is indispensable to set out urgent requirements to improve the effectiveness of the management of students’ academic results under the capacity approach. The paper outlines the theoretical issues of competence-based assessment and provides measures to improve the effectiveness of the manage- ment of students’ academic results in the People’s Military Institutions. Keywords: Management of the academic result assessment, capacity approach, military institutions. 1. Introduction dents’ learning but also creating opportunities and The assessment of the academic results of stu- promoting their learning process. In nature, there is dents of the Vietnam People’s Army institutions un- no contradiction between managing the academic der the capacity approach is an assessment method result assessment under the capacity approach and focusing on the ability to apply knowledge creatively managing the academic result assessment based on in different application situations. In other words, it the knowledge and skills of students in the People’s can be said that assessing students’ academic results Army Institutions of Vietnam. This is just a new step under the capacity approach is an overall assessment in the process of developing forms of managing the of learners’ knowledge, skills and attitudes in mean- students’ academic result assessment under the gen- ingful contexts to determine the level of achievement eral trend of the times and requires radical and com- according to the output standard of educational and prehensive innovation in education and training. training goals set by training institutions. 2. Contents of the study As a part of the management of the People’s 2.1. Concept of management of the students’ Army Institutions of Vietnam, the management of academic result assessment of the People’s Army In- the assessment of students’ academic results under stitutions of Vietnam under the capacity approach the capacity approach always holds a particularly im- According to the Vietnamese Dictionary, capacity portant and effective position has significant impact can be understood in two implications: Firstly, it is on the quality and effectiveness of the education and “a natural ability and condition available to perform training. Since it is not just a matter of directing the an activity” [6, P. 114]. In this sense, capacity is a collection of information about the quality of stu- real ability, which is revealed through the mastery
91 Section 6. Pedagogy of one or some of the learner’s skills; secondly, it is nam under the capacity approach is the identification “a psychophysical quality that gives people the abil- of leadership and direction measures of management ity to complete a certain activity of high quality” subjects at training institutions for the students’ aca- [6, P. 114]. It means that something is available in a demic result assessment procedure in a positive and person’s potential form, which can help them solve progressive way, with a way to consider the develop- real-life situations. ment of learners holistically in terms of the volume of Combining these two understandings, it shows knowledge, skills and attitudes and behaviors. It can that competence is something that exists both in the be seen that the management of the students’ academ- potential form and in the ability to reveal through ic result assessment of the People’s Army Institutions real-life situations, skills, ability and awareness inher- of Vietnam under the capacity approach requires the ent in individuals or can be learned to solve prob- management subjects to direct the education forces lems in life. The capacity also includes its willing- based on standardize knowledge and skills of the sub- ness to act, motive, will and social responsibility to jects to identify the criteria showing the capacity of be able to use solutions successfully and responsibly students; defines the capacity scale according to the in changing situations. standard and exceeds the standard to create the di- From the above understanding, one can con- vision, thereby allowing to evaluate the ability and ceive: The capacity of students of the People’s Army progress of all students in the most accurate manner. institutions of Vietnam is the ability to apply a com- 2.2. Current situation of management of the bination of knowledge, skills and attitudes to well students’ academic result assessment of the People’s perform academic tasks, conduct scientific research Army Institutions of Vietnam under the capacity and effectively deal with military and social issues. approach In the capacity-based teaching, assessment is an From the practice of education and training in extremely important factor that has the effect of ad- the Army over the years, it has been shown that the justing and improving the quality of teaching and management of learning assessment activities of stu- learning. In the traditional teaching method, the as- dents based on their capacity approach has initially sessment is only a one-way consideration: Teachers achieved important and real results and is a driving assess students’ results and the assessment is usually force for the process of improving both teaching and done mainly based on the scores of regular or final learning methods, contributing to constantly im- exams. In the capacity-based teaching approach, the proving the quality of high-quality human resources assessment must take place in multiple dimensions: It for the process of building the Vietnamese People’s can combine the teacher’s assessment and the learner’s Army in a regular, elite and step-by-step modern self-assessment, and can refer to the mutual assess- manner. However, besides the achieved results, the ment between students. Therefore, the assessment is process of management of the students’ academic carried out regularly and continuously throughout the result assessment of the People’s Army Institutions teaching process, not just as periodic as semester or of Vietnam under the capacity approach still con- mid-term test. At a higher level, the instructor aims to tains many shortcomings that need to be focused create conditions for students to self-assess not only to be solved, such as: The leadership, direction and by the score but also the ability to apply and perform administration of learning activities assessment specific tasks in practice as well as develop higher-or- of learners at times, in some places have not been der thinking (analysis, synthesis and reasoning). consistent, not timely; the work of planning, orga- The management of the students’ academic result nizing the implementation of the plan for assessing assessment of the People’s Army Institutions of Viet- students’ study results is still inconsistent and not
92 MANAGEMENT OF ACADEMIC RESULT ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS AT VIETNAMESE PEOPLE’S MILITARY INSTITUTIONS UNDER CAPACITY APPROACH close to reality; forms of assessing students’ study new teaching and learning methods, exam forms results are not really plentiful, mainly exam and writ- and methods, testing and evaluating educational and ing tests; some content assessing learning results of training results, ensuring truthfulness and objectiv- students in many subjects lacking creativity; still rely ity” [2, p. 113–114]. At the same time, it is necessary heavy on re-learning theoretical knowledge, failing to to identify the main purpose of the academic result mobilize students’ thinking ability in applying theo- assessment task to compare the competencies of stu- retical knowledge equipped in interpreting dynamic dents in real time with the required level of standard practical issues of the country, society, military, unit, knowledge and skills in each topic, each module (sub- etc. These are the common shortcomings and limita- ject) so as to set a basis for timely improvement of tions of educational institutions across the country, teaching and learning activities. Assess in the direc- such as the XIIth Congress of the Communist Party tion of attaching importance to what students learn of Vietnam when assessing the current educational about approaches and solving learning problems and situation, indicating that: “The method of education, problems that arise in real life. Gradually restrict the testing, and assessing results is outdated and lacks in emphasis on the points as well as the percentage of substance. The management of education and train- students achieving good and excellent rates. ing is still weak” [2, p. 113–114]. Secondly, direct the implementation of the pro- 2.3. Management of the students’ academic re- cess, the stages and steps in the students’ academic sult assessment of the People’s Army Institutions of result assessment under the capacity approach. Vietnam under the capacity approach This procedure includes: Direct the collection of The management of the students’ academic re- information in order to have accurate information sult assessment of the People’s Army Institutions of for students’ academic result assessment should be Vietnam under the capacity approach is always in- collected from many sources, many forms and by fluenced by many factors, both objective and subjec- many different methods (observation in the lecture tive ones. Therefore, for this process to bring about hall, classroom, test taking, learning products, self- practical quality and efficiency, it is necessary to con- assessment and mutual assessment; orientation of centrate on well implementing some basic measures: analysis and information processing with multi-level Firstly, promoting leadership in propaganda and analysis with clear criteria and stored through books awareness raising activities, creating a clear change for monitor daily; direct and confirm whether students’ subjects and pedagogical forces in schools in terms academic results meet or not meet the goals of each of position, role and urgency of evaluate students’ topic and subject with specific and clear quantitative academic results under the capacity approach. Ac- and qualitative results; analyze and explain the learn- cordingly, the leaders and management subjects at ing progress both based on the results of the process the People’s Army Institutions of Vietnam should evaluation and the overall assessment results, the increase the thorough and widespread activities to learning attitude and specific family circumstances. each lecturer, learner and the school authorities about Thirdly, direct the renovation of forms of assess- the purpose, requirements, meanings as well as the ing students’ academic results. In particular, the focus need to conduct students’ evaluation of learning re- should be on promoting the leadership and direction sults under the competency approach. This process of diversifying forms of assessing students’ learning requires each management entity as well as a contin- results suitable to each subject and each module gent of cadres, lecturers and students to thoroughly (subject), such as: The assessment through writ- grasp the tasks that the XIIth Congress of the Party ten harvest, essay; through seminars, discussions; pointed out as follows: “Continuing to strongly re- through regular, periodic and end-of-term testing
93 Section 6. Pedagogy of modules and programs; through participating in institutions and at the same time create solidarity extracurricular activities, training, picnicking, etc. and unity in the will and action in implementing to exploit the unique advantages of each form in ac- operational innovation of education and training in cordance with each subject matter, each amount of general and renovating the process of assessing stu- knowledge as well as characteristics, functions, re- dents’ learning results in particular. sponsibilities and tasks of students after graduation. In order to realize this measure, first of all, lead- At the same time, direct to enhance the application ers and commanders of schools should direct the of information technology in assessing student learn- Training Department to step up the development ing results to improve accuracy and objectivity, re- and administration of the study results evaluation ducing time and effort in serving the assessment of plan for learners; implement well the coordination academic results of students. with the Testing Board and ensure the quality of edu- Fourthly, direct the renewal of contents to assess cation and training to organize the implementation students’ academic results. This is a key issue that and maintain strictly the rules and regulations on the decides on the quality of students’ academic result process of assessing students’ study results as well as assessment to ensure objectivity, practicality and the withdrawal of experience after each assessment comprehensiveness. Therefore, the educational man- to timely adjust and supplement to suit the reality; agement staff in military training institutions should and take measures to effectively solve the problems promote their responsible role in directing faculty that arise in the process of implementation. faculties to develop contents for assessing students’ Direct the departments and disciplines to devel- academic results to meet the criteria overview of op students’ results of evaluation of the comprehen- the knowledge volume of each module (subject) as siveness and focus on evaluating the ability to apply well as the training program by stage and the whole theory and solve practical problems creatively. At the course. The content of the assessment should be same time, direct the student management systems comprehensive, with levels such as: Assess the abil- to well implement the awareness, motivation, correct ity to remember and identify knowledge content and positive learning attitudes of students accord- transmitted from teachers; assess the ability to un- ing to the model of attaching competence, personal derstand the content of knowledge, interpretation or qualities, output standards and training objectives. inference; assess the ability to analyze and synthesize Sixthly, direct a reasonable combination of the knowledge; assess the ability to apply that knowl- teacher’s evaluation with the learner’s self-assess- edge in solving military and social practical situa- ment, consider this as the motivation to promote tions and issues; assess the ability to value judgment students’ ability to self-study and solve problems. or use knowledge under appropriate criteria. Thus, The process of assessing students’ capacity must the content of the learners’ competency assessment be gradually transformed into self-assessment of their can be on a field of study, or content stream, or the capacities. This can only be done when the teacher learning topic corresponding to each content stream knows how to properly combine his assessment with is the competency components representing the de- the self-assessment of students in the learning and velopment of learners in such content stream. training process. Combining reasonably here, that Fifthly, direct the coordination and coordination is, teachers not only fully assess a certain learning of activities of educational subjects in assessing stu- and training activities of the students, but must know dents’ academic results under the competency ap- how to gradually practice for them to comment on proach. This is an important measure to both mobi- the results of their activities and other students in lize the synergy of educational subjects in military the class or unit.
94 MANAGEMENT OF ACADEMIC RESULT ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS AT VIETNAMESE PEOPLE’S MILITARY INSTITUTIONS UNDER CAPACITY APPROACH
Seventhly, direct to ensure the principle of capac- 3. Conclusion ity assessment in the process of organizing learning The core nature of the management of the stu- and training for students. The principles of assessment dents’ academic result assessment of the People’s based on students’ capacity of the People’s Army insti- Army Institutions of Vietnam under the capacity ap- tutions of Vietnam include: Ensure the value (accurate proach, educational subjects of training institutions measurement of learners’ capacity development); en- to conduct assessment of students’ ability to apply sure reliability (the assessment results of learners are their knowledge creatively in solving the incurred stable and accurate and do not depend on the assessors. military and social practical situations in order to At the same time, the assessment results must be con- determine the level of realizing the teaching and sistent when repeated); ensure flexibility (perform a learning objectives of knowledge, skills, attitudes and variety of forms and assessment methods so that learn- capacity development of students. This is an impor- ers have the opportunity to show their ability well); en- tant step in the entire process of education – training sure fairness (assessors and auditors must understand with the ultimate goal of promoting self-awareness, the same standards, criteria, and evaluation behaviors); initiative and creativity in students’ learning activi- ensure systematicity (diagnostic assessment results are ties, helping students identify appropriate learning used to identify learners’ current developmental area); methods. This process requires promoting the role ensure comprehensiveness (the results of the assess- of efforts and participation of subjects and forces in ment must reflect the development of the components training institutions; at the same time, it is neces- and behavioral indicators of the capacity being mea- sary to carry out synchronously specific measures sured); develop learners (make sure to evaluate the real to bring in the highest efficiency. progress of the learners themselves in the capacity). References: 1. Ministry of Education and Training. Workshop document on developing general education program under capacity development orientation, Can Tho University, Can Tho. 2014. 2. Communist Party of Vietnam. Documents of the XIIth National Congress, National Political Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2016. 3. Tran Khanh Duc. Managing and verifying the quality of human resource training according to ISO & TQM, Education Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2004. 4. Tran Khanh Duc. Education and human resource development in the 21st century, Vietnam Education Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2014. 5. Nguyen Thi My Loc. School Managers and Leaders in the 21st century, Hanoi National University Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2009. 6. Hoang Phe. Vietnamese Dictionary, Hong Duc Publishing House, Ho Chi Minh. 2013. 7. Pham Viet Vuong. State administration and management of education and training, Hanoi National University of Education Publishing House. 2007.
95 Section 6. Pedagogy
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-96-103 La Thanh Trung, Ho Chi Minh city Party Committee Commission for Inspection 127 Truong Dinh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam E-mail: [email protected]
ENHANCING THE COMPETENCE OF THE DEANS OF EDUCATIONAL FACULTIES OR INSTITUTIONS ACCORDING TO COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH
Abstract. The paper focuses on confirming the meaning of training and enhancing competence for the Deans of Educational Faculties or Institutions according to competence- based approach. We also analyze the reality, the requirements and the methods of training competence for the heads of Educational Faculties or Institutions according to competence- based approach. to respond to the current process of education reform. Keywords: Dean of Faculty, Pedagogical University, training, retraining, competence, compe- tence- based approach. 1. The meaning of training and enhancing As a teacher, the Dean must master the expertise in competence for the Deans of Educational Fac- his field and have a general knowledge of the special- ulties or Institutions according to competence- ties in the faculty. In other words, to be good deans, based approach they must be qualified and prestigious pedagogical The Deans of Faculties or Institutions of Educa- teachers in teaching activities. tion are key figures in the faculties holding leadership Professional activities of faculties at the College roles in professional knowledge, academic programs, of Education are not only teaching but also scientific scientific research, technology transfer and other ac- research ones. Therefore, the Dean must also have tivities of the colleges/universities. the role of a scientific researcher who not only has The Deans of Faculties or Institutions of Educa- the ability to study independently but also promote tion play the role of educators. Before becoming the the research activities of lecturers and students in heads of faculties, most of them were highly quali- the department. Moreover, they must be the first to fied lecturers with a high level of professional compe- apply scientific and technological achievements to tence and a life-long experience. During their work- teaching and research. ing period, thanks to the prestige confirmed, they The Dean must also be an educational manager. have been assigned by their colleagues and the Board In the past, the management was carried out accord- of Management. Most of the deans still undertake ing to a centralized and bureaucratic mechanism. In the tasks of managing, teaching specialized subjects other words, the Dean was charged with responsibil- to students and participating in training graduate stu- ities by the College Board of Directors and the staff dents and doctoral students. Besides, the manage- in the faculty received tasks from the Dean. How- ment of the training department is mainly managing ever, from the new viewpoint, educational manage- professional activities. Therefore, the role of a dean ment is carried out according to the law, hierarchy, must always be associated with the role of a teacher. autonomy and accountability mechanism with inter-
96 ENHANCING THE COMPETENCE OF THE DEANS OF EDUCATIONAL FACULTIES OR INSTITUTIONS ACCORDING TO COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH active methods in which the training department is tably lead to a significant lag of the training depart- considered as a center. Therefore, the dean must have ment. extensive knowledge of management. As for the educational institutions, following the From these tasks, it can be seen that the head current trends in educational renovation, the Minis- position of a faculty is a very specific one unlike any try of Education and Training has submitted to the management positions in the University. They play Prime Minister a project to improve the capacity of the roles of a professional manager, an administra- lecturers and managers of higher education institu- tive manager and an educator. The innovative-high- tions to meet the requirements of basic and compre- er-education-trends today have made teachers and hensive innovation of education and training in the education managers face with heavy tasks because period of 2018–2030. Besides, the Ministry has is- the innovation has occurred not only in programs sued documents regulating professional standards of but also in management, etc. Thus, the Dean is lik- teachers and principals in the direction of updating, ened to a captain controlling a ship headed out to the meeting the requirements of education and training open sea. In other words, the dean is an important in the new period; built the capacity framework for factor leading the teaching and learning activities to secondary teachers in specific subjects; set standards improve the quality of education in each university. and procedures for selecting key teachers, and senior According to statistics of the Ministry of Edu- high school administrators. cation and Training, by the end of the school year Meanwhile, because there has not been a suit- 2016–2017, the whole country has 114 Institutions able standard system for the position of the dean yet, of Education, among which are 61 universities of in the past few years, the appointment of the deans pedagogy, technical pedagogy, universities of Sports at the institutions or faculties of Education has still and specific universities. The reality shows the in- many shortcomings as follows: the deans of facul- tense competition between higher education insti- ties have been appointed mainly according to age, tutions to survive and develop. The fact that the en- qualifications, majors. In other words, they have rollment is currently falling and that some majors at been named as the deans because of the factor of se- higher education institutions have been wiped out is niority rather than competences. The leaders plan to becoming a major challenge for educational institu- train and foster staff in their faculties but they them- tions, including those having organized pedagogical selves are hardly allowed to participate in any train- courses for many years. ing courses to develop their competences, both in In the renovation of higher education, the train- terms of qualifications and management. The Deans ing program of education is changing from content- are managing faculties mainly based on experience based approach to competence-based approach. The gained whilst both working and they have not been higher education is on the threshold of integration properly trained in management. Another situation with a lot of difficulties and challenges when the is that the Deans are usually selected according to requirements set out to train teachers are getting qualification criteria. This has resulted in the fact that more and more rigorous than ever. Modern educa- people with professional qualifications may not have tion management has added new content, requir- management competences and vice versa, leading to ing the use of many modern management methods limitations and weaknesses in performing tasks. In and means. In other words, education management an environment where the necessary factors for com- science in previous years has become obsolete and petency development are needed, it seems that the hindered the development. If the faculty leader still faculty leader has not been focused on developing maintains the same management habits, it will inevi- the competence system to correspond to the tasks.
97 Section 6. Pedagogy
Because of these reasons, it is vital to set the stan- It is necessary to design the required levels of com- dards of the Deans of the Faculties or Institutions of petencies, current and future work goal. The training Education, contributing to standardizing the staff and and development must be oriented to help the Dean improving the quality of managing human resources develop specific competencies. Moreover, different training in the new context. methods are needed to assess and rank different types The goal of the solution is to equip knowledge, of competencies as well as the importance level of impart experience, build skills in activities, develop competencies for each specific job. Thereby, faculties political, ideological, ethical and psychological quali- or Institutions are able to assess the current capacity ties, create basic models of Deans of the Faculties of the Dean compared to the required level of each or Institutions of Education from the characteris- position and identify the competence that needs fur- tics and requirements of the society, create the cor- ther training to get the job done better. responding action capacities for each Dean in order 2. The reality of training for Heads of Facul- to overcome drawbacks, enhance positive features of ties or Institutions of Education on approaching the Dean when undertaking their tasks, which makes competence and requirements the comprehensive development of the team. The fundamental and comprehensive renovation of Retraining is a way to improve the qualifications education as well as the industrialization and modern- and management capacity of Deans. They need to be ization of the country requires renovating the organiza- retrained according to the competency standards. This tion, management, thinking and wisdom of the staff, urges each Dean to actively participate in refresher which is posed as a key issue. In other words, it is also training and self-retraining to improve the efficiency the demand for the training and retraining of cadres. of professional management, meeting the increasing The aim of training and retraining for the Deans is to requirements of newly issued Dean’s standards. improve and perfect the standards of political theory; Training and retraining for Deans is one of the management theory and practice; professional qualifi- positive measures to enhance the adaptability of cations for each Dean and the entire management team. the Faculties or Institutions of Education to envi- The Deans also agreed that they should be re- ronmental changes and the advancement of science trained the following: political theory, State ad- and technology. Training and development help the ministrative management, education management, universities have high-quality Deans, well implement professional training, applied pedagogical scientific their human resources strategy and improve com- research methods, foreign languages, applied infor- petitiveness. Competency-based training empha- matics in education management, legal knowledge sizes the use of certain competencies and skills to related to educational management, skills to make meet specific job requirements and pays attention to legal documents in education, financial management the quality of the work achieved through performer’s competence, leadership competence meets require- competence. Therefore, competency-based training ments of fundamental and comprehensive renova- focuses on a learner’s ability and training results are tion of education. In particular, the most mentioned assessed by the performance of the learner at the and necessary factors considered in fostering are po- workplace through skills and practical application. litical theory; education management, foreign lan- Capacity assessment for training and development guages, informatics, financial management capacity activities should be organized through a comparison and leadership capacity which meets requirements between the competency standards needed to meet of comprehensive educational renovation. current competencies as well as training needs and Although the need for training of Deans of the development trends. Faculties or Institutions of Education according to
98 ENHANCING THE COMPETENCE OF THE DEANS OF EDUCATIONAL FACULTIES OR INSTITUTIONS ACCORDING TO COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH competence-based approach is great, assessment of and supporting teachers and education managers the satisfaction of survey participants from training whose capacity needs improving according to profes- for Deans showed that 64.0% of respondents rated sional standards requirements in the ETEP Program. this work to be implemented effectively; 30.2% of It can be seen that the universities have paid attention them stated that the training had been conducted to training and retraining which have been considered ineffectively and 5.7% claimed that the universities as the main focus for improving the Deans according have not conducted the training yet. to competence-based approach. However, the training More specifically, in terms of the retraining cours- has not been carried out effectively in practice. Before es on management skills and high-level political theo- becoming the heads of faculties, most of them were ries for the Dean, 61.0% of the respondents stated that highly qualified lecturers with a high level of profes- the training had been conducted effectively. However, sional competence and a life-long experience. Dur- there are respondents in levels about 34.4% and about ing their working period, thanks to the prestige con- 4.5%, who indicated that the training had been con- firmed, they have been assigned by their colleagues ducted ineffectively and that the universities have not and the Board of Management. Despite this, they have conducted the training yet respectively. not been trained or retrained in political theory and Regarding the self-retraining of the Deans, only management skills. Besides, the training is only associ- 52.9% of respondents rated this work as effective; ated with those who are taking the position of Dean, 47.1% stated that the training had been ineffective. but it is not applied to those who will be in the posi- There is no opinion that the university has not con- tion. The content of training and retraining programs ducted the training and retraining for the Deans. does not really meet the requirements of university As regards learning experiences abroad, only management. Although some Deans are good at pro- 25.7% of the opinions rated this work as effectively fessional skills, they Informatics and Foreign Languag- implemented. 13.6% of the respondents claimed es have not been focused on supporting, their ability that it had been ineffective whereas 60.7% stated of foreign languages and Informatics is still limited and that their universities have not done yet. In fact, this has not been applied effectively in life. training only takes place in schools with abundant On the other hand, the universities have just run funding and with training majors that require in- short-term training courses for managerial staff in ternational cooperation. The major branches of the general. Especially in the context of bringing new Pedagogy are mainly conducting sightseeing activi- blood into the organization, the preparation and ties and learning domestic experiences. building of the team have not kept up with the de- Universities have had a lot of measures, plans and velopment progress, leading to the fact that many programs to concretize the strategies to train and re- Deans could not assess sufficiently the tasks they train for the Deans, which is important and necessary have undertook. because of the strategic focus on training subsequent Based on such a basis, the Ministry of Education heads. Recently, six pedagogical universities includ- and Training and universities should conduct train- ing Hanoi Pedagogical University, Hanoi Pedagogi- ing and retraining programs according to compe- cal University 2, Ho Chi Minh City University of tence-based approach as follows, Education, Dong Thap University, Hue University of – The program must be combined between the- Education, the University of Pedagogy -Da Nang Uni- ory and practice. versity, National Institute of Education Management Survey results in many countries show that pro- and Vinh University have been selected to enhance grams that emphasize theory do not attract many par- the capacity for carrying out the training, retraining ticipants or do not meet expectations of improving
99 Section 6. Pedagogy management knowledge, skills and competencies. Designing training programs for heads of edu- The general trend in the development of training cational institutions in various phases is the current programs for education managers is to increase the prominent trend, which replaces the design of a stan- combination of theory and practice, reduce general dardized program to teach all the knowledge and theoretical knowledge, provide students with a theo- techniques in the same period. Another trend is that retical framework and concept as the pillar for deci- the programs are designed in a modular form to meet sion making and job solving. Theory and practical the needs of individuals and the educational institu- experience are two independent aspects and must be tions in different stages of development. Through the developed together. The harmonious combination knowledge and skills learned from these modules, of theory and practical experience requires close co- students can better perform their professional de- operation between teaching and scientific research, velopment tasks. between educators and practical leaders, researchers – The program should be adjusted to express the and educators, between training institutions and in- goals clearly. dividuals, organizations on the basis of respect and The objective is to train and retrain professional cooperation with each other. leaders of education institutions. Therefore, instead – Training programs should be designed with of setting general goals, the program should focus phases and modularization on clear goals that reflect the level of awareness and Training and retraining for the position of Dean capacity development of learners. The contents of is a continuous process, closely linked to the career the program are oriented to the task of improving, and special needs of the leader, manager and univer- perfecting and developing educational institutions sity. This process can be divided into the following in the context of globalization and international in- phases: tegration. Many topics and concepts that reflect the Continuous development phase: training and re- impact of socio-economic development on educa- training in some aspects such as university develop- tional institution development should be introduced ment and management skills for the dean’s position or included in the curriculum, such as vision, values, are provided in this phrase. development strategies, change management, time + Orientation phase: It provides opportunities management, capacity development and creative for the candidate to reflect on the roles, responsibili- thinking … ties and duties of leaders; 3. Methods to train and retrain competence + Preparatory phase: It is right before a candidate for heads of Faculties or Institutions of Educa- is appointed to the position of leadership and man- tion according to competence-based approach agement of the university; – Assessing the staff and identifying the “current + Appointment phase: in this phase, the new ap- state” and the needs of those who can be appointed pointee takes leadership responsibilities, university to the post. management to provide opportunities and support Based on the standards of choosing, appointing him/her to assume the best role and responsibility Deans, characteristics of the object, standards of the in the new position; planning position, etc., a survey of the reality for the + Career development phase: the deans are con- quality of the leaders needs conducting to form a tinually provided various training and retraining op- basis for making plans in a school year, in a planning portunities to develop leadership, management skills term or management term. and best meet their personal needs and the needs of At present, we are conducting training courses the university. for cadres in the downward direction, from the top
100 ENHANCING THE COMPETENCE OF THE DEANS OF EDUCATIONAL FACULTIES OR INSTITUTIONS ACCORDING TO COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH down, in whatever way they do. Training and retrain- The training and retraining program must have ing are based on what the institutions have but they an overall view to meet the needs of the organiza- are not based on analyzing job needs or needs of in- tion and the learners, ensure flexibility, update new dividuals. Moreover, training and retraining are just information easily, promote learners’ creativity and to meet the standards of the position of the Dean, yet independent research. The learners also acquire they have not met specific standards and the require- knowledge with the goal of changing perceptions ments of the job position. and behaviors after training and retraining courses. – Developing the content of training and re- Training and retraining programs need to be de- training. signed for those who will take up the post before ap- The content of training and retraining should be pointment. They are also known as fostering to create based on standards of planning and appointment in sources for lecturers, heads or deputy heads that are order to help cadres who are included in planning chosen or aspire to be heads of the department. More- reach the requirements of the positions to be ap- over, it is necessary to develop standard and regular pointed. For current Deans, based on the responsi- training programs or advanced programs for Deans to bilities and roles, the standard developed will be up- help them approach modern management theory and dated to supplement suitable knowledge and skills. training management in a new context. They also have The institutions send cadres who meet profes- opportunities to gain experience from countries in the sional requirements, standards of the Higher Educa- region and advanced countries in the world. tion Law, educational management staff standards Attention should be paid to the followings in the for training and retraining. The current Deans will programs of management skills be given priority on training and retraining to reach + Skills to develop strategic plans and define a the standards of academic qualifications, and skills. mission for a training institution in a market econo- A compulsory regulation on self-study, self- training my. Each Dean today requires the necessary knowl- as well as participating in continuous courses needs edge and skills to define missions and strategies to to be designed. There are also sanctions against the develop a faculty that responds to the changing re- Deans who do not take part in retraining to create quirements of the socio-economy. awareness and motivation. + The content of programs related to dealing with – Principles of developing training and retrain- problems arising under modern management theo- ing programs: ry in higher education management in general and Principles and processes for design training and management within a particular faculty in particu- retraining programs must adhere to the steps of pro- lar. The content of the courses focuses on methods, gram formulation and defined standards and criteria. arts of professional management and administrative The training and retraining programs must be de- management at department level, issues related to signed according to the target-oriented approach and management and development of departmental hu- development-oriented approach, both of which attach man resources, finance, foreign affairs etc. great importance to the implementation capacity of + Issues related to measurement, assessment, the subjects who are retrained in accordance with the change management in education, management de- requirements of standardization and development. centralization. The programs need to be comprehensive and balanced Diversifying and innovating training and retraining between scientific principles and updated information methods in the world; between raising awareness of science, + It is possible to organize intensive, short-term, capacity, skills and ethical and political qualities. long-term, self-study courses. However, for the
101 Section 6. Pedagogy position of Dean, the long-term course should only Organizing field trips to domestic universities for run a maximum of one month and be divided into cadres who are the candidates for the post and who several sessions so that it does not affect their work. are the current Deans of faculties to broaden experi- It is important to use methods of organization and ence is also a useful method of training. However, it teaching associated with practice in order to grasp should be noted that the learning program must be and exchange knowledge related to professional skills. specific and avoid turning into a “sightseeing tour”. Innovating teaching methods: learner-oriented – Checking and evaluating training results for approach is applied in training courses in which lec- each target group turers raise issues and provide guidance because the Get feedback from people who are trained and nature of training and retaining is to help the Deans retrained as well as from the evaluation results to ad- to acquire professional skills and management skills. just the content and form of training and retraining. Therefore, their thoughts and experiences will be – It is very difficult to choose the cadres that meet exchanged and become vivid examples for lectures, all the required standards for planning, but how to train which makes use of the practical experience of the and retrain them is even more difficult. Currently, the Deans and promote their creativity through the ori- training and retraining have just stopped at the general entation of the instructor. professional training classes which have not reached For lecturers, lecturers should design and orga- the requirements of management positions in general nize learning learners’ activities according to specific and especially those of the Deans in particular. Most of objectives of each lecture, which must be achieved the Deans are teachers who focus on professional tasks through many types of activities such as individual and who have not been paid much attention to cadre activities, group activities with comments and evalu- planning, training and retraining. The fact that cadres ation not only of teachers but also of the learners are included in planning but they are not assigned tasks themselves. Lecturers should create conditions for or trained is just a formality, not changing the quality. If learners to apply and promote their knowledge and appointed without training and retraining, the candi- capacity to solve problems. date will not meet the required standards. This is quite For those who are included in planning or heads common practice, so pre-planning training is towards of faculty and who have had certain experiences, ac- standardization for planning while training in planning tivities such as interactive activities, group activities, is towards qualifying for appointment. Besides, post- problem -solving activities, case studies, role plays, planning training helps the Deans meet higher require- fieldwork and field trips, etc. need to provided. ments in practice to fulfill well tasks they undertake. + Higher education institutions should invest in The aim of training and retraining activities is not only designing plans, content of training and retraining to strengthen capacity but also to motivate self-study programs and cooperate with overseas universities in and life-long learning. order to send cadres to short-term training courses The training and retraining of cadres must com- in education management. ply with the defined plan. The content of training and To send cadres to exchange and gain management retraining programs must be towards the standards experience in other countries effectively, the univer- of the appointed position. It is necessary to be flex- sities need to develop specific learning content, ex- ible in the implementation process. The contents, change and discuss the content with those who will methods of training and organization need to be ad- take the training course. Moreover, it is necessary justed and supplemented to ensure a combination of to discuss the content and requirements of training theory and practice, knowledge and skills with stan- courses with overseas universities in advance. dards, criteria of rank and position of employment.
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References: 1. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Socio-economic development strategy 2011–2020. 2. Nguyễn Thanh Hà. “Develop training management staff at military universities according to competence- based approach”, Journal of Education, – No 413. – 9. 2017. 3. Trần Thị Thu Hà. “Measures to develop high school education management staff in Hanoi City according to competence-based approach”, Journal of Education, – No 434. – 7. 2018. 4. Dang Xuan Hai. “Innovating the training of educational managers and school management”, Journal of Education, – No. 126. 2005. 5. Vu Ngoc Hai. “Training of educational management cadres in Vietnam’s modern education development and international integration”, Journal of Educational Science – No. 57. – June 2010). 6. Vietnam Association of Universities and Colleges, the Association submits the Prime Minister recom- mendations on the planning of pedagogical schools, 2018. URL: http://avnuc.vn 7. Huber S. G “Preparing school leaders for the 21st century. An international comparison of development program in 15 countries”, Routledge Falmer, 2004. – 218 p. 8. Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng. “Developing the competence of education management staff to meet the require- ments of basic and comprehensive innovation of education and training”, Education Management Maga- zine, Special issue, 4. 2015. 9. Vuong Thanh Huong. “Some trends of training and retraining university leaders in the context of inter- national integration”, Journal of Educational Science, – No. 71. 2011. 10. John R. Hoyle, Fenwick W. English, Betty E. Steffy. “Skills for successful 21st Century school leaders”, American Association of school administrators, 1998.
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https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-104-107 Normuratova Valentina Ivanovna, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Uzbekistan State University world languages E-mail: [email protected] LEGAL GENRE IN ENGLISH METHODOLOGY FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES Abstract. The article is devoted to using genre approach in ESP. Effectiveness of applying genre approach and specifications of law discourse in methodology of teaching English are established. Keywords: methodology, English for Specific Purposes, genre approach, genre analyses, dis- course analyses, law discourse. Нормуратова Валентина Ивановна, кандидат педагогических наук, доцент Узбекистанского государственного университета мировых языков E-mail: [email protected] ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЙ ЖАНР В МЕТОДИКЕ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНЫХ ЦЕЛЕЙ Аннотация. Статья посвящена использованию жанрового подхода в обучении английскому языку для специальных целей. На примере методики обучения английскому языку студентов- юристов показывается эффективность жанрового подхода и специфика юридического дискурса. Ключевые слова: методика, английский язык для специальных целей, юридический англий- ский язык, жанровый подход, жанровый анализ, дискурсивный анализ, юридический дискурс. В современном обществе востребованы спе- В середине прошлого столетия в методике циалисты со знанием иностранных языков, что преподавания английского языка выделилось но- требует от ученых-методистов пересмотра и со- вое направление «Английский язык для специ- вершенствования подходов к профессионально- альных целей». Это направление базируется на ориентированному обучению. В мировом обра- следующих факторах: смещение центра обучения зовательном пространстве существует дилемма: с «учителя» на «ученика» (то, что сейчас назы- кто должен обучать иностранному языку в не- вается личностно-ориентированный подход); языковых вузах – специалист со знанием языка появление прикладной лингвистики; развитие или же учитель?! Этот вопрос до сих пор остается жанрового и дискурсивного анализа; выделение открытым… технического вокабуляра от общеупотребитель- В рамках данной статьи рассматривается один ной лексики; учет социолингвистических и соци- из возможных ответов на данный вопрос, основы- окультурных особенностей родного и иностран- вающийся на использовании жанрового подхода ного языка. Исследования ученых также доказали, в обучении юридическому английскому языку. что методика обучения английскому языку для
104 LEGAL GENRE IN ENGLISH METHODOLOGY FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
специальных целей способствует одновременному Мы поддерживаем мнение ученых-методистов «языковому и профессиональному развитию сту- (V. K. Bhatia, F. B. Davies, I. Askehave, S. Thomson, дентов; повышает мотивацию студентов просто B. Weissberg), которые в юридическом английском изучать язык, а стать активным участником учеб- языке выделяют следующие жанры: «статьи» (га- ного процесса; знания по специальности, полу- зетные и журнальные статьи научного, обществен- ченные в рамках предмета, помогут студентам но-политического и публицистического характе- продвигаться по карьерной лестнице» [1]. ра); «книги» (академическая, профессиональная, Данные факторы положили начало методики художественная и научная литература); «судопро- преподавания «Английского языка для специаль- изводство» (стадии судебного разбирательства, ных целей», где бурное развитие получил жанро- судебные решения, ведение судебных дел); «юри- вый подход к обучению профессионально-ориен- дические документы» (иски, контракты, апелля- тированному английскому языку. ции, петиции, заявления, личная документация Жанровый подход в методике английского и т. д.); «законодательство» (законы, резолюции, языка считается «неотъемлемой категорией по- постановления, акты, декреты и т. д.). вседневной жизни, отражающей потребности Учёными-методистами проведены специаль- и традиции общества» [2]. Этот подход получил ные исследования по поводу важности каждого широкое распространение в Великобритании, из представленных видах жанра для обучения США, Италии, Швеции, Сингапуре, Гонконге, Ка- в вузах студентов-юристов. В ходе изучения во- наде, Австралии, Китае. Влияние жанрового под- проса было установлено, что наиболее приемле- хода также ощущается и в таких южно-азиатских мыми и востребованными для академического странах, как Япония и Корея. Жанровый подход процесса являются такие виды юридического заключается в фокусировании обучения англий- жанра, как «статьи» и «книги». Это означает, скому языку как языку специальности на пони- что остальные три вида юридического жанра мании и продуцировании имеющихся текстовых в курс обучения могут не включаться в виду ряда жанров в рамках одной коммуникативной цели. причин. Среди причин были указаны следующие Жанр – это абстрактная, ментальная презента- факторы: ограниченность учебного времени, вы- ция определенного типа текста, существующего деленного для предмета; трудности, связанные в рамках коммуникации читателей и писателей. с лингвистическими и экстралингвистическими Так как жанры являются социальным продуктом, характеристиками конкретного жанра. Напри- то аудитория, общество, контекст, роль писателя мер, если взять жанр «юридические документы», и другие «социальные» реалии являются осново- то можно отметить, что не все граждане умеют полагающими для понимания жанра. заполнять правильно юридические докумен- Так на примере жанрового анализа юридиче- ты даже на родном языке, не говоря, уже об их ского английского языка можно убедиться в эф- заполнении на ИЯ. Но, вместе с тем, нельзя ут- фективности данного подхода. «С точки зрения верждать, что виды юридического жанра – «за- жанровых особенностей, юридический дискурс конодательство», «юридические документы», чрезвычайно разнообразен в зависимости от об- «судопроизводство» полностью игнорируются ласти применения, устной или письменной ситу- в академическом процессе. Образцы каждого из ации общения может быть реализован посред- выше указанных направлений так или иначе пред- ством следующих жанров: контракты, конвенции, ставлены таких жанрах как «книги» и «статьи» завещания, постановления, парламентские акты, в виде примеров документов, законодательных судебные решения и т. д.» [3]. актов или судебных решений.
105 Section 6. Pedagogy
Каждый из представленных видов юридиче- тику в языке специальности и профессиональные ского жанра имеет свои приоритеты в зависимо- знания. Трудность этого вида юридического жан- сти от сферы юридической деятельности. Препо- ра состоит в том, что все они рассчитаны больше даватели специальных дисциплин по значимости на предоставление профессиональных знаний, для процесса обучения данные жанры располага- чем лингвистических, а это в свою очередь требу- ют в следующей последовательности: «статьи», ет от преподавателя проведения жанрового и дис- «книги», «судопроизводство», «законодатель- курсивного анализа учебных материалов для его ство», «юридические документы». Тогда как для адаптации в учебном процессе. практикующих юристов, напротив, важны «юри- Жанр «юридические документы» вызывает дические документы», «законодательство», наибольшие разногласия у методистов по поводу «судопроизводство» и на одинаковом уровне его использования в академическом процессе. Объ- «книги» и «статьи». Методисты утверждают, ясняется это тем, что терминология в юридических что курс обучения английскому языку, игнори- документах даже в родном языке представляет со- рующий жанровые особенности языка специаль- бой определённые лексические трудности, не го- ности, обречен на неудачу в подготовке будущих воря уже об иностранном языке. Любой юриди- специалистов. ческий документ – это договор между сторонами. Теперь несколько подробнее о каждом от- Все юридические документы могут быть поделены дельном виде юридического жанра. Вид юриди- на два типа: личные (диплом, паспорт, сертификат, ческого жанра «статьи» характеризуется тем, свидетельство о браке и т. д.) и социальные (раз- что он подвержен строгому соблюдению правил личные заявления – о приёме на работу, учёбу, организации статьи: введение, основная часть, об увольнении c работы; контракты, требующие заключение. Использование соответствующих определённой формы заполнения; ходатайства; грамматических структур и специализированной апелляции и т. д.). Каждый юридический документ лексики является основополагающим фактором имеет конкретные лингвистические характеристи- для этого. Поэтому «статьи» всегда сопрово- ки и требует особых педагогических усилий для ждаются множеством ссылок, играющих важную внедрения в академический процесс. роль для понимания содержания. Наличие огром- «Законодательство» можно охарактеризо- ного количества терминов, особенно в «статьях» вать одним из самых распространенных и насы- научного и профессионального характера, часто щенных видов юридического жанра. Огромное в очень узком значении, доставляет студентам множество законодательных актов, отражающих много проблем с пониманием и требуют от пре- все сферы деятельности человека и включающие подавателя адекватных методов обучения. в себя соответствующую этим сферам лексику, не- Юридический жанр «книги» может быть раз- возможно изучить в рамках ограниченного време- делён на следующие подвиды: учебная литерату- ни, предназначенного для изучения иностранного ра, научная литература и художественная лите- языка в вузе. Поэтому студентам рекомендуется ратура. Этот вид юридического жанра считается изучение только некоторых документов, имею- самым распространенным как среди студентов, щих наиболее важное социальное значение и со- так и среди специалистов. Являясь основополага- четающих в себе по максимуму смежную техни- ющим для обучения и профессионального совер- ческую лексику и характерные грамматические шенствования, этот вид юридического жанра счи- структуры. Можно рекомендовать работу над тается самым доступным для понимания. Именно жанром «законодательство» для изучающего благодаря этому жанру студенты получают прак- чтения на последнем этапе обучения, когда у сту-
106 LEGAL GENRE IN ENGLISH METHODOLOGY FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
дентов уже есть представление о речевых штам- усмотрены на выпускных курсах вуза, а изучение пах, употребляемых в подобных законодательных английского языка заканчивается на третьем кур- актах на родном языке. Это будет способствовать се. В связи с этим учебный материал по этому виду упрочению как лингвистических, так и професси- жанра (например, о системе судопроизводства ональных навыков. стран, изучаемого языка или о всемирно извест- Вид юридического жанра «судопроизводство ных процессах), рекомендуется для домашнего является самым интересным и хорошо исследован- чтения в рамках самостоятельной работы. ным в курсе английского языка как языка юриди- В заключении статьи хотелось бы отметить, ческой специальности. Этот жанр является самым что обучение английскому языку как языку спе- большим по объёму (объём «дела», находящего- циальности требует от преподавателей умений ся в производстве может достигать 1000 страниц проведения жанрового и дискурсивного анализа и более), что затрудняет его включение в академи- профессионально-ориентированного контента ческий процесс. С одной стороны, во всех книгах обучения и его адаптации к учебному процессу. и статьях этот жанр присутствует, но, с другой сто- Знание студентами лингвистических и социокуль- роны, это не даёт целостного представления обо турных особенностей юридического жанра пусть всех его языковых и социокультурных особенно- даже в краткой форме, бесспорно, способствует стях. Предметы по специальности, посвящённые совершенствованию иноязычной коммуникатив- вопросам судопроизводства (уголовный процесс, ной компетенции будущих специалистов в обла- гражданский процесс и т. д.) в учебном плане пред- сти юриспруденции. Список литературы: 1. Candela Contero Urgal. Law and Business Students’ Attitudes towards Learning English for Specific Purposes within CLIL and Non-CLIL Contexts. Languages 2019. – 4. – 45 p. Doi: 10.3390/languag- es4020045 www.mdpi.com/journal/languages 2. Berūkštienė Donata. Legal Discourse Reconsidered Genres of Legal Texts. Comparative Legilinguis- tics. – Vol. 28. 2016. – P. 90–117. 3. Мосесова М. Э. Общая характеристика англоязычного юридического дискурса: статус, участни- ки, жанры, языковая специфика. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/obschaya-harakteristika- angloyazychnogo-yuridicheskogo-diskursa-status-uchastniki-zhanry-yazykovaya-spetsifika
107 Section 6. Pedagogy
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-108-111 Parkhomenko Iryna Volodymyrivna, post-graduate student, Sumy State Pedagogical University named after A. S. Makarenko E-mail: [email protected]
CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONS OF EXTRACURRICULAR EDUCATION OF THE TOURIST AND LOCAL LORE DIRECTION OF THE NORTH-EASTERN UKRAINE (SECOND HALF OF THE XX – BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURIES)
Abstract. The article reveals the peculiarities of the changes in the conditions of development of institutions of extracurricular education since the second half of the XX century to the beginning of the XXI century. The territorial boundaries of the study define the modern borders of Sumy, Kharkiv and Chernihiv regions (North-Eastern Ukraine). Keywords: life-long education, institutions of extracurricular education, tourist and local lore direction of extracurricular education, historical and local lore work, North-Eastern Ukraine, USSR. Introduction. Today, institutions of extracur- Students Youth, the State Archives of Chernihiv and ricular education of Ukraine are one of the main Sumy regions. elements of the life-long education, which play a We used historical-comparative and historical-ty- significant role in the education of a versatile per- pological methods to determine the changing condi- sonality. Institutions of extracurricular education tions of development of institutions of extracurricular of the tourist and local lore direction coordinate education. In order to outline the patterns of the de- historical and local lore work with children and stu- velopment of institutions of extracurricular education dents after classes. This type of work is a significant in the context of improving the material and technical factor contributing to the upbringing of children in base, we used empirical methods, methods of system- the spirit of patriotism, develops cognitive interest functional and system-structural analysis. and promotes creativity. Results and discussion. For structuring the The purpose of the article is a structural and study, we consider it is advisable to distinguish four diachronic analysis of the conditions of development stages of the development of the extracurricular institutions of extracurricular education during the education system of Ukraine: the first stage (1950– study period, which were determined by the basic 60 s), the second stage (1970–80 s), the third stage guideline – their network and logistical support. (1990s), the fourth stage (2000 s). The novelty of the study is to analyze and pres- The first stage is characterized by a gradual in- ent previously unpublished archival materials stored crease in the number of institutions of extracurricu- in the funds of the Central State Archives of Supreme lar education of the tourist and local lore direction, Bodies of Power and Government of Ukraine, the the formation of their network. In 1951, there were Archive of the Ukrainian State Center of National 17 such oblast level institutions in the USSR, there Patriotic Education, Local History and Tourism of were 26 Children’s Touring and Tourist Stations
108 CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONS OF EXTRACURRICULAR EDUCATION OF THE TOURIST AND LOCAL LORE DIRECTION...
(hereinafter СTTS) in 1959, and 25 oblast and two mained constant: Republican YTS, 25 oblast and city CTTSs in 1967 [12, 4; 11, 5; 13, 3]. 2 city YTSs [3, 1]. The work of the regional CTTSs were clearly reg- In the 1970 s, community-based extracurricular ulated and checked by the employees of the Republic facilities began to be established in districts and cit- CTTS, the bodies of management of public educa- ies. In the Sumy Oblast there were 5 YTSs on a pub- tion. No institution had the right to unilaterally ap- lic basis (Romny, Konotop, Shostka, Putivl, Trosty- prove next year work plan without proper review. In anets) [2, 15]. In Kharkiv, such institutions operated the middle 1960 s, the post of responsible organizer on a public basis in almost every district (38 rayon of regional tourism in the region was established in institutions). [10, 20] 23 district and city branches each oblast under the regional, district and city gov- of the Chernihiv oblast YTS worked on a public basis erning bodies of public education. in the Chernihiv region [9, 5]. In 1970, in each district and city of North-Eastern Financing of the regional YTSs was carried out by Ukraine, basic educational institutions for tourism, the accountants of the departments of public educa- historical and local lore work were identified. At the tion, which controlled the rational use of resources, methodological offices of the departments of public materials, equipment, soft and hard inventory. education, the Houses and Pioneer Palaces corners The administrative and economic activities of of tourism and local lore were created [8, 3]. the extracurricular establishments during the pe- During the first stage, the material and technical riod were aimed at strengthening the material base base of institutions of extracurricular education was of institutions and creating conditions for the op- provided at the appropriate level: major and current eration of tourist camps and bases. All institutions repairs of the placement were carried out; materials of extracurricular education of the first and second and equipment for the work of circles were purchased. stages of the study were state institutions and were However, we should point out the significant maintained at the expense of the state budget. shortcomings in the work of institutions of extracur- At the end of the second stage, the issue of provid- ricular education of the tourist and local lore direc- ing educational institutions with tourist equipment tion of the first stage: there is no thorough analysis was actually resolved, that created favorable conditions of the actual state of the material and technical base for holding mass events for children in the regions. of the institutions and the prospects for its improve- The priority tasks set by the heads of regional ment, the lack of new quality tourist equipment, the bodies of management of national education, insti- arrangement of new facilities for tourist facilities. tutions of extracurricular education of tourist and One of the priority tasks of the Republican and local lore work in the context of development of oblast CTTSs ofthe second stage were to study and conditions of their development were questions on summarize the experience of tourism and local lore development of children’s tourism and local lore in work, to provide systematic assistance to district and rural areas, opening of new premises for tourist bases city educational institutions in improving the search during vacation time, tourist and local lore depart- and mass work, improving the level of educational ments at complex institutions of extracurricular edu- and material support. cation (Houses, Pioneer palaces). In the 1970 s, the CTTS was reformed at the As for the number of institutions of extra- Young Tourist Station (hereinafter YTS), both at curricular educational of the tourist and local the national and regional levels. During the second lore direction of the third stage of the study, we phase, the number of institutions of extracurricular should note the positive dynamics of the first half education of the tourist and local lore direction re- of the 1990 s (there were 28 YTSs in 1989, 85 in
109 Section 6. Pedagogy
1994, 89 Student Youth Centers of Tourism and number increased to 90 institutions [6, 47]. Already Local Lore (hereinafter as SYCTLL), YTSs in in 2004 there were 99 such institutions of extracur- 1995), their reduction in the middle of the third ricular education operating in Ukraine [7, 56]. stage (1998 were 84 institutions) and their res- Modern extracurricular education system has toration in the late 1990 s (1999 were 87 institu- several types and levels of funding: public, commu- tions) [4, 1; 5, 50; 6, 47]. nal, and private. State-level institutions of extracur- Complex socio-political processes that took place ricular education financed from the state budget, in the state in the early 90’ s led to the significant -fi municipal ones are mainly at the expense of the nancial, economic and organizational reforms in the founders (municipal budgets) [1, 36]. work of the institutions of extracurricular education. At the present stage, all institutions of extracur- In addition to state institutions of extracurricular ricular education of the tourist and local lore direc- education, founded by central executive authorities tion of the studied areas are communal institutions, and financed from the state budget, there were also financed from regional budgets and have a satisfac- private and communal institutions of extracurricular tory logistical support. The educational process takes education that were founded by regional self-gov- place on the basis of institutions of extracurricular ernment bodies, organizations, enterprises, religious education located in adapted premises or on the ba- organizations and abstained, regional budgets or pri- sis of other educational institutions of the region and vate campaigns. on a contractual basis. Permanent underfunding, both at the national The development of institutions of extracurricu- and regional levels, the difficult socio-economic situ- lar education of the fourth stage, the organization of ation in the country was negatively reflected in the educational and upbringing work is complicated by extracurricular educational facilities. their under-financing, which slows down the pro- Nevertheless, despite the economic instability, cesses of revitalization of their network, updating of insufficient level of budget financing, insolvency of the material and technical base, expansion of pool of parents, reorganization of the institutions of extra- children involved in extracurricular education. curricular education, historical and local lore work Conclusions. Nevertheless, despite the con- with children continued its moderate development. stant reformation of institutions of extracurricular At the beginning of the fourth stage there is a re- education of the tourist and local lore direction in vitalization of tourist, historical and local lore work, the second half of the XX – beginning of the XXI due to the increase of the network of institutions of centuries, the change of global vectors of develop- extracurricular education of the tourist and local lore ment of the state education system in general, at the direction, increasing the potential of extracurricular present stage, stabilization of the state of tourism, education as the main lever for organizing meaning- historical and local lore work in Ukraine is taking ful leisure activities for children after school hours. place, and some indicators indicate that it has im- According to state statistics, as of January 1, proved (an increase in the network of institutions 2000, there were 87 SYCTLL, YTSs (1 Republican, of extracurricular education of the tourist and local 21 oblast, 38 city, 27 rayon) [5, 50]. In 2001, their lore direction). References: 1. Bykovsjka O. V. Extracurricular Education Development Strategy / ed. prof. O. V. Bykovsjka. – K.: IVC ALCON, 2018. – 96 p. URL: http://enpuir.npu.edu.ua/bitstream/123456789/23320/1/Stratehiia%20 Rozvytku%20Pozashkilnoi%20Osvity.pdf
110 CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONS OF EXTRACURRICULAR EDUCATION OF THE TOURIST AND LOCAL LORE DIRECTION...
2. Report of the Sumy Regional CTTS for 1974. State Archive of Sumy Region. F. R – 3551. Descr. 1. Case 106. 41 sheets. 3. Summary statistical report of children’s institutions of extracurricular education for 1974. Form № 1-VU. Central State Archives of Supreme Bodies of Power and Government of Ukraine. F. – 166. Descr. 15, Case 8746, sheet 184. 4. Tourism and Local Lore. Information-methodical bulletin. – Kyiv, 1997. – № 5. – 31 p. 5. Tourism and Local Lore. Information-methodical bulletin. – Kyiv, 2000. – № 13. – 79 p. 6. Tourism and Local Lore. Information-methodical bulletin. – Kyiv, 2001. – № 14. – 72 p. 7. Tourism and Local Lore. Information-methodical bulletin. – Kyiv, 2004. – № 18. – 64 с. 8. Work report for 1970. State Archive of Sumy Region. F.R – 3551. Descr. 1. Case 63. 16 sheets. 9. Work report for 1978. State Archive of Chernihiv region. F.R – 5323. Descr. 1. Case 153. 48 sheets. 10. Work report of the Kharkiv Regional Station for Young Tourists for 1979. Archive of the Ukrainian State Center of National Patriotic Education, Local History and Tourism of Students Youth. F. R – 4715. Descr. 2. Case 71. 163 sheets. 11. Work report station for 1951. Central State Archives of Supreme Bodies of Power and Government of Ukraine. F. R – 4715. Descr. 2. Case 18. 94 sheets. 12. Work report station for 1959. Central State Archives of Supreme Bodies of Power and Government of Ukraine. F. R – 4715. Descr. 2. Case 118. 100 sheets. 13. Work report station for 1967. Central State Archives of Supreme Bodies of Power and Government of Ukraine. F. R – 4715. Descr. 2. Case 258. 45 sheets.
111 Section 6. Pedagogy
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-112-116 Pochinkova Maria, State institution “Lugansk National University named after Taras Shevchenko”, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Educational Scientific Institute of Pedagogy and Psychology E-mail: [email protected] PHILOSOPHICAL METHODOLOGICAL LEVEL IN FORMING CRITICAL THINKING IN THE PROCESS OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF FUTURE TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Abstract. The article presents the concept of a philosophical methodological level. The philo- sophical principles on which this level is based are revealed, and the axiological approach used at this level is also described. Keywords: methodology, philosophical methodological level, critical thinking, future primary school teachers. Починкова Мария, Государственное учреждение «Луганский национальный университет имени Тараса Шевченко», кандидат педагогических наук, доцент, учебно-научного института педагогики и психологии E-mail: [email protected] ФИЛОСОФСКИЙ МЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ УРОВЕНЬ В ФОРМИРОВАНИИ КРИТИЧЕСКОГО МЫШЛЕНИЯ В ПРОЦЕССЕ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЙ ПОДГОТОВКИ БУДУЩИХ УЧИТЕЛЕЙ НАЧАЛЬНОЙ ШКОЛЫ Аннотация. В статье представлено понятие философский методологический уровень. Рас- крыты философские принципы, на которых базируется этот уровень, а также описан аксиоло- гический подход, использованный на этом уровне. Ключевые слова: методология, философский методологический уровень, критическое мышление, будущие учителя начальной школы. Построение системы формирования крити- выделяют четыре методологических уровня: фи- ческого мышления (КМ) в процессе профес- лософский, общенаучный, конкретно-научный, сиональной подготовки будущих учителей на- технологический. чальной школы (БУНШ) требует использования Философский уровень исследования являет- различных методологических уровней. Ученые ся самым высоким методологическим уровнем
112 PHILOSOPHICAL METHODOLOGICAL LEVEL IN FORMING CRITICAL THINKING IN THE PROCESS OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF FUTURE TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
по утверждению Е. Юдина [10, 42]. При этом, ка через практику как решающий критерий по мнению Т. Харченко, выступает как содержа- и основу познания. Поиск эффективных пу- тельное основание любого методологического тей формирования КМ в процессе профес- знания, определяя мировоззренческие подходы сиональной подготовки БУНШ обусловлен к процессу познания и преобразования действи- именно задачами и потребностями его (КМ) тельности [8, 24]. практического применения; Акцентируем внимание на утверждении –– принцип единства диалектики и логики, Е. Юдина относительно функционирования фи- обусловившим воспроизведения логиче- лософского уровня методологии: «философский ского развития концепции КМ, что, в свою уровень методологии реально функционирует не очередь, выступило ключом к пониманию в форме жесткой системы норм и «рецептов» основных направлений и стратегий разви- или технических приемов – такая его трактовка тия теории и практики формирования КМ бесспорно привела бы к догматизации научного в процессе профессиональной подготовки познания, а как система предпосылок и ориенти- БУНШ, а также логическое и стройное ров познавательной деятельности [10, 42]. построение системы работы по формиро- На этом уровне, во время формирования ванию КМ в процессе профессиональной КМ в процессе профессиональной подготовки подготовки БУНШ; БУНШ, основой для нас выступили философ- –– принцип всесторонности рассмотрения ские принципы: позволил избежать односторонности рас- –– принцип объективности, который по- смотрения проблемы формирования КМ зволяет рассмотреть формирование КМ в процессе профессиональной подготовки в процессе профессиональной подготовки БУНШ, в частности предотвратить иска- БУНШ как часть объективной реальности, жение, ошибочности выводов из односто- независимо от сознания исследователя роннего освещения этой проблемы и рас- и исследуемых. Изучать не субъективист- смотреть его во взаимодействии со всей ские переживания участников исследо- совокупностью внутренних и внешних сто- вания относительно формирования КМ рон и выделить главные, решающие и сущ- в процессе профессиональной подготовки ностные характеристика этого процесса; БУНШ, а сам процесс; –– принцип отражения заключался в том, что –– принцип конкретности побуждает к рас- сущность процесса познания проблемы смотрению проблемы формирования КМ формирования КМ в процессе профессио- в процессе профессиональной подготовки нальной подготовки БУНШ происходила БУНШ с точки зрения условий определен- не как зеркальное отражение действитель- ного места и времени; ности, а как выяснение, предсказания воз- –– принцип историзма требует рассмотрения можностей дальнейшего развития этого проблемы формирования КМ в процессе процесса. профессиональной подготовки БУНШ На философском методологическом уровне сквозь призму конкретной эпохи, позволя- мы сосредоточились на аксиологическом и куль- ет выявить логику, закономерность разви- турологическом подходах. В нашей статье мы тия концепции КМ; рассмотрим более подробно аксиологический –– принцип практики способствует установле- подход как основополагающий в процессе фор- нию взаимосвязи знаний и практики, поис- мирования КМ БУНШ.
113 Section 6. Pedagogy
К. Хоруженко в «Культурология. Энциклопе- Под ценностями Г. Андреева понимает «все, что дический словарь» дает следующее определение наделено общим содержанием; … предельно обоб- «аксиологии» – «философское учение о цен- щенный социальный опыт, полученный личностью ностях, обобщенные устойчивые представления в онтогенезе. В сознании личности ценности пред- о желаемых блага, объекты, которые являются ставлены в виде понятий, которые могут стимули- значимыми для человека, являются предметами ровать проявление различных чувств и оценок, от- его желания, стремления, интереса» [9]. ношения мотивов к деятельности» [1, 154]. Аксиологический подход является характер- С. Бадер отмечает наличие гуманистических ной чертой гуманистической педагогики (И. Бех, тенденций в современном образовании, которые В. Вакуленко, М. Евтух, И. Зязюн, И. Исаев, обуславливают активное обращение к ценностно- С. Маслов, Т. Маслова, В. Сластенин, Н. Ткачева, смысловой парадигме во время профессиональ- Г. Чижакова), по утверждению С. Бадер, «ее не- ной подготовки будущего специалиста [2, 11]. пременным компонентом, ведь человек понимает- В свете нашего исследования не можем ся высшей ценностью бытия и самоцелью разви- обойти вниманием ценности для студентов тия общества в целом» [2, 12]. Аксиологический педагогических вузов, выделенные С. Масло- подход является ведущим при формировании вым и Т. Масловой, которые нам импонируют: КМ в процессе профессиональной подготовки гуманистические ценности педагогической БУНШ, поскольку мышление, которое строится деятельности (ученик, детство, уникальность на ценностях является главным отличительным и индивидуальность личности, развитие учени- признаком от других типов мышления. ка, самореализация ученика) профессионально- Роль аксиологического подхода в профессио- нравственные ценности (добро, сострадание, нальной подготовке будущих специалистов рас- милосердие, искренность, верность, профес- смотрены в работах Г. Андреевой, С. Безбородых, сиональный долг, свобода, вера, доверие, спра- Г. Батищева, Н. Бычкова, А. Васюка, С. Витвиц- ведливость, патриотизм, обязательность, про- кий, С. Выговской, Г. Выжлецова, Л. Задорожной- фессиональная честь и достоинство); ценность Княгицкой, С. Кожушко, Е. Лебедь, Н. Лебедевой, творческой самореализации (совершенствова- Н. Маяковской, А. Никора, Т. Пономаренко, ние профессионально-творческих способностей, Ю. Присяжнюка, М. Приходько и др. учебный предмет, который преподается, посто- По справедливому утверждению Е. Лебедь, янное самосовершенствование учителя, цен- «аксиологический подход позволяет представить ность инноваций); интеллектуальные ценности педагогическую систему формирования КМ в про- (истина, профессиональные знания, творчество, цессе профессиональной подготовки БУНШ как познание, свободный доступ к информации); со- жизненное пространство, что расширяется, в ко- циальные ценности (профессионально-педаго- тором личность БУНШ строит определенную гическое общение, профессионально-педагоги- траекторию своего движения с учетом ценностных ческая корпоративность, соборность, традиции, ориентиров, в том числе и ценностей, и саморазви- семья, любовь и привязанность к детям) и эсте- тия [5, 131]. Сущность процесса аксиологизации тические ценности (красота, гармония) [6, 202– будущего специалиста заключается в совершен- 212]. На наш взгляд, перечень интеллектуальных ствовании имеющихся у него ценностей, которые ценностей следовало бы дополнить КМ, потому раскрывают суть и содержание КМ. Итак, делаем что именно обладание таким мышлением, бес- вывод о том, что основной категорию аксиологи- спорно, является ценностью, которая позволит ческого подхода являются ценности. соответственно относиться к мотивам профес-
114 PHILOSOPHICAL METHODOLOGICAL LEVEL IN FORMING CRITICAL THINKING IN THE PROCESS OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF FUTURE TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
сиональной деятельности и адекватно оценивать ности самостоятельно определять личностную, информацию. гражданскую и социальную позицию. Из этого следует, что современный учитель Кроме того, высшее профессиональное обра- должен уметь и понимать, как научить будущее по- зование представляет собой ценность не только коление так, чтобы будущие специалисты были не для субъекта обучения, но и для страны и нао- только конкурентоспособными, но и опирались на борот. Так, В. Василенко отмечает, что «каждая общечеловеческие, общеевропейские и националь- страна, проводя образовательную политику, ор- ные ценности. Работу по формированию ценно- ганизует процесс формирования и закрепления стей надо начинать с самого раннего возраста еще целей и направлений развития своей системы в дошкольном учреждении, однако, сознательное высшего образования различным способом, опи- становление личности, переориентация на полу- раясь на свои многовековые традиции и исходя чение новых знаний и собственное развитие че- из особенностей правовой системы, царящих на рез эти знания начинает происходить в младшем ее территории [4, 59]. школьном возрасте, поэтому именно учитель на- Учитывая вышесказанное, можно сделать чальной школы должен вести такую работу. основные обобщения относительно учета ос- В доказательство истинности этой мысли вы- новных положений аксиологического подхода ступают утверждение Н. Маяковской и С. Безбо- при формировании КМ в процессе профессио- родых по поводу смещения акцентов в подготовке нальной подготовки БУНШ: направленность на будущих специалистов узкопрофессионального высшее профессиональное образование как цен- направления на интеллектуально-духовное раз- ность; адаптация технологии развития КМ таким витие личности [7, 168; 3, 21]. образом, чтобы они соответствовали мировой Исследователи (Е. Белозерцев, Г. Бордов- педагогической практике; использование систе- ский, А. Булинин, В. Горовая, В. Козырев, мы профессиональных ценностей (по С. Масло- Т. Кузнецова, Н. Кузьмина, Л. Лисохина и др.) ву и Т. Масловой) основания системы работы по подчеркивают ценность высшего профессио- формированию КМ в процессе профессиональ- нального образования, которая заключается ной подготовки БУНШ на основании общече- в обеспечении человеку свободы выбора систе- ловеческих, общеевропейских, национальных мы ценностей и видов деятельности, возмож- (украинских) ценностях.
Список литературы: 1. Андреева Г. К. К вопросу о реализации культурологический, аксиологического и компетентносного подоходов в подготовке учителя // Теоретико-методологические и прикладные аспекты социаль- ных институтов права, экономики и образования. – М.: Перо, 2016. – С. 154–158. 2. Бадер С. О. Методологічні засади проблеми формування ціннісно-смислових орієнтацій майбутніх вихователів. Науковий часопис НПУ імені М. П. Драгоманова. Серія 5. Педагогічні науки: реалії та перспективи. 2018. Випуск 64. – С. 10–15. 3. Безбородих С. М. Аксіологічні основи професійної підготовки майбутніх фахівців початкової шко- ли // Науковий вісник Ужгородського національного університету. Серія: Педагогіка, соціальна робота. 2011. Вип. 21. – С. 21–24. 4. Василенко В. М. Система вищої освіти: стан і перспективи розвитку: монографія / В. М. Василенко, Л. Г. Парфьонова; наук. ред. В. М. Василенко. – Донецьк: Юго-Восток, 2013. – 191 с.
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5. Лебедь Е. В. Формирование готовности будущего руководителя общеобразовательного учебного за- ведения к стратегическому управлению в условиях магистратуры: теоретико-методический аспект: монография. Днепр: Университет имени Альфреда Нобеля, 2017. – 416 с. 6. Маслов С., Маслова Т. Аксиологический подход в педагогике // Известия Тульского государствен- ного университета. Гуманитарные науки. 2013. – № 2–3. – С. 202–212. 7. Маяковская Н. В. Сущность аксиологического подхода и его применение в системе профессиональ- ной подготовки будущего врача // Вестник Нижегородского Государственного лингвистического университета им. Н. А. Добролюбова. – Нижний Новгород, 2010. – № 12. – С. 164–172. 8. Харченко Т. Г. Теорія і практика гуманізації сучасної педагогічної освіти у Франції. Дисерт. … на здобут. наук. ступ. докт. пед. наук. за спец. 13.00.01 – загальна педагогіка та історія педагогіки. – Луганськ, 2014. – 549 с. 9. Хоруженко К. М. Культурология. Энциклопедический словарь. – Ростов-на-Дону: Феникс, 1997. – 40 с. 10. Юдин Э. Г. Системный подход и принцип деятельности. – М.: Наука, 1978. – 391 с.
116 ARTISTIC AND AESTHETIC EDUCATION OF STUDENTS BY MEANS OF ART BOOKS
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-117-121 Sulaymonov A. P., Associate Professor, Department of Fine Arts Tashkent Architecture and Construction Institute, Academician of the International Academy of pedagogical education E-mail: [email protected]
ARTISTIC AND AESTHETIC EDUCATION OF STUDENTS BY MEANS OF ART BOOKS Abstract. The article reveals the educational opportunities and didactic requirements for the selection of works of art of a book, the ratio of educational materials of a historical and modern na- ture, organizational and methodological features of introducing students to the art of a book, both modern and historical, through the art of miniature painting in the East. Keywords: book art, miniature painting of the East, familiarization, educational opportunities, didactic requirements, educational material, artistic and aesthetic education. Сулаймонов А. П., доцент кафедры “Изобразительное искусство” Ташкентского архитектурно-строительного института, академик Международной академии педагогического образования E-mail: [email protected]
ХУДОЖЕСТВЕННО-ЭСТЕТИЧЕСКОЕ ВОСПИТАНИЕ УЧАЩИХСЯ СРЕДСТВАМИ ИСКУССТВУ КНИГИ Аннотация. В статье раскрывается образовательные возможности и дидактические требо- вания отбора произведений искусства книги, соотношение учебных материалов исторического и современного характера, организационно-методические особенности приобщения учащихся к искусству книги как современного, так и исторического через искусство миниатюрной жи- вописи востока. Ключевые слова: искусство книги, миниатюрная живопись Востока, приобщение, образо- вательные возможности, дидактические требования, учебный материал, художественно-эсте- тическое воспитание. Искусство книги занимает особое место в ду- рический обзор развития искусства рукописной ховно-эстетическом обогащении человека. Ибо, книги, отражающий эволюции изображения” об- книга как величайшее открытие в истории чело- раза человека, окружающей среды в миниатюрах вечество является носителем истории, знаний, [3, С. 21]. В частности, искусство рукописной сокровищница мыслей. Особенно художествен- книги, миниатюры “неразрывно связан с конкрет- но оформленные книги “представляет собой исто- но-историческими условиями развития общества,
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его этическими и эстетическими представления- В определении содержания занятий немало- ми” [3, С. 21]. Образ человека олицетворяет раз- важное значение имеет изобразительные воз- витие общества, пропагандирует духовное совер- можности и способности учащихся, так назы- шенствование человека. Поэтому исторические ваемой дифференциации по принципу малой материалы по истории рукописной книги, в част- специализации. ности, миниатюрная живопись является уникаль- Как известно, даже в рамках одного вида ис- ным учебным материалом в художественно-эсте- кусства предпочтения учащихся в выборе дея- тическом воспитании подрастающего поколения. тельности бывает разными: одни предпочитает В то же время искусство книги не является уни- иллюстрирование литературного произведения, версальным источником художественного воспи- другие работу над шрифтом или орнаментальное тания учащихся молодежи путем приобщения их оформление книги, то есть каждый ученик вправе к искусству книги, необходимо теоретически обо- выбрать свою малую специализацию. сновать содержание и методики изучение книги Выбор литературных источников, репродук- и миниатюры к ним как учебный материал в за- ций, образцов шрифта для занятий по освоении висимости от возрастно-интеллктуального потен- искусства книги осуществляется исходя из следу- циала учащейся молодежи. Ибо эффективность ющих требований: образовательного процесса зависит от многих –– соответствие содержания отбираемого компонентов. Научно обоснованное содержание произведения миру переживаний учащих- занятий по освоению искусства книги является ся, сфере их познавательных интересов; основным фактором, гарантирующие эффек- –– доступность литературной и художествен- тивность образовательного процесса. Одним из ной информации уровню интеллектуально- главных задач в определении содержания занятий го развития учащихся; в области искусства – выявление исходного уров- –– органическая связь художественного оформ- ня историко-теоретических и практических навы- ления с художественно-образным строем ков учащихся в сфере изучаемого вида искусства, литературного произведения, замыслом в нашем примере искусства книги, а также учет писателя; образовательного потенциала отбираемого содер- –– художественная ценность изучаемого про- жания занятий. Важно также определение художе- изведения, его образовательный и воспита- ственно-творческих предпочтений и склонностей тельный потенциал. учащихся. Эти предпочтения и склонности необ- Вопрос дифференцированного подхода в обу- ходимо максимально учитывать в теоретическом чении и воспитания выдвигается в качестве одного обосновании определения: из главных критериев в определении содержания –– литературных источников, рекомендуемых занятий. По этой концепции также предусматри- для художественного оформления исходя вается дифференцированный подход по принци- из возрастных и гендерных особенностей пу гендерных особенностей. учащихся; В качестве основных показателей, определя- –– соотношения теоретического и практиче- ющих исходный уровень знаний, умений и навы- ского материала; ков учащихся необходимо учитывать следующие –– соотношения информации и материалов по факторы, основанные на анализе художественно- искусству современного искусства книги творческой деятельности учащихся: и истории искусства миниатюрной живо- 1. Художественная ценность и духовный по- писи. тенциал искусства книги как современных образ-
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цов, художественно оформленных рукописных расположения основных элементов (шрифтовые, изданий восточной классической литературы орнаментальные, изобразительные) в горизон- учащимися осознаются недостаточно. тали или вертикали можно создать зрительное 2. Выбор формата книги: на начальном этапе впечатление того или иного вида формата. Нали- учащиеся выбирает, как правило, большие, широкие чие у учащихся практических навыков и умений или узкие форматы бумаги для выполнения инди- применения этого приема нами оценивается как видуальных вариантов художественно-графических высокий уровень способности правильного вы- элементов по мотивам выбранной художественной бора формата бумаги и рациональное использо- литературы. Такое выразительное средство книж- вание ее плоскости в зависимости от характера ного искусства, как формат, таким образом, при- и содержания иллюстрируемого литературного меняется учащимися необоснованно. Поэтому произведения. Поэтому в определении содержа- в содержании занятий целесообразно включать ния занятий по освоению искусства книги особое упражнения по выработке у учащихся навыков значение имеют занятия по выбору формата. обоснованного выбора формата, начиная обучение 3. Уровень знаний учащихся по цветоведе- с вытянутых по горизонтали и вертикали форматов. нию, а также использование цветовых оттенков По мнению известного исследователя ис- применяемых бумаг как художественный ма- кусству книги А. Д. Гончарова одним из художе- териал. В процессе использования различных ственно-значимых качеств поверхности является видов красок (в основном акварельные и гуаше- ее формат, или пропорциональное соотношение вые) учащимися не учитывается их специфика. ее сторон. Локализируя поле зрения, формат не Например, легкая прозрачность акварельной только способствует целостному восприятию, но краски не дает тех цветов на бумаге различных и выражает образную картину произведении. оттенков, которые возможно достичь на белой Рациональное и выразительное применение бумаге. Накладывая на белую бумагу или бумагу различных форматов характерно для творчества ху- с оттенками гуашевых красок, мы можем полу- дожников-миниатюристов Востока. В качестве вы- чит тот же цвет. Проводимые в этих случаях за- разительного применения вертикального формата нятия по цветоведению имеют направленность можно привести произведения Низами «Хамса» на развитие у учащихся теоретических знаний в оформлении художника Мухамед Шарифа. и практических умений по цветоведению. При выборе формата учитывается основные 4. Теоретические знания о месте и значении принципы определения размера книги, к числу различных элементов книги, уровень практиче- которых относятся: ских художественно-творческих способностей. –– создание оптимальных условий для зри- 5. Знание искусства шрифта, являющегося тельного восприятия текста и иллюстра- одним из главных художественно-графических ций; элементов книги – ее “строительным материа- –– обеспечение максимум удобств для пользо- лом”. Только овладев достаточными знаниями по вания книгой как вещью (размер, вес); теории искусства шрифта, необходимыми прак- –– обеспечение гармоничного соотношения тическими навыками, ученик может выделить всех пространственных характеристик из- в шрифтовой композиции наиболее существен- делия – его высоты, ширины, толщины и т. д. ные с точки зрения смысла слова и фразы в тексте Размеры книг, хотя они бывает разные, не всег- переплета, обложке и суперобложке. К акцентри- да дают возможность «размахнуться» по верти- рующим средствам можно отнести художествен- кали или горизонтали. В таких случаях за счет ный стиль, выразителем которого является шрифт,
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варьирование размера букв, их наклона и начерта- а также формированию практических навыков ния; изменение цвета и фактуры букв. включаются такие задания, которые способству- Вторым важным качеством шрифта является ют выработке теоретических знаний и практи- ассоциативно-смысловые функции, которые вы- ческих умений правильного и обоснованного зывает у зрителя представления о характерных выбора форматов книг по мотивам выбранных особенностях, присущих данному произведению. литературных произведений в плане создания Освоив эти качества шрифта, учащиеся смогут выразительных композиций. Это различные эле- с их помощью передать дух эпохи, о котором менты в горизонтальном и вертикальном форма- повествует книга, выделить национальные черты, тах; система упражнений по цветоведению; из- описываемые в книге и т. д. учению специфики художественных материалов, 6. Уровень знаний художественных материа- технике их применения; занятия, посвященные лов книжной графики и техники их применения. выразительным средствам, применяемых в ис- Наши наблюдения дает основание утверждать, кусстве книги. что с учащимися необходимо вести специальные Однако необходимо отметит, что основным занятия по освоению художественно-выразитель- художественно-графическим элементом искусство ных средств (точка, пятно, линия) и художествен- книги являются иллюстрации, где композиционное ных материалов (бумага, краска, касть, карандаш, решение приобретает первостепенное значение, тушь, перо и др.). изобразительно-выразительный эквивалент кон- 7. Приобщение учащихся к художественно-об- кретного эпизода литературного произведения. разным особенностям искусства миниатюрной Поэтому необходимо уделят особое внимание на живописи востока, основных направлений и веду- основных параметров композиции, решение кото- щих школ, творчеству выдающихся художников- рых приходиться в процессе поисково-творческой миниатюристов. Именно в этом виде искусства деятельности, выполняя множество зарисовок огранично воплотились содержание и особый и набросков. Примером тому творчество извест- строй средновековых поэм, исторических хро- ных художников, в процессе создания иллюстрации ник. С помощью специфических художественных они выполняют много набросков и зарисовок “ко- средств миниатюристы выражали свое понима- торые дают возможность правильно сориентиро- ние творений классиков восточной литературы. ваться по определению” окончательного варианта Приобщая учащихся к восточной миниатюре, композиционной решении иллюстрации [2, С. 24]. мы знакомим их с истоками этого самобытного Некоторые ученики “начинают сразу уделять вни- искусства. Через изучение миниатюрной живо- мание деталям, рисуя их полностью без набросков писи востока учащиеся приобщаются к истории всего рисунка” [2, С. 23]. в конкретно-истрических условиях развития Иллюстрации к литературным произведени- общества, с этическими и эстетическими пред- ям часто выполняют функции “объяснения” изо- ставлениями художников-миниатюристов тех бразительно-выразительными средствами сюжет времен, а аткже к специфическим художествен- литературного текста., т. к. иногда“ представление ным традициям миниатюрной живописи. Таким автора о содержании произведения может быть образом, они осознают, что “к книге на Востоке неотчетливым, еще туманным, но отбирает худож- относились с особым почтением. Его происхож- ник все, без чего его замысел не будет понятен, от- дение считалось священным” [3, С. 43]. брасывает лишнее. Из неясной дали проступают Таким образом, в содержание занятий по герои события, отдельные образы с их характер- изучению теории и истории искусства книги, ными чертами. Их облик уточняется, наполняется
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плотью. Предметы обстановки, место действия, –– изучение искусства книги разных периодов фон определяются, становятся необходимыми, его развития представляет учащимся воз- единственно возможными” [5, С. 229]. можность проследить истории книжного В тоже время необходимо констатировать, искусства, сопоставлять творческие стили что создание композиционных иллюстраций тре- художников книги разного поколения. бует определенные компетенции в плане изобра- Результаты многлетных исследований по худо- зительной грамотности, кроме вышеизложенных жественно-эстетическому воспитанию учащих- канонов искусства книги, при создании компо- ся молодежи путем приобщения их к искусству зиции определяющим считается учет законов книги дает возможность утверждать, что учет перспективы. Известный художник А. Дейнеки дидиактических требований по отбору учебных отмечает, что “перспективные правила в изо- материалов иммет исторические корни. Этому бразительном искусстве, в частности, в рисунке, свидетельствуют творческие методы создания имеют первостепенное значение. Построение на декоратвного строя рукописной книги извест- законах математики и оптики, перспектива, как ных миниатюристов Востока. Они “отбирая для наука в руках опытного художника, дает возмож- иллюстрирования то или иное произведение, от- ность правильно строить пространство и сораз- талкиваясь от заданного “словесоно портрета”, ху- мерять между собой предметы” [5, С. 222]. дожник создает зрительный канон для раскрытия При определении содержания занятий по ос- литературных образов” [3, С. 46]. воению истории, теории и практики искусства Таким образом, при теоретическом обоснова- книги учитывается дидактические требования нии содержания занятий по освоению искусства по отбору образцов офрмления книги. В отборе книги учитывается ряд факторов, определяющих образцов книжного искусства необходимо руко- эффективность художественного воспитания водствоваться следующими критериями: учащиеся, т. е. исходный уровень историко-тео- –– изучение искусства книги как Узбекистана, ретических знаний, практических умений и на- так и других стран и народов дает учащимся выков по искусству книги, интеллектуально- возможность сопоставлять искусство раз- творческие данные, художественно-творческие ных народов, что способствует воспитанию предпочтения и склонности, познавательный у учащихся навыков определения нацио- и воспитательный потенциал применяемых ме- нальных художественных черт искусства; тодических материалов. Список литературы: 1. Гильманова Н. В. Композиция в изобразительном искусстве. Учебное пособие. – Ташкент: Истиклол нури, 2014. – 288 с. 2. Ишматов Ж. Т. Рисунок. Учебное пособие. – Ташкент: 2018. –124 с. 3. Полякова В. А., Рахимова З. И. Миниатюра и литература Востока: эволюция образа человека. – Ташкент: 1980. 4. Пугаченкова Г. А., Галеркина И. О. Миниатюры Средней Азии. – Москва: 1979. 5. Осмоловская О. В., Мусатов А. А. Рисунок по представлению. Учебное пособие. – Москва: Архитектура-С, 2018. – 412 с. 6. Фаворский В. А. О графике, как об основе книжного искусства. В кн. Искусство книги. Вып. 2. – Москва: 1961. 7. Шумилина Т. О. Аналитический рисунок. – Москва: Букс МАрт, 2017. – 112 с. Илл.
121 Section 7. Political science
Section 7. Political science
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-121-126 Phung Thanh, Master, Lecturer of Department of Ho Chi Minh’s ideology, Political Academy, Ministry of Defence E-mail: [email protected] RESEARCHING AND APPLYING HO CHI MINH LEADERSHIP STYLE ON INNOVATING THE LEADERSHIP STYLE OF THE CURRENT VIETNAMESE CADRES Abstract: President Ho Chi Minh is an extraordinary leader of the Communist Party of Vietnam and of Vietnam nation. His enormous contribution and great cause are in close link with the history of Vietnam revolution in the 20th century. Therefore, the study on Ho Chi Minh’s leadership style will contribute to further clarifying his excellent leadership talent; simultaneously, it will provide the important practical and theoretical basis for building the leadership style of the officials in Vietnam in the current period. Keywords: Ho Chi Minh; the leadership style; the officials. Ho Chi Minh’s value and great impact on the renewing the leadership style of leaders and man- Communist Party, the nation of Vietnam and agers in Vietnam in the current period. the world are based on a variety of factors, spe- 1. Ho Chi Minh’s leadership style cially his leadership style. He had an exemplar- Ho Chi Minh’s leadership style is a combination ity leadership of a politician and a real scientist, of method, measure, and style typically of the leaders which clearly testifies the dialectical relationship whose objects are of lower positions and the masses. between a sense of class-politics and science and To fulfil the leading aim, Ho Chi Minh made use of the profound humanism of a great culturist. Ho Chi efficient, scientific, appropriate and democratic lead- Minh’s leadership style conveys particular traits of ership style so as to promote each individual’s capacity a great man, a person of “great personality, great to the fullest. This leadership style was ignited from intellectual, great courage”. As the leader of the the profound view on Marxism-Leninism’s dialectical Party and a new democratic State in Vietnam for relation between the leader himself and the masses; 24 years, he showed his friendliness and closeness and Ho Chi Minh life-long’s revolutionary morality. which should be followed and applied by others In the work entitled: Correcting the working meth- leaders. Thus, it is vital and necessary to clarify the od (1947), Ho Chi Minh indicated: “Whatever ways practical and theoretical issues on Ho Chi Minh’s of holding and working, it should be for the inter- leadership style so as to apply in the process of est and the need of the public. Therefore, the ways
122 RESEARCHING AND APPLYING HO CHI MINH LEADERSHIP STYLE ON INNOVATING THE LEADERSHIP STYLE OF THE CURRENT VIETNAMESE CADRES of holding and working inappropriate to the masses Board and different offices of the Party, the state and should be corrected or eliminated and the appropri- revolutionary organizations. According to Ho Chi ate ways should be made available to the public and Minh, in the task of leading and managing, if we con- can be reported later as long as they work effectively” duct the democratic ways, respecting and appreciat- [6, P. 286]. Uncle Ho emphasized: “Our working style ing the public’s opinions, then we can promote their should base on the motto: “Originate from the masses activeness, creativity, strength and agreement so as and deep in the masses” [6, P. 288]. He commanded to successfully deal with every task assigned. During the officials frequently keep close contact with the his career, Ho Chi Minh set a good example in re- masses in order to deeply understand their wish, their specting the collective and their opinions regardless hope and their material and spiritual life. Simultane- of positions or titles. He predicted the degradation ously, the officials should highly respect and appreci- of democracy and the disrespect of the collective ate people’s constructive criticism, not only teaching within the senior officials. Ho Chi Minh’s demo- but also learning and setting examples for the masses. cratic leadership style completely contrasts with the He emphasized: “Learning but not following the authoritative command, formalist, extreme democ- masses” [6, P. 333], “not blindly following whatever racy or non-government. Ho Chi Minh’s ideology the public say” [6, P. 337]. Regarding the leadership, shows that the democratic working style respecting the officials need to thoroughly understand the pub- the collective should go along with each individual’s lic’s quality, categories them so as to have the effective determination and responsibility. He claimed that: ways of leading and realize that the public’s typical fea- “The leadership disrespecting the collective will lead ture is “they constantly make comparison” and their to a Pooh-Bah’s style of work, arbitrary, subjective comparisons are often right as they are everywhere viewpoint and damage the work. Nobody takes re- and they know everything. Thus, the officials should sponsibility for the work will lead to an easy-going make use of the public’s comparison for themselves. style, disorder, non-government” [6, P. 620]. Ho Chi Minh kept asking the officials to find ways to One particular trait in Ho Chi Minh’s leadership overcome the authoritative and commanding work- style is the scientific sense. He was dedicated, de- ing style. He ordered people-in-charge in different voted, enthusiastic for the nation, for the people with ministries, branches, departments and the Central to a practical, specific, scientific working style. He pos- frequently examine, address the work right away and sessed a perfect combination of a revolutionist and fight against the complicated administrative proce- a scientist. His leadership style is completely con- dures and so many unnecessary meetings. trasted with a subjective, free, careless, untidy, slow Ho Chi Minh not only taught the officials the ap- style, wasting time, money and strength; working propriate ways of leading but he himself also made a without planning or strategic vision. Ho Chi Minh good example. In fact, thanks to his effective leader- pointed out these problems and asked the officials to ship style, he could “put politics into the centre of the resiliently overcome them. masses of the people”, mixed himself with the public To have a scientific leadership style, Ho Chi Minh to really comprehend their opinions. indicated: “Whenever an issue arises, we need to ask Ho Chi Minh led the democratic style of respect- ourselves: Why does this issue arise: How to address it ing the community. This way is an issue of regularity and what may be the result? We have to see and think originated from the democratic principle in holding thoroughly, not hastily and carelessly deal with this is- and working of the new style of party. He constantly sue regardless of its result” [6, P. 279] and “We should implemented this while working with the masses, be elaborate and careful in whatever we do” [6, P. 307]. the inferior people, the Politburo, the Party Central A decision made should be based on adequate and ac-
123 Section 7. Political science curate information with feasible solutions. It should Ho Chi Minh criticized some officials who sim- not be implemented by personal extreme opinions ply talked hour after hour, day after day but failed but by objective experiences and long-term vision to fulfil a simple task and He ordered officials and and scientific prediction on the matters concerned so party members to be consistent in their words and as not to be passive and narrow-minded. The officials actions and make examples for others. Accordingly, who do not pay attention to the long-term goal but they constantly self-criticise and take responsibility the immediate, petty calculation should be criticized. for their words and deeds and willing to listen to oth- Ho Chi Minh’s scientific leadership style is shown ers’ criticism for improvement. For the Party orga- clearly in the following example: whenever a task is nization, He stated “The Party needs to frequently fulfilled, lessons are drawn for the coming tasks. The examine how its resolutions and directives are imple- leaders need to utilize the co-workers, followers, assis- mented. If not, these resolutions and directives are tants scientifically, effectively and frequently supervise only theory and not put into practice, resulting to the tasks done by those in the inferior positions. No- people’s loss of faith for the Party” [6, P. 290]. tably, they should know how to take things into con- As the leader of the Party and the State, Ho Chi sideration under a scientific perspective. As a real sci- Minh’s leadership style makes great impact on the entist, Ho Chi Minh told the officials that “We should quality of leadership and prestige of the Commu- have a scientific view on society” and in fact, his own nist party of Vietnam, the relationship between the view on everything conveys more or less scientific Party and the people, the nationwide solidarity, the trait. He often compared things and evens in terms of personality of officials and party members and the time, space and feature to distinguish a certain point. revolutionary associations. In the current time, it is He had a profound insight into the data reported. In urgent and vital to renew the leadership style accord- his writing Opinions on jobs and books published “good ing to the ideology of Ho Chi Minh’s leadership style. people, good deeds” (1968), Ho Chi Minh: “Look at 2. Grasping and applying Ho Chi Minh’s lead- this list! I have written down each industry, each gen- ership style into renewing Vietnam officials’ lead- der, each location, the old, the young, the female, the ership style at present male, the different parts of the country, the overseas It can be confirmed that Vietnam’s great achieve- Vietnamese… getting prizes and appreciated. These ments after 30 years of renovating, building social- numbers do not mean that the above-mentioned peo- ism and protecting Vietnam Fatherland are in close ple or industries are better than others. The places with link with the role of “the root of everything” of the few people appreciated are due to the shortcomings of officials, including their great effort to overcome the these places’ leaders” [7, P. 662]. insufficiency and shortcomings in terms of leadership Ho Chi Minh’s particular trait is the perfect style and train and follow Ho Chi Minh’s example. The combination between theory and practice, speech majority of officials have effective and scientific -lead and action, which set examples for those of inferior ership style with their high specialized knowledge, positions and the masses. He is a model himself in creativity, persistency and responsibility. Many of closely, scientifically combining theory and practice them effectively practice the motto: words go along during his leadership of Vietnam revolution. Prime with actions and set good examples. However, a small Minister Pham Van Dong stated: “Ho Chi Minh’s number of officials reveal limitations and drawbacks each and every single word and deed is practical and in working style. Notably, some senior officials are specific. Whatever he preaches, he practices, some- authoritative, arrogant and dictatorial. Some of them times practicing without preaching, his thought is undervalue the party trait, the working principle and shown through his deed” [4, P. 64–65]. cover their wrong doings by different colours. Some
124 RESEARCHING AND APPLYING HO CHI MINH LEADERSHIP STYLE ON INNOVATING THE LEADERSHIP STYLE OF THE CURRENT VIETNAMESE CADRES leaders work simply basing on their own experiences, working relation. The leadership style is not born natu- feelings and routines but not scientifically. Others are rally but trained strictly. At present, the objects under devoted to their work but inefficiently due to their lack supervision and management are of new development, of scientific sense. There are some officials and party high intellect, extended relationship, democratic open- members whose words do not go along with their ness and technological achievement. Therefore, it is es- actions, preach more than practice, preach is not in sential for the officials to train to improve themselves accordance with practice, etc. All of these drawbacks and their specialized knowledge to deal with different make people lose their faith in the Communist Party situations in a democratic and cultural style. In addi- and disregard the country’s rules and principles. This tion, they need to equip themselves the capacity to col- fact reflects some officials’ weak and ineffective leader- lect and address the information accurately and timely ship style and their unqualified intellect, moral degra- basing on the harmonious principle between a sense of dation, over-ambition for power, egoism and individu- party and science. In the formation of leadership style, alism. There are objective and subjective causes for the officials need to persistently train and practice the these officials’ inefficient leadership style. However, it revolutionary ethics, fight against individualism, feel should be pointed out that the main causes are from shame and torture themselves for their wrong doings the officials themselves, their political quality, ethics, in their leadership style. At work, the officials must set self-education and new style training. good examples, show their insistent attitude, take re- Presently, in order to make contribution in build- sponsibility and self-criticise for improvement. ing Vietnam officials’ leadership style, it is necessary The construction of leaders and managers’ leader- to further educate and raise people’s awareness of ship style should go along with renewing the leader- Ho Chi Minh’s leadership style and ideology in close ship mechanism and social management. Therefore, accordance with the implementation of Directive this task needs to further perfect and distinguish the 05-CT/TW on 15–5–2016 by the Central Board of Party’s leadership and the State’s management. The Political Ministry of the Communist Party of Vietnam offices and units need to coordinate in working and (Term XII) on “Strengthen learning and following Ho addressing the issues; avoiding the isolated, partial, Chi Minh’s style, morality and ideology”. It is essen- conservative working style and the overlapped, pro- tial for each official to recognize the significance and lix and irresponsible work division. importance of learning and following Ho Chi Minh’s Another important issue is that the leadership leadership style. Accordingly, the basic standards on style needs to be objectively taken into consideration each official’s leadership style appropriate to their po- in the process of employing, changing positions, nur- sition are specified and identified. The view that Ho turing and using personnel’s. Leaders and command- Chi Minh’s leadership style is deified so it cannot be ers of different levels have to come to an agreement on followed and applied should be eliminated. Simulta- the way to assess the leadership style of each official. neously, it is also urgent to avoid the conception that The rules and principles of reporting and giving sum- Ho Chi Minh’s leadership style is of only a professional marizing should be effectively conducted with an aim leader, but not of a real scientist with the unity among to timely discovering and overcoming the inefficiency a sense of party, politics and science in each task and and deviation in the officials’ working style. References: 1. The XII Politburo: The th4 Central Resolution on “Strengthening the building and regulating the Party; prevent, reverse the decline of political ideology, morality, lifestyle, the expression of “self-evolution”, “self-transformation” internally, on 30/10/2016.
125 Section 7. Political science
2. Nguyen Huy Dai. Ho Chi Minh leadership style – Theoretical and practical values, Ho Chi Minh Master thesis, Ho Chi Minh National Academy, – Hanoi. 2018. 3. Vietnam Communist Party, Document of the 12th National Conference, National Publishing House Publishing House, – Hanoi, 2016. 4. Pham Van Dong: Ho Chi Minh – a person, a nation, an era, a cause. The Truth Publishing House, – Ha- noi, 1990. 5. Ho Chi Minh National Political Academy. Ho Chi Minh annals, The National Publishing House of Poli- tics – the Truth, – Hanoi. 2016. 6. Ho Chi Minh, Complete, The National Publishing House of Politics – the Truth, – Hanoi, 2011. – Vol. 5. 7. Ho Chi Minh, Complete, The National Publishing House of Politics – the Truth, – Hanoi, 2011. – Vol. 15. 8. Le Van Thai. “Learning Ho Chi Minh’s leadership style”, Journal of Theoretical Education, – 260. 2017. – P. 9–11. 9. Nguyen Trong Phuc. “The Modifying the way of working with innovation of leadership style and pro- moting the responsibility of the current leader”, Journal of Electronic Communism. – December 8, 2017. 10. Nguyen Thanh Trung. Ho Chi Minh’s Political Leadership Arts, Master’s Thesis in Politics, Ho Chi Minh National Academy of Sciences, – Hanoi. 2011. 11. Le Van Yen. “Scientific working style of President Ho Chi Minh”. Nhip Cau Tri knowledge, – No.(3). 2017. – P. 15–20.
126 SOLUTION TO PROMOTE THE ROLE OF LOCAL MILITARY PARTICIPATING IN THE MOBILIZATION OF PROTESTANT COMPATRIOTS IN THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS AT PRESENT
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-127-131 Hoang Ngoc Son, Master, Postgraduate, Academy of Politics, Viet Nam E-mail: [email protected]
SOLUTION TO PROMOTE THE ROLE OF LOCAL MILITARY PARTICIPATING IN THE MOBILIZATION OF PROTESTANT COMPATRIOTS IN THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS AT PRESENT
Abstract. The history of introduction and development of the Protestantism into ethnic minori- ties in the Central Highlands is rich, diverse, but also very complicated. Since the 1990 s, the Protes- tantism in the Central Highlands has tended to recover quickly on a large scale. Moreover, the forces that are hostile to Vietnam’s revolution have been taking advantage of the Protestantism to create a political “hotspot”, causing social instability in the area and hindering local socio-economic devel- opment. The local military plays the role of a local on-site military force that has a close relationship and solidarity with the people of all ethnic groups and religions in the area. Therefore, promoting the role of the local military to participate in the mobilization of Protestant compatriots in the Central Highlands is an indispensable issue at present. The article focuses on explaining the position, necessity and content of the solution to promote the role of the local military to participate in the mobilization of Protestant compatriots in the Central Highlands at present. Keywords: Protestant compatriots, local military, Central Highlands. 1. Introduction the area with acts of evangelization and develop- The Central Highlands is a strategic region of ment of illegal “Dega Protestantism” organization economy, national defense and security of Vietnam to realize the conspiracy destroying revolutionary and is the place where a large number of Protestant achievements, affecting the political stability, social compatriots live. The mobilization of the Protes- order and safety and hindering the socio-economic tant compatriots in the region has always been paid development of localities in the region. special attention to by the Party, the State, authori- With the specific characteristics of the on-site ties, and socio-political organizations of Vietnam in military force, the local military engages in the move- order to contribute to consolidating the solidarity ment of Protestant compatriots in the Central High- bloc of the whole nation; promoting good and ap- lands region to vividly concretize the functions and propriate ethical and cultural values of Protestant tasks of the Vietnamese People’s Army in the new compatriots in national construction and develop- situation. Over the years, the local army has per- ment. However, with malicious intent, hostile and formed its role well through specific aspects, such political opportunity forces have been striving to as: Advise the Party committees and local authori- carry out activities of deception, propaganda, dis- ties to direct and promptly solve socio-political and torting, inciting and inducing Protestant compatri- life issues related to the Protestantism in accordance ots to gather a large number of people and oppose with the provisions of the law; coordinate with orga- to the government, creating political “hotspots” in nizations and mass organizations to guide Protestant
127 Section 7. Political science compatriots to strictly comply with the stipulations programs of socio-economic development, improve in daily life; promote propaganda and mobilization the material and cultural life of people of different of dignitaries and believers in good observance of religions” [3, p. 122–123]. By the XIIth Congress of undertakings and policies of the Party and State on the Party, the Communist Party of Vietnam has de- religion; at the same time, be the core of the struggle veloped and consistently affirmed: “Continue to -im with conspiracies and tricks of hostile forces to take prove policies and laws on beliefs and religions, and advantage of the Protestantism to create political hot promote good cultural and moral values of religions. spots, causing instability in the locality, etc. Pay attention to and create conditions for religious However, besides the achieved results, the role organizations to live in accordance with the charter of a number of local military units participating and regulation of religious organizations, which have in the mobilization of Protestant compatriots is been recognized by the State according to the provi- still quite lackluster, with unreasonable content, sions of the law, making active contributions to the form and method of public cooperation, poor ef- cause of the country construction and protection. fectiveness, embarrassing in coordinating with At the same time, proactively prevent and resolutely organizations and mass organizations, especially fight against acts of abusing beliefs and religions to not showing the key role in proactively struggling divide and destroy the great national unity bloc or with intrigues and tricks of hostile forces that take other religious and belief activities which are con- advantage of the Protestantism to undermine the trary to the law” [5, P. 165]. Therefore, the participa- revolutionary cause, etc. These limitations have tion in the movement of Protestant compatriots in greatly hindered the quality and efficiency of tak- the Central Highlands is now the responsibility of all ing care of the material, cultural and spiritual life organizations, forces and the entire political system, of Protestant compatriots as well as ensure a stable including the role of the local military. environment for the sustainable development of In order to promote the role of the local military the Central Highlands. in the movement of Protestant compatriots in the 2. Content of promoting the role of the lo- Central Highlands at present, attention should be cal military to participate in the mobilization of paid to the good implementation of the following Protestant compatriots in the Central Highlands contents and measures: at present Firstly, well perform the consultation and coor- Realizing the right position and the role of re- dination with the party committees, the authorities, ligious compatriots as well as the urgency and im- the organizations and the local people to participate portance of mobilizing religious compatriots in the in the campaigning of Protestant compatriots. This is cause of building and defending the Fatherland, the an important content in order to promote the com- 10th National Congress of the Communist Party of mon strength of all levels, all branches and all stand- Vietnam clearly pointed out: “Religious compatriots ing forces in the region to join in the campaigning of are an important part of the great unity bloc of the Protestant compatriots. To implement this solution, entire nation. Consistently implement the policy of the local military should base on the specific func- respecting and guaranteeing the right to freedom of tions and tasks in each period to actively perform belief, follow or not to follow the religion of citizens, the advisory work for the Party committees, the au- etc. Unite the people to follow different religions, re- thorities and coordinate with organizations and local ligious and non-religious compatriots, etc. Encour- mass organizations to participate in the mobilization age and help fellow believers and religious dignitaries of Protestant compatriots. Of this, it is necessary to live “good life, good religion”, etc. Well implement focus on implementing the key contents such as:
128 SOLUTION TO PROMOTE THE ROLE OF LOCAL MILITARY PARTICIPATING IN THE MOBILIZATION OF PROTESTANT COMPATRIOTS IN THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS AT PRESENT
Well perform advisory work for party committees To implement this task well, the local military and local authorities in leading and directing the needs to be proactive in grasping the real situation campaigning of Protestant compatriots; closely co- of the material and spiritual life of Protestant com- ordinate with the armed forces in the area with local patriots in the locality to take measures to partici- organizations and mass organizations to participate pate in helping and consulting the local government in the campaigning of Protestant compatriots. effectively. Leaders and commanders of units need Secondly, innovate the contents, forms and meth- to pay attention to fostering cadres and soldiers in ods of advocacy for Protestant compatriots. It can be their units with economic, scientific and technical seen that the quality of the mobilization of Protestant knowledge so that they can well perform their roles compatriots of the local military in the Central High- in propaganda, popularization and instruction of lands currently depends greatly on the selection of Protestant compatriots in the locality to improve la- appropriate contents, forms and methods. Therefore, bor efficiency, production and living standards. to continue renewing the contents, forms and meth- Fourthly, uphold the spirit of revolutionary ods in order to guide and help Protestant compatri- vigilance, proactively prevent and fight against con- ots to operate in the right direction and comply with spiracy and tricks of hostile forces to take advantage the principles and objectives of the religion as: “To of the Protestantism to cause confusion and create live the gospel, to serve God, to serve the Fatherland instability in political security in the locality. At pres- and the nation”, to create conditions for the people ent, the hostile forces to the Vietnamese revolution to have a real life that is both “be pious towards the have been promoting activities to take advantage of religion” and “fulfill the life”, live and work according religious issues in general, including the Protestant- to the Constitution and the law. Accordingly, the in- ism to carry out the scheme to destroy the great unity novation of contents and forms of mobilizing people of the whole nation. In the Central Highlands, they should focus on strengthening education, persuad- have been promoting activities to stimulate division ing, renewing content as the focus, and innovating of the solidarity relationship between Kinh – Thu- method as the key stage. ong, inducing Protestant compatriots to participate Thirdly, improve the efficiency of activities of in illegal activities, etc. Therefore, upholding the spir- helping and guiding Protestant compatriots in the it of vigilance, proactive prevention, and struggling socio-economic development. Together with the to defeat the conspiracy and actions of hostile forces renovation of contents, forms, and methods of public that take advantage of the Protestantism to destroy mobilization, this is an important solution that has political stability and maintain security and order of a strong impact and contributes directly to improv- the society in the Central Highlands in the current ing the lives of Protestant compatriots in the Central situation are very urgent issues. Highlands today. On one hand, the good implemen- In addition to the above contents, the local tation of this solution will help Protestant compatri- military needs to pay special attention to the skills ots stabilize their lives and consolidate their faith in and measures to participate in resolving disputes the bodies of the Party, State and local authorities. and grievances in localities with the Protestant- On the other hand, it also practically contributes to ism, preventing forces from hostile forces to take strengthening the unity of the military – people, en- advantages of issues to destabilize the local secu- hancing the military economic potential, building a rity situation. To do this, the local military units solid popular position, contributing to maintaining should proactively grasp the situation of the ma- political stability, social order and safety in the gar- terial and spiritual life of Protestant compatriots rison areas. in the garrison to advise the local authorities to
129 Section 7. Political science solve the problems and controversies emerging in 3. Conclusion: Protestant compatriots, especially those related to The local military participating in the movement land issues, worship establishments, etc.; promptly of Protestant compatriots in the Central Highlands detect signs of mass gatherings, prepare to orga- carries out an important political mobilization to nize large-scale lawsuits as well as clearly identify strengthen the great unity bloc of the entire nation the cause of the case in order to coordinate with and to develop the socio-economics and encourage the local party committees, authorities, organiza- Protestant compatriots to promote their creativity tions and unions to identify preventive measures in the cause of building and defending the Socialist to solve the problems quickly, neatly, correctly and Republic of Vietnam. effectively. At the same time, it is necessary to grasp In order for the local military to participate in the consistent perspective when participating in the movement of Protestant compatriots in the the resolution of crowded lawsuits, including cases Central Highlands to meet the new requirements of leading to conflicts while still applying the political the country’s socio-economic reality, the local mili- mobilization as the key activity. The principle of tary is required to closely follow the leadership and non-confrontation, non-coercion and non-use of direction of the party organizations at all levels, well harsh measures against the masses should be well perform the coordination, coordinate with organi- implemented. zations and unions in the locality to create com- During the mobilization of Protestant compatri- prehensive resources and powers to well complete ots, it is important that the core of the Marxism – Le- the assigned tasks during their task implementation ninism and Ho Chi Minh’s ideology on religious issues process. In which, it is significant to disseminate are thoroughly understood, as well as guidelines and and thoroughly grasp the basic views of Marxism – policies of our Party and State on the mobilization of Leninism and Ho Chi Minh’s ideology on religious religious people in general and Protestant compatriots issues as well as the guidelines and policies of the in particular for cadres and soldiers so that they have Party and the State on the mobilization of Protes- solid scientific and religious knowledge. Since then, tant compatriots. At the same time, it is required it will help them determine the right attitude, moti- to build a sense of responsibility and promote the vation, build a sense of responsibility and promote subjective dynamism in performing their tasks to the subjective dynamism in performing their tasks to achieve the highest work efficiency. achieve the highest work efficiency. References: 1. Lam Dong Public Security. Report No. 234/BC–CAT (PA88) dated October 27, 2011 on the status of Protestant activities and the results of police work to ensure religious security (Protestantism) in Lam Dong from 2001 to the present, – Lam Dong. 2011. 2. Vu Dung. “Awareness of ethnic minority communities in the Central Highlands on guidelines and poli- cies of the Party and the State”, Psychology, 1. 2014. – P. 1–12. 3. Communist Party of Vietnam. Documents of the Xth National Congress, National Political Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2006. 4. Communist Party of Vietnam. Resolution No. 28-NQ/TW dated October 25, 2013 on the strategy for national defense in the new situation, – Hanoi. 2013. 5. Communist Party of Vietnam. Documents of the XIIth National Congress, National Political Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2016.
130 SOLUTION TO PROMOTE THE ROLE OF LOCAL MILITARY PARTICIPATING IN THE MOBILIZATION OF PROTESTANT COMPATRIOTS IN THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS AT PRESENT
6. Lam Dong Provincial Military Party Committee. Resolution of the 11th Provincial Military Party Con- gress Delegation (Term 2015–2020), – Lam Dong. 2015. 7. Bui Minh Dao. “Impacts of some ethnic cultural factors on the development of Protestantism in ethnic minorities in the Central Highlands”, Central Highlands Social Sciences, 1, 2015. – P. 8–16. 8. Hoang Thi Lan. Some principles in dealing with issues related to ethnicity and religion in Vietnam today, Political Theory, 1, 2019. – P. 91–95. 9. Marx C. “Contributing to critique the Hegene philosophy. Foreword”, 1844. K. Marx and F. Engels Full Volume, – Vol. 1. National Political Publishing House, – Hanoi 1995. 10. Nguyen Thi Nga. “The situation of Protestantism in the Central Highlands Provinces – Some recom- mendations and proposals”, Religious Affairs, 6 (118), 2016. – P. 17–21. 11. Prime Minister. Directive No. 01/2005/CT-TTg, dated February 4, 2005. on a number of tasks for Prot- estantism, – Hanoi. 2005.
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https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-132-135 Bader Anton Vasilievich, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Director of Educational-Scientific Institute of History, International Relations and Socio-Political Sciences State Institution “Lugansk Taras Shevchenko National University” E-mail: [email protected] ESSENCE AND DEFINITION OF TERRORISM AS A KIND OF ARMED VIOLENCE Abstract. The article considers the phenomenon of terrorism as one of the types of modern armed violence. The main interpretations of terrorism, the views of scientists regarding its causes and consequences are analyzed. Keywords: terrorism, armed violence, definition, essence, socio-political phenomenon. Бадер Антон Васильевич, кандидат исторических наук, доцент, директор, учебно-научного института истории, международних отношений и социально-политических наук ГУ «Луганский национальный университет имени Тараса Шевченко» E-mail: [email protected] СУЩНОСТЬ И ДЕФИНИЦИЯ ТЕРРОРИЗМА КАК ВИДА ВООРУЖЕННОГО НАСИЛИЯ Аннотация. В статье рассматривается феномен терроризма как одного из видов современ- ного вооруженного насилия. Анализируются ключевые трактовки терроризма, взгляды ученых относительно его причин и последствий. Ключевые слова: терроризм, вооружённое насилие, дефиниция, сущность, социально-по- литический феномен. Развитие мировой политологической науки на сформулировать исчерпывающую дефиницию ука- современном этапе характеризуется стойким ин- занного феномена. Такими признаками, во‑первых, тересом ученых к проблемам терроризма как важ- являются политические мотивы в деятельности ного социально-политического феномена. В тоже террористов [12]. Во-вторых, то, что основной время, определение сущности и формулирование стратегией воздействия на оппонента выступает на её основе термина «терроризма» довольно за- запугивание, создание атмосферы страха, в первую труднено отсутствием в научной среде единства очередь, среди гражданского населения [11, С. 11]. в понимании ключевых признаков этого явления. Компонентом второго из указанных признаков Общепринятыми среди ученых являются только следует считать информационный фактор, подчер- два признака, по сути, не дающие возможность кнем, что большинство исследователей также обра-
132 ESSENCE AND DEFINITION OF TERRORISM AS A KIND OF ARMED VIOLENCE
щают на него внимание. Так, Г. Кенен утверждает, Учитывая указанные теоретические проблемы что террористический акт не является самоцелью, с пониманием сущности и формулировкой тер- целью здесь является информационный повод, мина «терроризм» в политологической науке, который должен максимально зрелищно гене- считаем целесообразным обратиться к наработ- рировать впечатление у «зрителей» [5, С. 204]. кам ученых-юристов. Подчеркнем, что в работах В указанном контексте Б. Хоффман отмечает: ученых указанной области прослеживается более «Терроризм можно рассматривать как акт наси- глубокий поиск ключевых признаков, что продик- лия, задуманный с целью привлечения внимания товано практической необходимостью отграни- и последующей передачи послания посредством чения террористических действий от других ви- огласки, которую он получает» [9, С. 160]. дов преступлений. Для выделения сущностных Дополнительные признаки, на основе кото- характеристик наиболее продуктивным считаем рых исследователи уточняют термин и выделяют сравнительный анализ терроризма и подобных терроризм из ряда подобных явлений, в полито- видов уголовных преступлений, в частности, логической литературе существенно расходятся. убийств при отягчающих обстоятельствах. Например, И. Морозов, на основе концепций, Существенным отличием терроризма яв- предложенных С. Хантингтоном утверждает, что ляется цель этого преступления. В частности, современный терроризм является одним из про- в украинском законодательстве прописано, что явлений «столкновений цивилизаций» [7, С. 72]. терроризмом является: «общественно опасная В. Гуторов и А. Ширинянц, наоборот утвержда- деятельность, которая заключается в сознательном, ют, что в современном политологическом дискур- целенаправленном применении насилия путем за- се заметной тенденцией является попытка иссле- хвата заложников, поджога, убийства, пытки, запу- дователей отойти от указанного выше понимания гивания населения и органов власти или соверше- терроризма [3, С. 30]. ния других посягательств на жизнь или здоровье ни Достаточно расплывчатыми в политологиче- в чем не повинных людей, или угроза совершения ской литературе является и определение терро- преступных действий с целью достижения пре- ризма. Так, В. Федотова приводит официальную ступных целей» [4]. Важно подчеркнуть, что ука- дефиницию, которая применяется американски- занные деяния выступают именно средством для ми государственными учреждениями: «Терро- достижения террористических целей ‒ запугивание ризм ‒ это незаконное использование или угро- населения и органов власти. Итак, опосредован- за использования силы или насилия против лиц ный характер террористического преступления или собственности, чтобы заставить или запу- является его характерным признаком. гать правительство, общество для достижения Ключевой особенностью терроризма, прямо политических, религиозных или идеологических прописанной в законодательстве, следует также целей» [8]. В свою очередь, И. Морозов предла- считать ущерб, нанесенный «ни в чем не повин- гает следующее определение: «терроризм ‒ вид ным людям». Это означает, что, во‑первых, факти- вооруженного политического насилия, характе- чески пострадавшие лица не являются непосред- ризующийся деструктивными действиями него- ственным противником террористов. Во-вторых, сударственного актора против государственных наличие «невинных жертв» предполагает не опре- структур, осуществляемый методом запугивания, деленность круга лиц по какому-либо признаку. в основном, гражданского населения через созда- В указанном контексте А. Варфоломеев умест- ние угрозы жизни, здоровью, безопасности граж- но отмечает: «предел квалификации терроризма дан» [7, С. 74]. описывается нулевой связью между субъективной
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стороной преступления и пострадавшими от него. дарством и не получают полномочия на деятель- Деяние не может считаться террористическим, ность с его стороны [2, С. 81]. если его цель и мотив прямо или косвенно завязаны Указанный тезис важен не только потому, что на жертве этого преступления (пострадавших)». дает возможность различать терроризм и дивер- «Если личность жертвы не является для преступ- сию, он более актуален в рамках поиска ключевых ника безразличной, а любые ее характеристики сущностных характеристик терроризма. Соответ- являются определяющими для цели и мотива пре- ственно, рассмотрение терроризма как принци- ступного деяния, то можно утверждать: это престу- пиально не государственного феномена позволяет пление не должно квалифицироваться как терро- подвергнуть сомнению все дефиниции, в кото- ристическое» ‒ уточняет исследователь [2, С. 80]. рых прописана связь рассматриваемого явления Помогает институализировать терроризм с государственными структурами. Вместе с тем, как явление еще одна важная особенность, опи- уточнения требуют понятия «государственный санная в юридической науке. В частности, то, что терроризм» [1, С 4] и «государство ‒ спонсор в рамках вооруженного конфликта квалифици- международного терроризма», фигурирующие ровать определенные действия как террористи- в научной литературе [2, С. 82]. ческие нецелесообразно, поскольку они под- Обоснованная критика относительно некор- падают под категорию военных преступлений. ректности применения указанных терминов изло- Нам представляется объективным утверждение жена в детальной статье В. Комиссарова и В. Еме- А. Варфоломеева, что практически все военные льянова «Террор, терроризм, «государственный действия, в том числе, и законные с юридической терроризм»: понятие и соотношение» [6, С. 63]. точки зрения можно было бы квалифицировать Исследователи подчеркивают, что даже те авторы, как терроризм. Исследователь указывает на то, которые применяют термин «государственный что основным отличием террористического акта терроризм», в частности, И. Карпец, Л. Моджо- от военного преступления является наличие или рян, Т. Бояр-Созонович, признают, что это явление отсутствие вооруженного конфликта в период отличается с точки зрения его содержания. В каче- его реализации [2, С. 85]. стве доказательства в статье приводится тезис из Продуктивным, для уточнения сущностных работы И. Блищенко и Н. Жданова: «Террористи- характеристик феномена терроризма, является ческие акты, совершаемые властями какого-либо сравнительный анализ с таким внешне похожим государства, или допущение властями какого-либо преступлением, как диверсия. В первую очередь, государства организованной деятельности, рас- подчеркнем, что целью террористического акта, считанной на совершение террористических актов как уже отмечалось, является запугивание насе- в другом государстве, необходимо квалифициро- ления и органов власти, в то время как диверсии ‒ вать как акт косвенной агрессии». подрыв экономической безопасности и обороно- Исходя из вышесказанного, можно сделать способности противника [2, С. 81]. Однако, более вывод, что деяния, которые определенные авто- важной считаем другое отличие. Диверсионные ры рассматривают как «государственный терро- группы, в отличие от террористических, являются ризм» [10, С. 6], более рационально квалифици- уполномоченными на свою деятельность (откры- ровать как диверсию, агрессию, геноцид и другие то или тайно) должностными лицами определен- виды военных преступлений [2, с. 83–84]. На наш ного государства. Наряду с этим, террористиче- взгляд, военные преступления и диверсия высту- ские структуры носят антиэтатистский характер, пают формами реализации таких видов внешне- непосредственно не связаны с каким-либо госу- го вооруженного насилия как война или военный
134 ESSENCE AND DEFINITION OF TERRORISM AS A KIND OF ARMED VIOLENCE
конфликт. В свою очередь, агрессия и геноцид цию. Терроризм – это вид вооруженного насилия, являются отдельными видами вооруженного на- применяемый негосударственным актором про- силия и требуют специального сущностно-тер- тив государственных структур, путем деструктив- минологического анализа. ных действий, направленных на неопределенный Таким образом, на основе проведенного ана- круг лиц (не избирательность жертв) с целью лиза терроризма как явления и установленных запугивания населения и органов власти, осуще- ключевых характеристик имеем возможность ствимых в условиях отсутствия вооруженного предложить собственную обобщающую дефини- конфликта. Список литературы: 1. Блищенко В. И. Международно-правовые проблемы государственного терроризма (На примере Чили). Автореф. дисс. канд. юрид. наук. – М.: 1989. – 20 с. 2. Варфоломеев А. А. Пределы квалификации террористических преступлений на международном и национальном уровне. Государство и право. 2012. – № 9. – С. 79–85. 3. Гуторов В. А., Ширинянц А. А. Терроризм как теоретическая и историческая проблема: Некоторые аспекты интерпретации. Полис. Политические исследования. – М., 2017. – № 3. – С. 30–54. 4. Закон України «Про боротьбу з тероризмом» [Електронний ресурс] / Режим доступу: URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/638–15?fbclid=IwAR21aRemFPJa9AQOVUpMl6phpQEkPq viVWfCiNUC2QmBFvBgBvK9oTgSpzw 5. Кенен Г. В., Энслин Б. Немецкий терроризм: Начало спектакля. – Екатеринбург: Ультра. Культура, 2004. – 480 с. 6. Комиссаров В. С., Емельянов В. П. Террор, терроризм, «государственный терроризм»: понятие и соотношение». Вестник МГУ. Сер. 11 «Право». 1999. – № 5. – С. 60–81. 7. Морозов И. Л. Терроризм как вид вооруженного политического насилия в условиях урбанизации. Political science. 2018. – № 4. – С. 69–89. 8. Федотова В. Терроризм: попытка концептуализации [Електронний ресурс] / Режим доступа: URL: http://intelros.ru/subject/figures/valentina-fedotova/9909-terrorszm-popytka-konceptualizacii.html? fbclid=IwAR1g0Rm5G9hrsiME14piBembC8-dHm6YqbEi650Lhw6V7EJyzC2NlRNn3Dc 9. Хоффман Б. Терроризм – взгляд изнутри. – М.: Ультра. Культура, 2003. – 264 с. 10. Хрусталёв М. Диверсионно-террористическая война как военно-политический феномен // Между- народные процессы. 2003. – № 2. – 6 c. 11. Этнорелигиозный терроризм. Под ред. Ю. М. Антоняна. – М.: Аспект Пресс, 2006. – 318 с. 12. Ward A. Terrorism remains a contested term, with no set definition for the concept or broad agreement among academic experts on its usage. The National interest. – N. Y., 2018. – May, 31. [Електрон- ний ресурс] / Режим доступа URL: http://nationalinterest.org/feature/how-do-you-define- terrorism‑26058?page=2
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https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-136-140 Komarova Tatyana Gennadievna, Ph.D. in Political Science, Associate Professor, in the Political Science Department, Faculty of Philosophy, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University E-mail: [email protected] FEATURES OF IMPLEMENTING OF POWER IN THE INFORMATION EPOCH: INEQUALITY, FREEDOM, JUSTICE Abstract. Specifics of implementation of power in information epoch, which is revealed in changes in its forms, methods and mechanisms. It is determined that the modern stage of human development is characterized by high level of conflict. The main challenge consists in dynamic formation of new quality of the entire system of social relations, which could be stable. The author considers power primarily through ability to produce and control axiological meanings (cultural and value codes) in society. It is logical that sharpening of contradictions in the orbit of such important axiological meanings as inequality, freedom, and justice. Keywords: power, information epoch, inequality, freedom, precariat, controllability, stability. Комарова Татьяна Геннадиевна, кандидат политических наук, доцент кафедры политологии философского факультета, Харьковский национальный университет имени В. Н. Каразина E-mail: [email protected]
ОСОБЕННОСТИ РЕАЛИЗАЦИИ ВЛАСТИ В ИНФОРМАЦИОННУЮ ЭПОХУ: НЕРАВЕНСТВО, СВОБОДА, СПРАВЕДЛИВОСТЬ Аннотация. Рассматривается специфика реализации власти в информационную эпоху, что проявляется в изменениях её форм, методов, механизмов. Определяется, что современный этап развития человечества характеризуется высоким уровнем конфликтности. Основной вызов состоит в необходимости динамичного формирования нового качества всей системы обще- ственных отношений, которая могла бы быть стабильной. Автор рассматривает власть прежде всего через способность продуцировать и контролировать аксиологические смыслы (культур- но-ценностные коды) в обществе. Логичным является обострение противоречий в орбите таких важнейших аксиологических смыслов как неравенство, свобода, справедливость. Ключевые слова: власть, информационная эпоха, неравенство, свобода, прекариат, управ- ляемость, стабильность.
136 FEATURES OF IMPLEMENTING OF POWER IN THE INFORMATION EPOCH: INEQUALITY, FREEDOM, JUSTICE
Современный мир переживает уникальный демонстрируют высокую динамику изменений исторический период. В такие специфические и приобретают новые качества. переходные эпохи под влиянием борьбы тради- Проблематика изменений в информацион- ции и модернизации происходит формирование ную эпоху привлекает большое внимание иссле- общества нового качества, которое может приоб- дователей – прежде всего философов, хотя сама рести черты постоянства или равновесия. Напри- проблема имеет междисциплинарный характер, мер, начало новой эры характеризовался борьбой т. е. имеет «выходы», кроме философской, на со- элементов нового мировоззрения на основе хри- циологическую и политологическую плоскость стианства с античным мировоззрением. Потребо- исследования. Среди авторов, работы которых валось несколько веков, чтобы общество во всей являются методологическим основанием данной системе отношений «перезагрузилось» на новых статьи, следует назвать следующих: М. Кастельс, началах. Эпоха Возрождения сыграла особую Д. Белл, П. Химанен, Дж. Нейсбит, Э. Гидденс, роль как в обретении глобального качества мира, М. Луман, Дж. Грей, К. Мей, Е. Тоффлер, Х. Лен- так и в формировании европоцетричного стерж- ке, В. Иноземцев, А. Панарин, О. Зиновьев, М. Де- ня развития мировых процессов, включая произ- лягин, С. Кара-Мурза и др. водство и идеологию. Сегодня мы можем охватить Стремление большинства стран евразий- взглядом весь пройденный человечеством путь ского континента заложить в основание кон- в направлении очерченном им горизонтов. цепций своего внутреннего развития примеры Процессы быстрых изменений, ускорив- успешного функционирования политических шихся в середине ХХ века с внедрением в про- и экономических конструкций таких экономи- цесс производства, управления и общественных ческих локомотивов Евросоюза, как Германия, коммуникаций компьютерных технологий, от- Франция, Австрия, с одной стороны, является личаются дуализмом: открытием новых воз- целиком оправданным, а с другой – не всегда можностей для человечества, и одновременно дальновидным, поскольку и в этих странах такие увеличением рисков во всех сферах жизнеде- концепты, как «равенство», «свобода», «спра- ятельности. На наш взгляд, уникальность со- ведливость» не всегда выдерживают испытания временной эпохи как раз и состоит в том, что временем. К тому же варианты политических от того, насколько эффективно мы будем давать трансформаций, к которым прибегают властные ответ на новые вызовы, зависит не только время элиты государств с целью удержания политиче- и скорость перехода общества к новому качеству, ской системы в нужном для системы равновесии, но и, возможно, дальнейшая судьба человечества имеют различные результаты для этих обществ. в глобальном измерении. То есть сегодня акту- Здесь играют свою роль не только особенности альным является критическое осмысление усло- менталитета того или иного общества, но и спец- вий, факторов и мировоззренческих аспектов, ифические особенности социально-политической с учетом которых можно было бы формировать структуры, экономические ресурсы, геополити- стабильные системы управления меняющимися ческое положение. Следует особо выделить уро- процессами общественного развития. Нас ин- вень демократичности средств массовой инфор- тересует проблема реализации власти в инфор- мации и коммуникации, развитости гражданского мационную эпоху. Цель статьи – определить общества, наличие достаточно мощного сегмента особенности реализации власти в информаци- активных и конструктивно настроенных граж- онную эпоху, показать статичность природы вла- дан, понимание прав и свобод в обществе, вли- сти, в то время как инструменты властвования яющее на формирование публичного качества
137 Section 7. Political science
политики. К тому же такое комплексное явление, чем их первоначальный евроцентризм достаточно как глобализация оказывает свое влияние на все быстро превратился в интернационализм. Волна сферы жизнедеятельности общества, включая по- выступлений от Западной Европы достигла Япо- вышение уровня технологизации производства, нии, подчеркивая тем самым глобальность нового развития электронной экономики, систем ком- явления. К движению присоединились мигранты муникаций. То есть глобализация – это сложное [3, 10–11]. Постепенно конструируется новая сочетание ряда процессов. Причем «развиваются коллективная идентичность со своими психоло- они противоречиво или даже в противоположных гическими особенностями, ценностями, поня- направлениях» [1, 29]. Можно согласиться с мне- тиями о неравенстве, свободе, справедливости нием У. Бека, который под глобализацией понимал и требованиями к обществу и власти. Согласно процессы, в которых национальные государства историческому закону, там, где есть господство, и их суверенитет вплетаются в паутину транс- есть и сопротивление. Как отмечал М. Кастельс, национальных акторов и подчиняются их власт- сила общественных движений, основанных на ным возможностям и их ориентации [2, 26]. Это, идентичностях, заключается в их автономии от понятно, определенным образом ограничивает институтов государства, логики капитала и иску- возможности власти национальных государств са технологии, их трудно инкорпорировать, хотя в своих действиях, выстраивании суверенной некоторые из участников их могут быть инкор- внутренней политики. порированы. Даже когда они терпят поражение, Иллюстрацией значительных социально-эко- их сопротивление и проекты накладывают свой номических изменений под воздействием глоба- отпечаток на общество [4, C. 505, 506]. лизации является появление нового «опасного Кроме незащищенности труда и обществен- класса» (Г. Стендинг) – прекариата (От англ. ного дохода, гарантий занятости, отсутствия precarious – «нестабильной», «неустойчивый», – жизненных перспектив, гарантированных госу- объединенного со словом «пролетариат». Свои дарственной помощи и льгот, представителям толкование понятия «прекаират» как нестабиль- прекариата не хватает самоидентификации на ного», незащищенного общественного слоя пред- основе трудовой деятельности, чувства взаимной лагали П. Бурдье, У. Бек, М. Фуко, Ю. Хабермас, поддержки, надежных связей, совместных этиче- М. Хардт и Т. Негри и др). Британский экономист ских и поведенческих установок, свойственных Гай Стэндинг определил основные особенности профессиональным сообществам, в них нет «про- этого нового трудового класса, неизбежность екции на будущее, как и самого будущего» [3, 30]. возникновения которого он объясняет ходом Этот социальный слой еще не сформировался как формирования в 1975–2008 годах глобального «класс для себя», т. е. не имеет ясного понимания трудового процесса, когда финансисты и неоли- того, что именно существующая общественно- беральные экономисты пытались создать глобаль- экономическая структура является причиной их ную рыночную экономику на почве конкуренции проблем. Поэтому они нередко становятся легкой и индивидуализма [3, 52]. добычей популистских политиканов с различны- Не имея еще грамотно сформулированных ми деструктивными призывами. В этом и заклю- стратегии и программы борьбы за решение чается опасность этого класса для обеспечения проблем социально «незащищенного труда», властью стабильности и устойчивого развития. представители прекариата все же смогли проде- Стэндинг видит один из выходов из этого по- монстрировать способность к массовым высту- ложения в формировании положительной «по- плениям в виде первомайских демонстраций, при- литики рая», что сможет удовлетворить нового
138 FEATURES OF IMPLEMENTING OF POWER IN THE INFORMATION EPOCH: INEQUALITY, FREEDOM, JUSTICE
класса запросы [3, 51]. Хотя, на наш взгляд, этого уки, СМИ, политиков, идеологов, общественных недостаточно, поскольку не касается корневых деятелей включать в свои программы, исследова- причин этого явления и требуется комплексное ния глобальные проблемы (экологические, демо- решение проблемы. Условия глобального раз- графические и т. д.) и заявлять о необходимости вития в контексте информационной эпохи и до- объединять усилия на международном уровне минирование неолиберальной политики прави- для их преодоления [6, 55–56, 60], чтобы не стать тельств современных государств сдерживают жертвами последствий информационной рево- процесс профессиональной саморегуляции, по- люции, описанных в произведении А. Тоффлера скольку профессии, имеют свои правила, меша- «Футурошок». ют рыночным установкам. На это справедливо Модернизация, охватившая с середины ХХ в. указывает и Г. Стэндинг [3, 75]. И вряд ли это практически все страны мира, обострила приори- возможно в полной мере, потому что хотя жизнь тетные вопросы развития и стабилизации демо- меняется под влиянием информационно-комму- кратических моделей правления. Во время транс- никативных технологий, многие социальные схе- формации важной особенностью, отличающей мы (особенно распределения благосостояния, одну страну от другой в политическом смысле, властвования) остаются неизменными. Основы является не форма правления, а степень управ- социально-экономических систем львиной доли ляемости [7, 3]. То есть власть как важнейший стран мира, механизмы политики и власти, моти- механизм обеспечения существования социума вация граждан, основы идентичности остаются как системы, для того чтобы быть эффективной такими же, как и в индустриальную эпоху [5, 9]. должна, используя свои традиционные ресурсы История человечества всегда сопровождалась (материальные, символические, силовые), при- различными проблемами, которые имеют тенден- влекать и новейшие информационно-коммуника- цию увеличиваться и усложняться, захватывая тивные средства и технологии для обеспечения все новые сферы общества. Часть из них более действенной обратной связи с общественными или менее успешно преодолевается с помощью организациями, профессиональными группами накопленных знаний и опыта. Но есть группа и отдельными гражданами, чтобы быстро реа- проблем, закрепившихся в массовом сознании гировать на справедливые негативные реакции как «вечные», среди них Война и Мир, Неравен- на свои, нередко непродуманные, политические ство, Свобода, Справедливость. Но, несмотря решения, особенно непосредственно затрагива- на их глобальное значение, на региональном, ло- ющие чувствительные для каждого понятия нера- кальном уровнях они имеют свои особенности, венства, свободы и справедливости. Как и каким масштабы и способы решения. Общей чертой образом власть учитывает в своих программах, социально-экономического развития стран в по- решениях и в целом деятельности эти конструк- следние десятилетия является ускорение научно- ты, дает основания каждому гражданину четко технических, информационно-коммуникативных понимать, в чьих интересах она работает и, соот- достижений, которые, с одной стороны, увеличи- ветственно, выбирать, кому из претендентов на ли мобильность и преобразовательные возможно- власть отдавать свой голос. Чем дальше в реаль- сти людей, а с другой – посеяли чувство тревоги, ной жизни от идеал-типических представлений об пессимистические оценки перспектив развития, этих понятиях реализует себя власть, тем менее усилили антиглобалистские настроения. Такие управляемым может быть социум, и установить разновекторные мировоззренческие установки в нем необходимое равновесие для дальнейшего заставили представителей различных отраслей на- развития без восстановления доверия к власти
139 Section 7. Political science
и существующей модели демократии, несмотря распределения общественного пирога и опреде- на всю мощь СМИ, будет очень трудно. И именно ляют, какие правила необходимо применять в от- политические институты в многосложных обще- ношении частного сектора, а какие – обществен- ствах могут способствовать преодолению разно- ного [8, 82]. гласий и поддерживать единство внутри социума, Базовые демократические принципы обще- который находится под влиянием конфликта ин- ственного устройства не теряют своей актуаль- тересов и ценностей [7, 31]. ности и перспективного содержания для всех Постоянной задачей власти в демократиче- стран разного уровня развитости и этапа модер- ском обществе является установление правил низации. Введение информационных технологий игры и соблюдение их процедуры. Основными в сфере управления и коммуникации позволяют функциями демократии являются: четко опреде- власти доносить до общества свои требования, лять общественное благо, действовать ради него правила, законы, направленные на поддержание и способствовать развитию общества и равнопра- в государстве стабильности, стимулирования эко- вия граждан. Демократия в большей степени, чем номических достижений, а гражданам – осущест- другие политические процедурные формы позво- влять контроль за властью «снизу», напоминать ляют гражданам коллективно обсуждать вопросы, им о своих правах на равенство всех перед зако- в экономическом плане они касаются принципов ном, свободу и справедливость. Список литературы: 1. Гиддэнс Э. Ускользающий мир: как глобализация меняет нашу жизнь: пер. с англ. – М.: Весь мир, 2004. – 120 с. 2. Бек У. Что такое глобализация? Ошибки глобализма – ответы на глобализацию / Пер. с нем. А. Григо- рьева и В. Седельника; Общая ред. и послесл. А. Филиппова. – М.: Прогресс-Традиция, 2001. – 304 с. 3. Стэндинг Гай Прекариат: новый опасный класс. – М.: Ад Маргинем Пресс, 2014. – 328 с. 4. Кастельс Мануэль. Информационная эпоха: экономика, общество и культура: Пер. с англ. под науч. ред. О. И. Шкаратана. – М.: ГУ ВШЭ, 2000. – 608 с. 5. Авксентьєва Т. Г. Політика і влада в індустріальну епоху: український контекст: моногр. – Харьков: ХНУ імені В. Н. Каразіна, 2013. – 324 с. 6. Чумаков А. Н. Глобализация. Контуры целостного мира: монография. 2-е изд., перераб. и доп. – М.: Проспект, 2013. – 432 с. 7. Хантингтон С. Политический порядок в меняющихся обществах. – М.: Прогресс-Традиция, 2004. – 480 с. 8. Райх Р. Как капитализм уничтожает демократию // Pro et Contra. 2008. – № 1 (40). – С. 81–85.
14 0 SAFETY INFLUENCED BY INTERRUPTING NOISES IN REALITY
Section 8. Psychology
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-141-151 Tao Wu, Shenzhen Research Institute of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518057, China E-mail: [email protected] SAFETY INFLUENCED BY INTERRUPTING NOISES IN REALITY Abstract. In Greek myth, the beautiful songs beside an island on the sea incurs Odessu’s curios- ity and attention, and he is announced in advance that he will experience a music allure with danger and that he should fill his ears near the island to safeguard himself [1]. While the fascination of the singing may come from the stereoscopic effects, someone hints that the so-called dangerous sing may be invaded electronic sounds. The process of hearing the song may be accompanied with the leakage of personal information, the electric shooting, the recognition and lock by Radars, and the follow-up tracing and threats by enemies. As a matter of fact, the network viruses enveloped with sounds per- haps migrate around the smart grid, the computer networks, and Internet of Things, so the infected person may hear noises and hear interpolated voices from the environments and cyberspaces. In fact, most noises and decoherences are generated by people rather than being generated in nature, and the peace should be maintained by social affairs as well as by scientific developments. Keywords: Interrupting noises; Pretending voices; Reft languages; Humanism 1. Introduction als and structures are prone to sonic and infrasonic Nowadays kinds of enchanting music are filled waves, then they may disrupt people like pounds. In with the discs and on the websites in the market, addition, modern radars and electronic instruments nevertheless, the loveliness has been gradually dete- may increase the hurt to people on boat. It seems riorated while the worries have been vastly increased that the sound wave can be transported in the power about noises and decoherences in the environments lines among the smart grids like Voice over Internet and cyberspaces. Generally speaking, these noises Protocol (Voip), requiring only simple hardware and and decoherences are originated from electronic software to be heard by people. It is also supposed sounds in the equipments and devices within vari- and probable that the mobile phones may connect ous frequency domains, such as motor sounds from to communication networks and the electric instru- cars, voices on the Internet (Voip), broadcasts in the ments for the spy and hit of human beings. hospitals and in the squares. The characteristic of sound interruptions are As is well known, on the travel in a ship, the interfered with a few kinds of social forces, rang- flowing of waters beat the ship’s structures, and the ing from social economic developments, industrial knocking sounds hear noisy. In fact, if the materi- transfer and upgrading, and national planning and
141 Section 8. Psychology people’s living. While many noise interruptions It should be noticed that transmitted noises are are interleaved with virtual reality, they are mean- generated and traveling through a network rather while related with benefits and harvests at work or than a channel. in the life. It is on the one hand like interferences 2. Problems with Interrupting Noises from multimedia and information flow, and on the In mechanism, the noises from cyberspace prob- other hand lays similarity to personal minds. For ably depend on thousands of electric nodes with example, there are light pollution mixed with noise switched network connected in Internet of Things. interruption in the environment. The light pollu- Sometimes, one is immune to voice pretensions by tion can be delivered from nearby light sources in radars working in the opposite directions. If his or time, while the noises are filled in the air from sec- her head has brokenness, then the pretension gets ond to second. Sound and noise interruption can easier since the electromagnetic waves enter into be defined as follows: deeper places than those before. Inspired by experi- 1) Use machines, motors, and instruments to ex- ences, the radar works radically from many points tract noises in the air and on the ground. to invade a person’s brain and detect the person’s 2) Arrange events or talks to interrupt others. thoughts. The pretension of voices usually happens 3) Spy and hit somebody’s ideas or viewpoints, when the person is electrically shot and faints. reverse the detected electronic signals and disrupt It may be astonishing that the electric shooting his or her thinking in very short time. may punch many holes and damages in a person’s 4) Record somebody’s thinking and process the eyes, head, and body [2]. It is even possible to cre- information on a platform, and then generate intel- ate short passages within the eyes and brain, around ligent ideas and voices to fit his or her feeling. which the radar waves gets so intensive as to over- All these noise or sound interruptions or inter- whelm signals from a person’s thinking. The passages polations may lead to people’s carelessness and hurt make others easy to pretend the person’s voices by their self-consciousness. From psychological point virtually and quickly starting and stopping some of view, the incoherent noises can be divided into ideas. As is shown in Fig. 1, the holes are formed by several classes: electric shooting in the long run, so the wounds at 1) Transmitted noises. They are transmitted with head looks like an antenna with their directions are few meanings but can be heard by some people in nearly along the outside radar waves. the surroundings. Apertures by discharging or encharging 2) Pretending voices. Offenders pretend to speak or feel like someone else’s voice or behavior. A typical case refers to announcing collision and self-criticism round the person by pretending his or her voices. It can interpolate, delete and revise his or her words in the saying. hole 3) Imitated sounds. Record and forecast some- one’s reaction and ideas by both the person and the imitator’s ideas and voices. It is alike an actor’s per- formance. 4) Reft languages. Detect the person’s ideas and forecast his or her languages, and broadcast the Figure 1. Pretending voices are received thinking quickly with others’ voices. through the wounded head
14 2 SAFETY INFLUENCED BY INTERRUPTING NOISES IN REALITY
The noise interruptions are transmitted through person D hears what the person A tells him “bla ~ a network rather than a simple passage. Some trans- bla”, and then pretends to say different words “bla ~ mitted noises appear as abuses, blames or obscene XXX ~ bla” by A’s voices. In the second way, the per- languages, which may be said by women’s voices. son B says ”bla ~ bla”, but the virtual E says “XXX” These voices may also be accompanied with the re- to mix the words as “bla ~ XXX ~ bla”. lease of electric shooting, which may lure a person to In fact, quite a few people are forced to speak or be accustomed to insults. Some cheating voices also talk to the air and the throat motions due to elec- announce that he or she enjoys noble origin and has tric forces and combined sound waves in artificial been assigned an important title or position or lots dreams. It should be noticed that nowadays the of- of money around the country. Of course the cheating fenders are even able to interpolate words during words do not deserves honesty and prove to be lies. the pretention voices. Except dreams, the quick Failing to get out of the fraudulence may increase the detection and pretension of voices also act like the person’s troubles and enemies. person’s psychology. Furthermore, in daily lives, it is Usually, the pretending voices are understood as possible that the neighboring people’s ideas may get the virtual sound occurring far from the real person. into some other’s thought by radars. Finally, there are However, as is shown in (Fig. 2), there is frequent cases in which the words that a person want to say pretension of voices happening among the real per- are unintentionally and loudly spoken out as other son’s body in the days and nights. In the first way, the words arranged by offenders.
C
Pretending voices 1 Pretending voices 2
bla~ XXX~bla bla~ bla
bla~ bla bla~ XXX~bla
A D XXX B
E
Figure 2. Pretending voices appear in two ways and are both heard by C Another case happens when the enemy attacks electricity. After the attack makes the person ner- the person hostilely by charging and discharging vous, then the enemy sends fraudulent voices or in-
14 3 Section 8. Psychology formation to the person and causes unhappiness or the enemy sets free low sounds incurring the person’s self-denial or hurt to his or her self-consciousness. reaction, and then the enemy releases a slander just The pretending voice often happens just when the after the low sounds. As the time and circumstances real voices are offset. The nullification of real voices are near to each other, the misunderstanding may may become the loss of memory in serious moments, increase. It should be noticed that the pretending which may be caused by disrupting the previous or voices may become loud voices that can be heard by later events or by shouting the current things directly. others but recognized as the insulted person’s own Following and shouting a person’s ideas compresses saying. People should be alert to the pretension of his or her time of thinking about association with voices to keep from losing his identity and trust. outside world and other things, which disrupts his or The so-called mind control lays similarity to the her memory of pressing and important affairs. noise interruption in that the offenders pretend to The reft language by the radar sometimes hear be a happy or miserable, and comfortable or nervous like a reminder if the person is badly disrupted. It is person. It is said that some offenders recorded some- also likely that some common senses are interpolated body’s anger and disgust, and replay the mind waves to in the reft languages to escape doubts. It seems that disrupt the person. The offence mandatorily connects the pretending voices invaded into a person’s body the person’s past mood with his or her present sur- appear very much like that the person is reaving an- roundings. Great hazards are hidden when personal other person’s languages. There exists a rude mode evaluations of women’s looks or men’s abilities are of reft languages, in which the person’s thinking is concerned. Besides, there is a phenomenon called fol- directly recorded and spoken by another person’s lowed impression: replaying somebody’s ideas twice voices. It is like close following of somebody’s think- in first heavy and second week voices makes the lis- ing or even reading. Some reft languages appear as tener feel the same meaning and be misunderstood agreement to the person’s idea, such as “No problem” as some other person with the same ideas. and “Yes”. Specially, some other reft languages are Some noise interruptions derive from artificial demonstrated as conversation or dialogue. The inter- dreams and multimedia with forces and sounds. ruption can also be demonstrated as quick guides These invalid activities have the effects of exchanging but in fact copies of his or her own ideas, which can a person’s characteristics or roles in society, which be deemed as a disguised loss of memory. The expe- can be deemed as a controversial technique to com- rience also reminds me that some hesitations and os- pete with rivals. The intruders that perform artifi- cillations may be suddenly imitated with large voices cial dreams might make use of the evening to beat a like amplified inducement, which should be denied person on sleep, while the voices in the dream may as his or her own voices. come from mainly the electronic devices and smart Hearing the other person’s sound is sometimes grid and subordinately from the dreamer’s reaction. getting to the person’s own thinking from another Some intruders records the person’s weak reactions spy’s point of view. This phenomenon were used by in the day and replay the small sound in the night some offenders to attack other people as follows: toward the person, in order to harm his or her activ- Firstly, they announced or doubted someone’s be- ity for reaction. havior and evaluate it as dangerous or ridiculous. The noises from cyberspace integrate the inten- Secondly, when the extreme thinking was reminded tions of opposition, rejection, and disagreement into or thought of, the offenders recorded the doubted the sound background, and bring about great psycho- or dangerous evaluation from the person in memory logical pressure upon somebody. The bad impression and insulted him or her. In fact, it is also possible that typically includes misery and regret, while there is also
14 4 SAFETY INFLUENCED BY INTERRUPTING NOISES IN REALITY enchantment. Some offenders also firstly arrange a seized, then the offender records them as evidence of happy atmosphere, and then harm the person in burst, his or her guilt. In other words, they can initiate a scen- making him or her hard to reflect or prevent it. Al- ery indicating hazards or extremes, and let the person ternately, they can also prepare a seemingly friendly recall some correlated words and images. It is difficult discussion to intentionally detect the person’s emo- for the person to suddenly discriminate a real thing tion and evaluate his or her behavior acting as a role from the fake one. In addition, it brings out the person moving between a friend and an enemy. an impression of wrongly thinking of the problem and The Parkinsonism is partly due to the noise inter- receiving threats simultaneously. ruptions. So far as I know, the time delay caused by A typical situation refers to transmission of a de- reverse radars may be milliseconds. On the one side, layed but similar idea. Under the circumstance the radars can transmit exterior signals faster than a hu- offenders are just nearby. They react to something man being. On the other side, the thwarting or reverse in advance and record them. Then the reactions in signals can be transmitted to nullify the person’s origi- voices are amplified and transmitted to the person nal thinking. While facing dangers such nullifications experiencing similar things at predefined nodes, may bring out injures to a person. It should be noticed which may be wrongly chosen by the person as his that radar together with Internet of Things may insert own idea. Usually the interruption persuades a per- and replace somebody’s impression and words in his son frequently change his or her ideas. Such an in- or her thinking without self-consciousness, which terruption may be kept up to half a hour or several causes great regrets in social affairs. hours without reminder, since the computed delay There is also a voice interruption with semantic accurately offsets the small distance, as is shown tests and stimulations. In the situation, a few contrast- in (Fig. 3). It should be mentioned that unvoiced ed ideas or evaluations are transmitted or broadcast to sounds carried and enlarged in cyberspaces disturb incur a person’s reactions. If some extreme ideas are persons directly.
A T0 C
Speak, chat and Response C
broadcast T2
machine machine
d B T2==T1+d Response B T1
Figure 3. Delayed voice interruptions When a person reads books or writes poems, he cause hazards in mixing both the voices and iden- or she needs to repeat some words with voices in tities. his cognition. The offenders may catch the words Generally speaking, the voice interrupters often and replay them by their own voices. Such inter- criticize or explain somebody’s experiences, and ruptions not only impact the person’s life, but also secretly refuse or take their responsibilities in the
14 5 Section 8. Psychology process. It brings out an impression that they enjoy on the Internet of Things, just like the war relies on strong ambitions and strict rules, but they are mixed frontiers and forts. with lots of frauds and lies. Meanwhile, the interrupting voices may spy a per- The voice interrupters sometime put a certain son’s political viewpoints as far as I know. The annoyers kind of threat on the annoyed person. When there may follow a person, researches into his relationship, is a strange person on the corner, the annoyed one and find out his paradoxes or conflicts. Then around has some conscience to change himself or herself. the contradictions, they prepare various information, At the moment, the interrupters directly attack the voices and suggestions in the night to make dialogue person by their tactics, cause pains in his or her body, with the person in the artificial dreams. They excite or and thus impose a threat on the person. Justly the suppress the person day by day, until some conflicts voice then announces that the strange person may be are incurred in the person’s consciousness. implicated by the attack and impose psychological The causes of interrupting voices may be social pressure upon the annoyed person. conflicts with marriages, the admiration, envy and The criticism is so weak to be easily heard, but hatred in competition of wealth and health. The is semantically fierce with strong implications, such interrupting voices may carry some information as hurt, hatred, and revenge. As a matter of facts, the that does not appear in Internet, which comple- hurt has already be demonstrated before as the pain ments the loss of an information flow in society. It caused by electric shooting et al. In general, the in- is also said that in case of huge risks the interrupt- terrupters make use of new surrounding factors in ing noises can be made clear to supply the person the environment and society to threaten the annoyed with some information. It is believed that great person and to criticize the person that he impacts damages to somebody’s health deserve the inter- the security of some other persons. Furthermore, the rupting voices. A person under noise interruption interrupters may require the strange person on the is supposed to have experienced lots of electronic corner and even the public to help harm the annoyed or motor noises before, such as the noises from the one. These threats are seemingly omissible but effec- refrigerator, the washing machine, and the cars. It tively impact a person’s psychological health. seems that some boring noises are existent day The voice interruption sets and then evades a dis- and night in the long run until somebody gets the cussed subject from time to time, until it gets related trouble of noise interruption. In fact, the spy and with somebody under annoyance. Its basic 2 skills hit of a person in modern society is commonplace, include: 1) From comments to requirements, from so the interrupting voices are just reverses of nor- praises to obligations; 2) From team comments to mal phenomena. Some intruders even expect to use gradual thinking with pretended intruders, leading the interrupting voices to prove that the annoyed to fake discussions with the person. Both interrup- person does not lack information or notifications, tions closely tie the person to the annoyers, accom- although he or she does lack it. panied with electric hits. The interrupting noises greatly disturb people’s From the war’s point of view, noise and voice lives, and the continuous incoherence gradually annoyances seem to be a part of the transfinite war brings them an illusion that the artificial noises have [3]. The war is out of smokes but full of electrons, replaced the calm. In fact, the calm and peace still ex- out of timetables but full of threats, out of pity but ist, but it is interrupted. The reality and peace belong full of doubts, out of truth but full of lies. The voice to themselves like before, while the lives continue annoyances looks like voices on the Internet, but day by day. It should be remembered that the inter- surpasses the limits of personal distances. It relies ruption comes to a person later than somebody’s
14 6 SAFETY INFLUENCED BY INTERRUPTING NOISES IN REALITY normality. People should believe in themselves and crease its quality, or nullify the sounds. These nega- the lives. tive influences are bad results brought out by tech- Correspondingly, public broadcast has the ef- nical development in modern society. Thus it is not fect of keeping a person from interrupting noises. the broadcast that interrupts the noisy voices, but Under the continuous interruptions, a person tends that the continuous noises interrupt the broadcast. to worry about that he or she perhaps carries trou- The critical point is that the calm time should not ble to the broadcaster. It is a problem that whether be interrupted, while the broadcasting is the valid the broadcaster is impacted by the intruders, which information disturbed by the annoyers. needs careful consideration. Firstly, the broadcast Some offenders also release threatening contents is regular radio and ordinary sounds, and together in a voice style of discussing stories in films. In fact, the most of calm times it belongs to the whole life time voice that are judged as pretention have some charac- and spaces. The interrupting noises continuously teristics: broadcast with time delays and slow or fast disturb the cyberspace, and destroy most calm times, rhythms, heard as two voices with one small voice and which occupy the space and time for broadcast, de- one big voice, as well as women’s voices (Figure 4). Women's voices
A
ideas broadcast
Figure 4. Pretending voices like a woman In technology, the detection of a person’s think- media may be broadcast by infrared or arc lights in ing is like eavesdropping. It seems that there are the night, and the stereophonic sounds accurately weak voices accompanied with the person’s think- arrive at people’s body areas with electromagnetic ing. The radars and Internet of Things (IoT) detect forces. Meanwhile, the person that receives the and collect the signals to restore his or her ideas. forces, lights, and voices feels the false voices as Some wearable apprentices can receive such signals true words, and the phenomenon is somewhat like or information. There are also transported images forced vibrations. in IoT and shadowed on somebody’s eyes, different It seems that some deep and accurate ideas are from associated consideration or imagination. It is not easily measured or understood. In this case, the found that the memory or reconsideration may be detected ideas on broadcast are voices outside the substituted by doubts with pretending voices. As person although there are some interchanges, as is far as the artificial dream is concerned, the multi- shown in (Figure 5).
147 Section 8. Psychology
Spy A Ideas
B No Clear or not? Hacker
Other ideas Yes
Broadcast
Figure 5. The detection of somebody’s idea may be substituted by a hacker’s idea when the detected voices are unclear The pretention of voices also occurs when the partly occupies a person’s thinking frequency in char- offender says some aggressive things or opens some acter. Some pretending voices can be spoken directly invasive topics. Once the person hears the things, and heard by people around the person. If they are set he or she will analyze and adjust the meanings of to be announced in the throat and mouth, then they the things. Meanwhile, the intruders utilize the ap- hear like the person’s natural voices. prentices to catch the person’s ideas and insert some voices and emotions with insults, assaults, and leak- ages. Then the edited voices are broadcast at once in the IoT, causing doubts on the person. Since these voices appear after the events, they are not alike pretention but similar to imitation and reaction. As a matter of fact, the disturbed reconsideration suf- fering from pretension is marked by attached voices with a person’s memories and impressions. Some of- fenders may declare that “we are fathers”; other of- black basin voices fenders may imply that they are “his fathers” without discrimination, which is a concealed announcement of pretention and insult. The interrupting voices or noises can also be seemed as the active signals for radars, which are used to detect a person’s secrets, making him or her hard to get profits. It looks like a barrel with holes at bottom or a barrel full of water at top, both of which cannot con- Figure 6. Black basin’s words tain any more water. Unfortunately, voice pretension is from reversed radars a remarkable phenomenon with noise interruptions, The voice interruption has been demonstrated and in addition to suppress the volume of a voice it in theatre, a Chinese Peking opera called “The Sto-
14 8 SAFETY INFLUENCED BY INTERRUPTING NOISES IN REALITY ry of a Black Basin” [4]. In the story, the basin is ity to the mobile communications and underwater able to talk to people around it. From the technol- communications. ogy’s point of view, the black basin’s voices come The harm of pretending other people’s voices from the surrounding radars working in the reverse and insulting them is exaggerated by networks like mode, as is shown in (Figure 6). In folk stories, Internet these days, in which the threats and slanders there are ghosts within a person’s body, where the are spread very fast. It is estimated that some altars ghost demonstrated himself or herself by interrupt- in temples are under the voice interruptions. Some ing voices. voice interruptions condemn something wrong and 3. Further Discussions demand the compensation should be transferred The noise interruptions may be embodied as from this person to another one, which is invalid on spies and hits of a person’s minds. For example, it spot due to negative values. Although the condem- may replace his impression of a woman’s images and nation and the demand both looks like justices, they therefore causes collisions, by shadowing microwave are opposite to each other and causes hazards to the pictures onto his eyes. In general, the noise interrup- interrupted person. It should be noticed that some of- tions are in pursuit of profits from all corners in peo- fenders also packs the person’s detest to the annoyers ple’s lives. It is asserted that some intruders make use as the detest to other people in memory or on spot. of noise interruptions to seek knowledge, messages Sometimes the offenders declare that they are and intelligence from other people. important people and enjoy great fames, but they When the microwave images and the noise in- feel unsatisfied with the person. In fact, the com- terruptions arrive at people simultaneously, people plaint may be a simulation of the annoyers’ attitudes, are prone to recognize the familiar picture and feels whose aim is to move the contradictions to the per- like verification of the strange voices, which are quite son under spy. Belief in the unreliable justice in the different. The intruders may shadow somebody’s -im voice interruption suffers from fraudulence and as- ages and make negative evaluations at the same time, saults. Many voice interrupters used to arrange vir- which mixed the familiarity of the person and the tual nodes in social relationship like departed lead- proof of mistakes. The recognition of a familiar figure ers, former bosses, and countrymen, which can be under criticism doesn’t imply that he will surely take pretended words and only cheat the person. Taking bad attitudes toward the person. the scientific and technical affairs as a case in point, The head and body of the person under voice in- the professional opinions in voice interruption may terruption may be hit by electric forces and move in be derived from the person himself or herself. the way the intended voices expect to act. Therefore, The voice interrupters are often the rivals of the the voice interruption may nullify somebody’s words interrupted persons at work and in the life. They de- and pretend to say other words in the meantime. A liberately disturb the opponent by noises to lower typical case in point is the loss of memory about re- his or her vigor and competition, and let him or payment. Except for the contents of a voice, the noise her forget important things. While the noisy voices interruptions also try to insert the annoyed person’s mainly talk about the past things, they necessarily and related people’s tones of saying into the annoy- occupy a person’s time and strengths to think about ing voices. The sudden reversed judgments and thor- new emerging problems. The offenders may care- ough detailed investigation of something are usually fully mix their own ideas with the annoyed person’s from pretending voices. It is supposed that some ap- thinking, sayings, and writings, to the extent that the prentices and devices are able to receive and send offenders’ ideas dominate the whole sentences. The signals about a person’s thinking, which lays similar- mixture deceives the person to make mistakes or to
14 9 Section 8. Psychology take responsibility for the offenders’ mistakes. Even common senses between generated voices and pre- if the person achieves the goal in the future, it will tending voices. Without self-motivation the spy will hardly become his credit since the offenders will take find that the pretending voice is almost similar to the it as a reason to attack the person. The sounded fair person’s thinking. repetition and comments in voice interruptions are The interrupting voices impact a person’s politi- probably pretending voices. In general, the voice in- cal views gradually with or without consciousness. terrupters make injuries to and troubles with others The intruders may collect his or her viewpoints and on purpose, so it is proper for someone to prepare for broadcast extreme ideas or sceneries to the person the offence beforehand. Frequently, some intruders in virtual reality in the night. They may pretend the use the crying voices after hitting the targets. person’s voices to dissatisfy some people and let the A few noise interruptions happens once the per- person feels that he or she has spoken the violent and son is attacked and not recovered, whose contents extreme words by himself or herself. Experiencing include incitation and implication of the offenders the voices strengthens his or her connection with the to continue their injuries and spies. In noise inter- mentioned things and figures. For example, a person ruptions, the appearances of `You’ is always fake and familiar with Chinese modern history may be inter- is like pretension of voices, since there is no normal rupted with large events about Chairman Mao and channel that the offended person can connect the General Lin in modern times. offenders. It should also be emphasized that many The offenders often disguise the person’s real voice pretension occur within tens of to hundreds sensitivity by pretending voices in the spy. They can of meters away and require active steps to separate actively exchange the emotion and feelings with the them. Since voice pretention lets a person forget person under spy and hit, moving the exciting offend- something by electric hit, it should not be simul- ers to the mood of misery and the sad target to the taneously understood as a reminder of the same state of unawareness. Therefore, the intruders on the thing. Some noise interruptions happen like the one hand harm the annoyed person, and on the other stick swings or the sword echoes, while the person’s hand exchange their moods or identities with the per- emotion can then be changed or adjusted. Further- son. The feeling of anger may be changed as calmness, more, some noise interruptions are partly generated while the calmness may be covered by angers. by people’s spied ideas through radars, and therefore 4. Conclusion can be partly avoided, rounded, delayed and passed. Noise interruption can be classified as a kind In the course of voice interruptions, a person’s of disasters from technology, crimes in civiliza- sound may be pretended by hackers. If the person tions, and crises of humanism. For technology, the does not react to the pretending voices, then it noise interruptions come from radars and Internet sounds that the person is just the one whose voice of Things and are transmitted through a network is heard. However, this is not true. If one does not rather than direct communications. Meanwhile, the intend to react to the pretension of voices, then his interrupting voices seem like a waste and excess of or her audition and sights will automatically reflect electronic communications, which is considered as the environments and the thinking will follow the a great achievement of modern society. For crimes, heard news and ideas. In the moment, the other the noise interruption can be deemed as an auxiliary people may feel that the interrupted person is con- method to follow and spy a person, which may be sidering the thing rather than hearing it. Therefore, abused to pretend a person’s voices and cheat some- at first it is necessary not to be driven by pretending body in society. The interruption by noises can be voices, and secondly one should know that there are derived from people’s competitions in societies.
150 SAFETY INFLUENCED BY INTERRUPTING NOISES IN REALITY
For humanity Confucius thought that people was said in the Book of Poetry [7]: “As knife and file were divided into several levels, each of whom can make smooth the bone, so jade is wrought by chisel be exercised and cultivated to be great men like Yao and stone.” Mencius regarded humanity as goodness and Shun in ancient times [5]. He also thought that and kindness, the feeling of shames, and the inten- a person was only necessary to talk about Taoism tion to help others [8]. Lao Tzu thought that the sky with people above the middle level. The Chinese and the earth are emotionless and saw anything in philosopher Hsun Tzu thought that everyone was the world as trenches [9]. In a word, the people are born with sins and wickedness, requiring a person not all nice, humanity is not that kind, and all of them to improve the merits by himself or herself [6]. As are statistically distributed. Things lie on persons. References: 1. Bertman S., Han S. Climbing Olympus: what you can learn from Greek myth and wisdom. Fudan University Press. 2005. 2. Wu T. Endeavoring with body area network and suffering from electric shooting. Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research, (BJSTR) 24(1). 2020. – P. 18019–18021. 3. Qian L., Wang X. Transfinite War. Changjiang Literature and Art Publishing House. 2016. 4. The story of a black basin. URL: http://scripts.xikao.com/play/03091006/ 2018. 5. Confucius: Confucian Analects. Huitong BookStore, Hongkong. 1969. 6. Liang Q. Brief Interpretation of Hsun Tzu. Ancient Books Publishing House, Beijing. 1956. 7. Cheng J., Jiang J. Annotation and Analysis of Shijing. Zhonghua Book Company, – Beijing, 1991. 8. Zhu X., Zheng B., Zhou D. Focus of the Works of Mensius. Anhui People’s Publishing House. 2013. 9. Tzu L., Lao Tzu. Ha’erbin Publishing House, – Harbin. 2004.
151 Section 9. Sociology
Section 9. Sociology
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-152-156 Ngo Thi Phuong Thao, MA PhD learner, Academy of Social Sciences E-mail: [email protected] TRADITIONAL VALUES OF MARRIAGE OF THE CAO BANG RED DAO AND THE ISSUES RAISED TODAY Abstract. In the process of formation and development, the Red Dao people have formed the customs, practices, cultural activities of the community, very special, especially the culture expressed through extremely rich marriage. and diversity, has contributed to create a separate culture of eth- nic groups in harmony with the culture of multi-ethnic nations. Marriage of the Red Dao people in Cao Bang is a typical expression of their culture, because the wedding of the Red Dao people goes through many rituals that are both unique and retain the traditions of the ancients. However, due to certain constraints on socio-economic conditions, customs, traditions, perceptions and the impact of cultural exchange and integration processes, the marriage of the Red Dao people in Cao is high. By besides the good values, there are many problems to be solved. Keywords: Marriage, Red Dao, ritual. 1. Identify the issue For the Red Dao people in Cao Bang, marriage Marriage is always considered a serious issue of is not only for the sake of maintaining the family line life in Cao Bang community, it plays an important role but also for the family’s benefit. It is clearly expressed in performing the function of preserving the family’s in the criteria of “choosing wife” and “choosing hus- bloodline; it is a joy to individuals and families, lineages band” of the people here. Accordingly, in tradition and the whole community. In addition to the “coming- as well as today, the criteria of “choosing a wife” of of-age ceremony” in the culture of the Dao people, get- the Red Dao people in Cao Bang still attach special ting married is also the standard confirming the matu- importance to the dignity of a woman, considering rity of a man, if not married, the man can not assume this as an important factor for families and men when the role of family’s owner, even if he is the eldest son. choosing partner. The virtues that boys look for in For women, marriage marks maturity through taking girls are gentleness, health, diligence, skill in embroi- care of the husband’s family, giving birth to maintain dery, sewing, housework, ability to undertake work the lineage of the husband’s family and nurture them. on holidays and taking care of children. As for the 2. Traditional value of marriage of the Cao “choosing husband” criteria of the Red Dao women, Bang Red Dao they always want to have a good husband as a bread- Firstly, the marriage of the Red Dao people in Cao winner. Previously, the basic points in men that wom- Bang shows the desire for a smooth and fulfilling life. en’ parents appreciated are health, hunting skill and
152 TRADITIONAL VALUES OF MARRIAGE OF THE CAO BANG RED DAO AND THE ISSUES RAISED TODAY courage, etc. Nowadays, men are highly appreciated ners but spreads much wider than that. The mar- by the parents of women for their understanding of riage, though of two people, entails establishing a the customs and traditions of their people, their ca- relationship between the two families, creating new pability to do business and to take care of household, relationships between the bride’s and the groom’s clan and society’s business. In particular, the harmony family. These relationships are called in-law rela- of temperament and morality are still the top decisive tionships (relationships created through marriage). factors, because according to the Red Dao people, It gives the Red Dao family the chance to extended this helps the family to maintain a stable and happy close relationship with other family, other lineages, life. It is on the basis of such a concept that the Red even other ethnic groups in different territorial areas Dao almost always marries people in the same hamlet (inter-ethnic marriage, cross-border marriage). because they know each other well, from their fami- The wedding ceremony of the Red Dao people lies, lineages to their personalities. always shows the solidarity of the community. It is Along with the criteria of “choosing a wife” and expressed in the very notion that marriage is not only “choosing a husband”, one of the procedures before a joy to the couple and their families, but a joy, an im- going to marriage of the Red Dao people in Cao portant matter of the whole family. The help of sib- Bang that deeply reflects the desire for a convenient blings, friends, and lineages in the implementation and sufficient future life is the custom of “viewing of wedding ceremonies such as delegating people to the leaf of fate”. In the past, the Red Dao marriage ask for the hand of the bride and receive the bride or was decided by parents. Nowadays, basically the Red organizing the wedding celebration is the basis for Dao young men and women decide for themselves the family of the bride and groom to build a more how to choose their partners, they get to know each solid relationship. At the same time, wedding guests other through meeting and dating in festivals. How- have the opportunity to interact with each other to ever, regardless of whether the parents decide or the increase cultural understanding and harmony with young men and women decide, the Red Dao people other clans and ethnic groups. in Cao Bang still maintain the procedure of the man’s Thirdly, marriage contributes to preserving and family coming to the woman’s house to talk. If the promoting the traditional humanistic rites, educational woman’s parents agree, the man’s family continues to values and unique aesthetic values of the ethnic. ask for “par”, taking the girl’s date and year of birth For the Red Dao people in Cao Bang, the process to the fortune-teller to see if they match or not. If ev- of conducting a marriage is carried out sequentially erything is favorable, the groom’s family will choose in three main stages, including the pre-wedding cer- a good day and bring gifts to the bride’s family. Thus, emony, the main wedding ceremony and the post- the “viewing the leaf of leaf” custom from a psycho- wedding ceremony. The pre-wedding ceremony in- logical and sociological perspective is an expression cludes: asking for a leaf of fate (mình cho nìn keng), of the desire to lead a smooth life, a desire for the a ritual of agreement between two families ((mình couple to have strong relationship with compatible kong xìn chà cao), a ceremony of asking for the bride’s ways of thinking and doing business. hand and giving gift (mình quý – ế lẩy), selecting and Secondly, marriage contributes to increasing social announcing the wedding day; the main wedding cer- relationships and community cohesion. emony includes: ancestor worship ritual, a wedding With the diversity of inner ethnic and inter-eth- by the bride’s houseand a wedding by the groom’s nic marriage forms of the Red Dao people in Cao family; the post-wedding ceremony is concentrated Bang, the level of cohesion and expansion of social at the revisiting ceremony. This is a ritual to show relations does not stop between the marriage part- the affection of the son-in-law to the wife’s family.
153 Section 9. Sociology
Thus, the marriage ceremony of the Red Dao people the marriage tradition of the Red Dao people here. in Cao Bang is carried out in many steps, with many This variation takes place according to the following different procedures, which are ensured according to trends: the sequence of principles and elements of custom- Trend of marriage with people of different races: ary law, creating the uniqueness in the culture of the Mixed marriages of the Red Dao people in the fol- Red Dao community. lowing years tend to increase. The marriage between Through the implementation of rituals in mar- young people of the Red Dao and other ethnic groups riage, it has contributed to preserving the unique tra- living in the neighborhood reflect the open interfer- ditional humanistic cultural values of the Red Dao ence in a positive direction. The Red Dao young peo- people. The custom of wedding challenge, organizing ple are now free to search for a partner in the same a dining party and giving gifts (meat and wine) of ethnic group or other ethnic groups and decide to the groom’s family to each member of the “entou- get married according to the Law on Marriage and rage” (the bride’s family bringing their bride to the Family as well, which shows the harmony between groom’s family) is a form of “returning ceremony”, the younger generation of Red Dao people and the expressing the gratitude of the groom’s family to the young generation of neighboring ethnic groups. In family that gave birth to, raised and taught the bride general, this trend is an objective indispensable rule. to marry into the groom’s family. At the same time, Trend of restoring traditional cultural values: folk songs, love-exchanging songs (Pao dung song) Preserving traditional cultural values has become are performed at the wedding with teachings and in- a set task that the Vietnamese Party and State are structions from their predecessors for the bride and expecting the ethnic groups to fulfill. The Red Dao groom about morality, lifestyle, behavior and their people today still retain many traditions in their mar- family circumstances so that the couple will under- riage customs. However, due to the development of stand each other better. Besides, the bride wearing social needs and cultural exchanges among regions the traditional dress when going to her husband’s and other ethnic groups, the ceremony of marriage house as well as the brides and grooms wearing tra- of the Red Dao people has changed insignificantly. ditional costumes when performing bonding cere- For example, the process of getting marriage in the mony in front of their families as well as in wedding past was cumbersome and time consuming; now receptions shows a sense of respect and the intention these steps have been shortened but still maintain- to preserve the aesthetic value of the ethnic minority ing traditional rituals. In addition, many traditional community, contributing to creating a unique cul- factors have been preserved by the people such as age tural identity in our country’s multi-ethnic culture. fortune telling, gift giving, agreement between two 3. The changing trend and some issues raised families … Wedding rites have changed in a positive need to be solved in the marriage of Red Dao way both physically and mentally, this is a general people in Cao Bang. trend of ethnic minorities including the Red Dao. It The changing trend in the marriage of Red Dao also shows that the people of the Red Dao here have people in Cao Bang learned the new things, respectfully preserve the old It can be seen that, due to the impact of factors things that express the ethnic cultural identity. such as policies, socio-economic development; in- The tendency to receive culture of other ethnic tegration and globalization process, the change in groups: Along with the process of industrialization, awareness of the Red Dao community in Cao Bang the material culture of the Red Dao people is under- and most importantly the impact of the Law on Mar- going a major change. In recent years, the young Red riage and Family 2014, there have been changes in Dao people tend to wear Kinh costumes. At the wed-
154 TRADITIONAL VALUES OF MARRIAGE OF THE CAO BANG RED DAO AND THE ISSUES RAISED TODAY ding ceremony, wearing traditional costumes is only and mobilizing the Red Dao people to perform well compulsory for the bride and groom. The wedding the civilized lifestyle in weddings, eliminating cum- guests can wear Kinh costumes. Today, with job spe- bersome, costly wedding ceremonies on the basis of cialization, Red Dao women do not make traditional conserving the good value of old customs and prac- costumes by themselves anymore, instead they often tices. In addition, it is necessary to focus on eliminat- buy the costumes because they are more convenient, ing illiteracy and re-illiteracy in women, providing reasonably priced, with more diverse designs and opportunities for them to know about themselves materials than self-made costumes. and access to planned birth measures as well as deal- Some issues raised need to be addressed from the mar- ing with other married life-related issues. riage of the Red Dao people in Cao Bang today Secondly, it is necessary to preserve and promote In the Red Dao marriage, it is a worrying fact that the good traditional cultural values of the ethnic group, child marriage is on the rise. The influence of -un especially the implementation of the Central Resolu- healthy cultural flows from the internet and social tion V (Session VIII) on “building and developing networks has had a significant impact on the lives an advanced Vietnamese culture with strong ethnic of young people. Besides, because of the concept of identity ” associated with promoting the formulation getting married to have more labor force, child mar- of village conventions, realizing the Party and State’s riage still exists. In addition, in remote and isolated policies on marriage and family into real life; It is places, relatives and siblings are close to each other necessary to elaborate the contents of the 2014 Law at work and daily activities, so it is easy to give rise to on Marriage and Family on the age of marriage and sentiments that have led to the situation of close mar- incorporate them into the conventions of clans and riage and inbreeding. This has brought many serious hamlets. However, an appropriate plan is required and consequences, requiring timely remedial measures. specific and strict conditions must be considered. Along with the situation of child marriage and in- Thirdly, it is necessary to enhance the role of the breeding marriage, the custom of wedding challenge leader in guiding the Red Dao people to follow the new with the amount paid by the groom’s family to the cultural lifestyle in marriage such as organizing thrifty bride’s family ranging from 5 to 10 million VND as and happy wedding parties, reducing the emphasis on well as the extended time of the wedding ceremony wedding challenges, practising the monogamy system (about 1.5 days, with many feasts) has caused waste on the principle of marriage outside the lineage and and financial pressure on families and newlyweds. marriage within the ethnic group, performing the mar- Another important issue raised is that in the Red riage registration in accordance with the law. Dao marriage, there is a tendency of traditional rituals, 4. Conclusion typically folk songs, traditional love songs, folktales of In the context of strong integration and globaliza- the Dao, advices of forefathers about morals, lifestyles tion today, the Red Dao marriage in Cao Bang has and experiences appearing less often in weddings. been absorbing cultural elements from the outside Given the above situations and issues, there has in both material and spiritual aspects, with certain been a demand for authorities to take active and fea- changes according to the general cultural flow of the sible measures to overcome outdated customs and to nation. However, that change of movement, besides preserve and promote the cultural values in the mar- the progressive values, is also interwoven with back- riage of Red Dao people in Cao Bang. In particular, it ward and anti-progressive elements. Therefore, it is is necessary to focus on a number of issues: required that the local authorities should continue Firstly, the Party committees and local authorities to take timely measures to preserve and promote the need to pay attention to carrying out the propagation unique cultural values in the Red Dao marriage. In
155 Section 9. Sociology particular, special attention should be paid to pro- subject of conservation and preservation of tradi- moting the role of the Red Dao community as the tional cultural beauty in marriage. References: 1. Dang Thi Hoa. Cross-border marriage with social development (Monograph), Social Sciences Publish- ing House, – Hanoi. 2016. 2. Nguyen Dinh Khoa. Ethnic groups in Northern Vietnam, Social Sciences Publishing House, – Hanoi. 1976. 3. Law on Marriage and Family. Labor Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2005. 4. Law on Marriage and Family. Labor Publishing House, – Hanoi. 2014. 5. Decree 32/2000/ND-CP applies the Law on Marriage and Family to ethnic minorities. 6. Cao Bang Provincial People’s Committee. Convention on cultural lifestyle of the Dao people in Cao Bang province. 2005. 7. Nguyen Truong Giang. “Marriage habits – Families of some ethnic minorities in Vietnam”, Journal of Cultural Policy and Management, – No. 3(19). 2015. – P. 32–43. 8. Nguyen Hong Hai. “Regarding the concept and legal nature of marriage”, Journal of Jurisprudence, – No. 5. 2018. – P. 9–15. 9. Nguyen Phuong Lan. “Some issues on the application of customs in marriage and family relations”, State Journal and law, – No. 8. 2016. – P. 31–39.
156 RAP-POETRY OF THE 2000S: VECTORS OF ARTISTIC SEARCHES (ON THE EXAMPLE OF CREATIVITY OF THE ICONIC FIGURE OF THE PHENOMENON OF MIRON FEDOROV)
Section 10. Philology and linguistics
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-157-161 Vasilevich Elena, PhD, the assistant, of the Taras Shevchenko Kiev State University the Philology Institute the Russian Philology Department E-mail: [email protected] RAP-POETRY OF THE 2000S: VECTORS OF ARTISTIC SEARCHES (ON THE EXAMPLE OF CREATIVITY OF THE ICONIC FIGURE OF THE PHENOMENON OF MIRON FEDOROV) Abstract. This article is devoted to the search of vectors of the creative search by Miron Fedorov (Oxxxymiron), the justification of his status as the central figure of the “rap generation” – the voice of the “Internet generation”. Keywords: cultural generation, transitional thinking, “generation of the Internet”, rap-poetry, rap-battle, underground. Василевич Елена, к.филол.н., ассистент кафедры русской филологии Института филологии Киевского национального университета имени Тараса Шевченко E-mail: [email protected] РЭП-ПОЭЗИЯ 2000-Х: ВЕКТОРЫ ХУДОЖЕСТВЕННЫХ ПОИСКОВ (НА ПРИМЕРЕ ТВОРЧЕСТВА ЗНАКОВОЙ ФИГУРЫ ФЕНОМЕНА МИРОНА ФЕДОРОВА) Аннотация. Данная статья посвящена поиску векторов художественного поиска Мирона Федорова (Оксимирона), обоснование его статуса центральной фигуры “поколения рэп” – го- лоса “поколения интернета”. Ключевые слова: культурное поколение, переходное мышление, “поколение интернета”, рэп-поэзия, рок-поэзия, андеграунд. Рок-поэзия для поколения 1970-х‑1980-х была музыкантов давно стало литературным фактом. главным андеграундным культурным явлени- С начала 1990-х издаются антологии, поэтические ем – рупором и выразителем социального про- сборники, проводятся научные конференции, по- теста советской интеллигенции. Творчество рок священные исследованию их творчества. В нуле-
157 Section 10. Philology and linguistics
вые рокерам, имеющим в современной русской Федорова и обоснование его статуса центральной культуре культовый статус, активно и наступают фигуры “поколения рэп”, его голоса. на пятки молодые рэперы, которые пока только Рэп-поэзия 2000-х стала признанным фено- претендуют на этот особый статус, пытаются за- меном, во многом оформившим мировоспри- нять их место в культурном пространстве, они ятие новой генерации “поколения интернета”. заимствуют у “старших” коллег по цеху внешнюю Она идет на смену предшествовавшему явле- атрибутику, экстравагантную, подчас очень прово- нию – рок-поэзии, наследуя определенные черты кационную манеру поведения. А в последние пять (нонконформизм, протестный пафос, показную лет еще и протестные настроения, оказавшиеся не- отдаленность от литературного мейнстрима) ожиданно столь актуальными и востребованными и, одновременно, демонстрирует новизну, осмыс- в условиях современной России, в которой свобо- ливает себя как оригинальный феномен. да слова снова находится под угрозой, как никогда Конкретной задачей становится выделение со- ранее в истории России постсоветского периода. циокультурных и литературных факторов, опре- Первый альбом Мирона Федорова, получив- деливших мировосприятие поколения. шего известность под псевдонимом Оксимирон Направление поиска поэта определил, “Вечный жид” вышел в 2011 году. Но взрыв неверо- во‑первых, социо-культурный контекст. Он ятной популярности и настоящее признание среди имеет ярко выраженный кризисный характер, представителей самых разных поколений пришло а его влияние на молодых схоже на воздействие к нему именно после выхода альбома “Горгород” потрясений рубежа XX–XXI веков на “поколение в 2015 году. Интеллектуальный рэпер “с филологи- 90-х”, то есть предшественников и современников ческим уклоном”, написавший то ли рэп-альбом, то “генерации интернета”. ли “роман в треках” (Д. Быков), то ли “рок-оперу” Исследователи современного литературного (Михаил Козырев), то ли “поэму” (А. Елашкина) процесса неоднократно отмечали, что, начиная сразу заставило многих представителей филоло- с 90-х в русской литературе все чаще происходят гического братства заговорить о нем, как о новом попытки определить и сформулировать особенно- и многообещающем поэте нового поколения. сти мировосприятия такого культурного явления, Мирон Федоров, в настоящее время является как поколение 90-х, выделить его типологические творцом, тексты которого привлекли большое черты, сформулировать основного героя своего внимание филологов, и литературных критиков, времени. И чаще всего – это “человек, по судьбе а также современных поэтов, таких как, Дмитрий которого прошла трещина кризисного перелома: Быков и Вера Полозкова, отмечающих высокое социального, культурного, мировоззренческого” качество его текстов и связь с литературной по- [1]. Поколение сорокалетних более остро ощу- этической традицией. Показательно, что свои тило на себе этот перелом, необходимость искать концерты Оксимирон часто называет “квартир- свой путь в новых аксиологических координатах. никами”. В этом можно увидеть желание подчер- Но вот подросло поколение, которое столкну- кнуть преемственность поколений, поскольку лось пришлось с переломом 90-х в детском возрасте. квартирник – реалия поколения 70–80 х – генера- 90-е годы станут периодом глобальных переменен ции рокеров, для которой “квартирник” означал для всего постсоветского пространства и для рос- подпольный концерт с особой атмосферой дове- сийского общества, в том числе. Но если старшее рительности и интимности. поколение полностью ощутило на себе глобальный Цель настоящей статьи – определение основ- кризис нового времени, многие окажутся букваль- ных векторов художественного поиска Мирона но на грани выживания, то младшее поколение уви-
158 RAP-POETRY OF THE 2000S: VECTORS OF ARTISTIC SEARCHES (ON THE EXAMPLE OF CREATIVITY OF THE ICONIC FIGURE OF THE PHENOMENON OF MIRON FEDOROV)
дело в новом времени множество новых возможно- “поколения 90-х”, в воспоминаниях и страданиях стей. Сам Оксимирон в интервью американскому по “утраченному раю” – городу своего детства, хип-хоп каналу VladTV [2], вспоминая 90е, гово- а пытается показать, что его поколение открыто рит о том, что, с одной стороны, было ощущения миру. Это поколение не было травмировано со- хаоса вокруг: в культуре и в повседневной жизни, ветским опытом, как поколение 90-х, у него нет но, с другой стороны, что это было невероятно ин- ностальгии по утраченному советскому прошло- тересное время, когда страну наводнили продукты му, молодые герои устремлены в будущее. Это западной культуры, долгое время бывшие в Совет- подтверждает и заглавный образ его трека “Не- ском Союзе под запретом: книги, фильмы и т. д. валяшка”. Образ, имеющий символическое зна- Вторым фактором, определившим мировос- чение: традиционная русская детская игрушка, приятие и векторы художественного поиска части которая в силу своего устройства всегда прини- “поколения интернета” и Мирона Федорова в осо- мает стоячее положение и никогда не падает. Это бенности считает специфику мышления эмиграции, можно рассматривать, как свидетельство нового, рефлексию нею культурного шока и диалог культур. более оптимистического мировосприятия. Нега- С такими интенциями связан актуальный тивный опыт, который имеет противоположное вектор поисков: рефлексия поколенческого воздействие – интерпретация высказывания Ниц- мышления и определения способов его худо- ше “все что нас не убивает, делает нас сильнее”. жественного воплощения. Вектором поиска, на наш взгляд, становится Первый альбом Оксимирона насквозь про- широкое обобщение в аспекте описания экзи- питан темами и мотивами, связанных с кризисом стенциального сознания, создание образа “мы”. поиска себя, перехода от старого мира к новому, Тема поколения является центральной. Ок- потерянности и ощущения своей ненужности симирон пытается сформулировать вопросы в новом для себя культурном пространстве. и найти на них ответы. Он говорит о том, что В лирике Оксимирона можно найти сходство волнует его лично и о том, что касается каждого с типологическими чертами, которые выделяют человека его поколения: это темы поисков себя у “поколения 90-х”: маргинализм, инфантилизм, и своего пути в жизни, детского насилия, буллин- кризис самоидентификации, яркое проявление га (детской травли в школе), темы интернет-за- экзистенциального сознания, усиление лиризации висимости у молодого поколения, потеря своего и автобиографизма, доминирование определен- “я” в социальных сетях, политической пассивно- ных типов героев. Оксимирон пытается передать сти у молодых, потеря нравственных ориентиров, особенности и черты, свойственные переходно- интеллектуальная поверхностность современно- му мироощущению, осмыслить мировосприятие го поколения. Определение себя и обобщенного своего поколения, сформированного в ситуации “мы” проходит в противопоставлении с Другим, тотального пересмотра ценностных ориентиров, в отталкивании от образа Чужого, в моделирова- описание которого, по мнению А. Мережинской, нии оппозиции “Мы/Они”. и является художественным открытием поколе- На этом принципе построен и совокупный пор- ния молодых. Однако тут проявляется художе- трет поколения, который предлагает Оксимирон. ственная новизна, присущая, если не “поколе- Где “мы” – это его поколение, принадлежащее к кон- нию интернета” в целом, то идеостилю Мирона тркультуре. “Не от мира сего, лишний как чернила Федорова и, возможно, открывающая важную с пером/ Как будто кто-то вырыл зерно или вынул тенденцию. Лирический герой не погряз в но- звено/ Из цепи, где каждый образцово-показатель- стальгических рефлексиях, свойственных герою ный/ С…ь на них/ С этим миром связь проходит
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строго по касательной/Пока ссадины ныли, грел Альбом “Горгород” посвящен проблемам ста- песчаный карьер / И с кем бы не общался сейчас – туса и миссии писателя в современном обществе, ощущаю барьер /И ты вроде вполне здоров, но ро- особенностям взаимоотношений власти и писате- ясь в себе подробно /Все проводишь бесплодный ля. Это стало одной из причин невероятного вни- поиск себе подобных /Где бездумные, бездомные, мания к этому альбому и аудитории разных воз- потертые, / Обдолбанные Колфилды и дерганные растных групп. Очень показателен в этом смысле Дёрдены /Ангедония, приметы Джареда Лето / Мы текст его трека “Колыбельная”. В нем создается дети амфетамина, Бафомета и нью-металла /Ты, та- такая картина мира: абсолютная свобода 90-х сме- кой и не примет стаи, мы Питеры Пэны / Из пены нится все больше наслаждающейся цензурой госу- дней мы растем, но не вырастаем…” [3]. дарства, добравшейся и до интернет пространства, При этом, можно отметить, что в текстах Ок- которая воспринимается молодым поколением как симирона “мы” часто имеет характер двойной зона тотальной свободы. Автор говорит о пассив- игры. Под “они” он часто понимает и тех в его ности и нежелании “высовываться” у поэтов, чей поколении, кто не может быть с ним “на одной голос, традиционно для русской литературы, был волне”, кто в силу своего низкого интеллектуаль- выразителем идей справедливости и права на сво- ного уровня и низкой образованности не в состо- боду самовыражения. Речь идет о поражении твор- янии понять понять его интеллектуальной игры, ческой независимости перед страхом. а также он часто противопоставляет себя всему В произведениях акцентирован также наци- русскому рэпу – примитивному и вторичному по ональный аспект. Для Мирона Федорова харак- своему художественному наполнению. Отсюда де- терно частое и шуточное обыгрывание темы соб- монстративные и агрессивные нападки на него. ственной национальности “вечный жид”, “жидок”, Но эти нападки носят скорее эпатажный харак- “100% славянин”. При этом, сам Мирон в интер- тер, в рамках условий игры рэп-баттлов, где при- вью говорит, что “упоминание собственного ев- нято оскорблять и нападать на соперника. рейства – это скорее хип-хоп фишка по аналогии Отметим далее важность и проявленность с тем, как американские негры свое происхож- в текстах Мирона Федорова социального аспек- дение подают, отсюда и название альбома и все та изображения мира. прочее… Некоторые ошибочно думают, что это Заметим, что современную поэзию часто об- болезненная гордость за свой народ, но те, кто виняют в отсутствии внимания к социальной про- меня знает, что я угораю” [4]. блематики, зацикленности на своих внутренних Всепроникающая ирония в сочетании с тра- проблемах, чрезмерной увлеченности экзистен- гическим мировосприятием автора является циальностью. Если говорить о рэпе, как таковом, основой поэзии Оксимирона, органично соче- то и для американкой праверсии, и для его русской тающейся с социальной, философской и экзистен- версии, социальная проблематика является ключе- циальной проблематикой его текстов. вой. У Оксимирона она тоже получает оригиналь- Нам кажется, речь идет о наличии у Мирона ное звучание. Особенно актуально в этом отноше- Федорова суперидеи, превышающей его чисто нии его второй альбом “Горогород”, для которого эстетические искания. В этом видится желание социальная проблематика станет центральной. автора переосмыслить литературные тради- Важной особенностью поэзии Мирона Федо- ции, продемонстрировать свою нацеленность, рова становится также расширение метадискур- с одной стороны, на обновление эстетической са, переосмысление роли поэта в современном платформы, но в тесной связи с культурными обществе. и литературными традициями. Используя новый
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художественный диалект, Оксимирон продолжает единства со специфическим мировосприятием, традиционные темы русской литературы. Кроме отличным от предыдущих генераций, в частно- того, он стремится к интегрированию русского сти” “поколения 90-х”. хип-хопа в западную культуру, о чем он неодно- На формирование поколения и его автореф- кратно заявлял в своих интервью, настаивая, что лексию повлияли: социокультурный контекст “мы из разных стран, принадлежим к разным 2000-х в целом, а в ряде случаев и опыт эмигра- культурам, говорим на разных языках, болеем мы ции, заостривший вопрос культурной идентич- одним и тем же” [4]. Продемонстрировать, что ности, возможности диалога культур, специфи- поколение интернета живет в новых культурных ки глобализованного мира. В рамках поколения условиях – в мире глобализации, когда язык, ве- выделяются свои лидеры, носители суперидей роисповедание, сексуальная ориентация – зона генерации, возлагающее на себя задачу художе- личной свободы каждого, а культура – границ не ственной рефлексии сообщества, дающие свои имеет. “Молодежь везде одинакова. Эти люди си- варианты самоопределения генерации модели- дят в интернете, слушают музыку со всего мира, рующие новую картину мира. Таким лидером интересуются модой. Они фокусируются на сход- является Мирон Федоров. ствах. С каждым годом молодых все сложнее за- Важной составляющей творчество поколения ставлять ненавидеть. Я смотрю на это с оптимиз- становится рэп-поэзия. Она отражает доминант- мом: эти дети гораздо свободнее, чем даже мое ные векторы художественного поиска: авторелек- поколение, не говоря уже о предыдущих. Так что сию поколенческого взгляда на мир, экзистенци- пока не отрубили интернет и не закрыли границы, альную глубину с оформлением образов “я”и “мы” все будет нормально.” [5]. Наличие таких супери- генерации постановку и заострение социальной дей, а также стремление к соединению и объеди- проблематики, рефлексию национального в гло- нению различных слоев культуры ХХ и XXI века, бализованном мире. наконец, наличие яркого таланта позволяет рас- Молодое поколение ориентируется на куль- сматривать Оксимирона как лидера поколения. турный диалог, на реактуализацию литературных Таким образом, можно прийти к следующим традиций в процессе обновления эстетической выводам. Творчество молодых писателей свиде- платформы, на соединение достижений русской тельствует формировании культурной общности и западных литератур, создает образ свободной “поколения интернета” и его осознании себя как рефлектирующей творческой личности. Список литературы: 1. Мережинская А. Ю. Художественная парадигма переходной культурной эпохи. Русская проза 80– 90-х годов ХХ века // А. Ю. Мережинская. – Киев: “Киевский университет”, 2007. – 147 с. 2. Интервью Оксимирона для канала Vlad.tv // Oxxxymiron on Russian Hip Hop, Battle Rap, Dizaster, Putin (Full Interview) [Электронный ресурс]: Vlad.tv URL: https://www.vladtv.com/article/241384/ oxxxymiron-on-russian-hip-hop-battle-rap-dizaster-putin-full-interview?page=2 3. Оксимирон. Неваляшка. [Электронный ресурс]: genius.com// URL: https://genius.com/ Oxxxymiron-tumbler-toy-lyrics 4. Оксимирон беседует с самим собой в прошлом. [Электронный ресурс]: АфишаDaily // URL: https://daily.afisha.ru/music/13-bez-prava-na-zabvenie/ (от 23.12.2015) 5. Оксимирон: «Молодых все сложнее заставлять ненавидеть”. [Электронный ресурс]: BBC русская служба // URL: http://www.bbc.com/russian/features‑43023140 (от 12.02.2018)
161 Section 10. Philology and linguistics
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-162-166 Arveladze Natia, Doctoral Student of Classical Philology Akaki Tsereteli State University Kutaisi, Georgia E-mail: [email protected] MALE AUTHORS AND FEMALE CHARACTERS IN EPITHETS (HOMER, APOLLONIUS, VIRGIL) Abstract. As we know from the twentieth century all the women use the right to vote, as well as the right to get education or have access to healthcare etc. The establishment of women’s rights and their access to human rights has led to the current situation, that in Georgian as well as in the world politics, the issue of women emancipation and gender equality is highly discussed and special orga- nizations are working on this issue. Contemporary trends about gender-related issues raise interest of the same issue in ancient times and the answers are most actively found in fiction. In this work I analyze the artistic faces of the fe- male characters according to the epithets used by the three male authors – Homer, Apollonius, Virgil. Keywords: male authors; female characters; epithets. Before starting analyzing the artistic faces of the activities: Increasing children, producing clothes, female characters according to the overview of the protecting the house. In this time, female gender works by the three male authors from ancient epic does not take part in legal issues, just like they have poetry it is necessary briefly to discuss the role of no political rights. It is not necessary for them to women in the real life of the authors’ modern society get education. Women’s conditions are relatively which will enable us to understand the female char- improved during the period of Roman domination, acters in the works according to the lineage. We do which is introduced by Virgil. In this time women are not study the phases of development of ancient civi- more emancipated. In the 1st century BC, women lization in general, only briefly overview the epochs, in Rome are quite important figures (Chihkhladze in which the ancient epic writers created their works [4, 20–25]). (for more information you can see Arthur [2]). It is interesting how the women’s fictional faces We may note that in Greece where Homer lived are presented by the epithets in the works by the au- in the age of geometric renaissance there was a pro- thors living in these ages in the ancient world, where cess of polarization of women and men. This process the role of women is quite decline and the female on the one hand caused the limitation of women’s representatives do not enjoy many rights, where the actions and left them without political rights but importance of the female sex is limited to several on the other hand this process prompted those im- units of duties and they do not have any role in the pulses which played an important role in beginning development of political and legal actions. How is the process of women’s emancipation (Chikhladze the woman looked by the male representatives of [4, 16–19]). epic literature in antic time. As well as this is the age In the Hellenistic age in which Apollonios Rho- when the main figures in daily life are the men, the dius created his work, despite the high level of inde- fact that the authors of the texts are of the male gen- pendence, women’s role was limited in three main der make the issue more important as much as in
162 MALE AUTHORS AND FEMALE CHARACTERS IN EPITHETS (HOMER, APOLLONIUS, VIRGIL) real life their attitude to women is not still enjoyable In the given utterance, besides her beauty (white- in general. armed), Helen is noble too. Noble (ευγενής) and In the article, I am making an overview of the loyal (πιστός) are the characteristics which are so artistic faces of women in ancient epic poetry ac- valuable in Homer’s age (Rozier [9, 8–18]). I think cording to the analysis of the epithets used by the that the main dignity of the leading female character three leading epic writers of the ancient time (Bryant of “Odyssey” – Penelope in the poem is nobility and [3, 86]; Jitpranee [7]). The article includes illustra- loyalty. It is interesting that a male author underlines tions from the four epic works by Homer, Apollo- the loyalty of the woman and reveals it in the speech nius and Virgil. It is interesting for us how the male of the men characters of the poem. authors of the ancient era represent the female char- Menelaus, who knows the best betrayal of wom- acters by the help of epithets (Shade [10, 38–55]). en, highlights Penelope’s loyalty. He says: “Old man For the researched authors the epithet is one of Laertes, I would think, is in mourning for him, and the stylistic devices that is the best way of expressing so is sensible Penelope” (Hom. Od. IV. 149–50). Eu- the artistic faces, that gives us the opportunity to dis- maeus makes Telemachus calm with the words: “Yes cuss the authors’ attitudes according to the epithets indeed, she still lives in your palace, with a faithful (Melion, Ramakers [8, 20–28]). heart, but always grieving, wasting days and nights The most frequent epithets used for women’s away with weeping” (Hom. Od. XVI. 41–43). sex in Homer’s works are beautiful / with beautiful Although Homer describes the loyalty, nobility eyes (περικαλλὴς; όμοιη αθανατησι φυην και ειδος / and physical beauty of the women, the male author γλαυκωπις) (Hom. Il. I. 572; Hom. Il. III. 159; Hom. Il. is not limited to the listed qualities in his creations. VI. 250; Hom. Il. VI. 323; Hom. Od. XXII. 227; Hom. The author shows a number of women’s other char- Od. XXIV. 516…). the frequency of epithets describ- acteristics that allow us to think that in Homer’s age ing physical beauty in “Iliad” and “Odyssey” demon- the women are not included in the weak, distressed strate that the author considers the physical beauty of category. The clear example is the epithet used for the women to be one of their most important dignity. describing Penelope’s heart – faithful heart (Hom. The beauty of women is emphasized both from the Od. XVI. 42). It’s noticeable fact that the epithet is position of men and from the position of women. The used by Eumeous who is also the male character. author often repeats in the poems that an exact female This clarifies the strength of Penelope. Male author character is beautiful (Ink; Montgomery 1944: 8). – Homer presents a female character – Penelope as Paris says to Hector: “Thus may the Greeks review a spiritually strong woman, so that even a man is sur- their native shore, much famed for generous steeds prised by his spiritual strength. and beauty more” (Hom. Il. III. 107–108). The said At the same time, in Homer’s epic work physical example says that the meaning of beauty (which is size is not just men’s identification mark and in some mostly related to women), is important characteristic cases it is very common for women as well as for not only for female characters, but even the exact geo- men. In his poem “Odyssey” Homer describes An- graphical area is valuable for beautiful women. tiphates’ wife as “a gigantic woman, like a mountain The goddess Athena underlines her beauty from peak” (Hom. Od. X. 147–48). By this epithet, the Hellen’s characteristics and says to Odysseus: “Od- author emphasizes the physical size of the woman, ysseus, you no longer have that firm spirit and force which is frightening and terrifying for men too. you once possessed when for nine years you fought When we start discussing the role of women in against the Trojans over white-armed Helen, who the poem by Apollonius, we have to note that de- was nobly born” (Hom. Od. XXII. 286–289). spite the fact that in “Argonautica” the whole action
163 Section 10. Philology and linguistics is developed according to the interests of the male the epithet dart-throwing (άκοντοβόλοι) Apollonius characters, the main driving force for any action is presents the fierce women who, like men, physically the impulse of female character – Medea. struggle to defend their own interests. Women’s beauty still has a role in the poem. In the poem by Virgil there are two leading female Apollonius uses the epithet beautiful (ευπλολαμος) characters, both of whom are characterized by physical for describing physical beauty (Ap. Rhod. Arg. I. beauty. Dido is described by the epithet queen (which 973; Ap. Rhod. Arg. III. 446; Ap. Rhod. Arg. III. is translation for the word “pulcherrima” that means 868; Ap. Rhod. Arg. III. 933…). In parallel to epi- “beautiful”) (Virg. Aen. I.496) and radiant (Virg. Aen. thets used for describing physical beauty, Apollonius V. 571). The epithet burning cheeks (flagrantis perfusa widely uses the epithet maid/maiden (παρθενικας) genas) is used to describe Lavinia’s physical beauty for describing the women’s dignity (Ap. Rhod. III. (Virg. Aen. XII. 65–66). Among the epithets used to 1077; Ap. Rhod. Arg. IV. 1077…). The epithet is describe female sex in “The Aeneid”, physical beauty mostly used for the poem’s leading female charac- descriptive epithets have a significant role. ter – Medea. This is how the Queen Arete describes Another epithet that defines the dignity of fe- Medea in her dialogue with Alcinous: “But this male characters in “The Aeneid” is virgin – which is maiden of dread suffering hath broken my heart by used for describing Lavinia, Camilla and some other her prayers” (Ap. Rod. Arg. IV. 1077–1078). characters. The author writes: “Virgin Lavinia stood Thus describes Apollonius the episode when there next to her father” (Virg. Aen. VII. 73). This Aeetes learns about actions done by Medea: “By this gives us the right to think that for the male writer of time Medea’s love and deeds had become known to the ancient time the epithet is associated with the haughty Aeets and to all the colchians” (Ap. Rod. Arg. Amazonic motives. The said epithet is also applied IV. 212–13). We can see that the woman’s intelligence to Camilla: “Whom did you strike, first and last, with is not strange for the poem’s male author, despite of your spear, fierce girl?” (Virg. Aen. XI. 664). In the the attitude of his modern society towards women’s above example, except for the Camilla’s virginity, an- role. Epithet wise (περίπυστος) is another epithet of other factor is highlighted too: that she is a strong women’s artistic expression (Ap. Rhod. Arg. IV. 64; individual. “When he saw he could not escape a fight Ap. Rhod. Arg. IV. 213…). In his monologue, the by a turn of speed or divert the queen from her at- moon refers to Medea: “Go on, and steel thy heart tack” (Virg. Aen. XI. 702–703). wise though thou be, to take up thy burden of pain, As we can see, female gender is not a weak fraught with many sighs” (Ap. Rod. Arg. IV. 64–65). category for Virgil. He often presents the sex of In the poem by Apollonius Rhodius, we also women next to the men according to their physi- find a category of women who are directly fighters. cal possibilities. In “The Aeneid” we read: “Raging Thus describes Apollonius the life of Themiscyre- Penthesilea leads the file of Amazons, with crescent ians: “And with the wind they left the rounded beach, shields, and shines out among her thousands, her where the Themiscyreian Amazons were arming for golden girdle fastened beneath her exposed breasts, war” (Ap. Rod. II. 994–96). On the other hand, a Virgin warrior daring to fight with men” (Virg. in “The Argonautica”, we also see the Chadesian Aen. I. 490–92). This expression directly serves women who are represented as fighter characters: an intention of presenting the possibilities of the “In one part dwelt the Themiscyreians, over whom female and male characters equal. Penthesilea is a at that time Hippolyte reigned, in another the Ly- virgin, that emphasizes her femininity and at the castians, and in another the dart-throwing Chade- same time with the epithet warrior daring to fight sians” (Ap. Rod. II. 998–1001). With the help of with men (audetque viris concurrere virgo) she is
164 MALE AUTHORS AND FEMALE CHARACTERS IN EPITHETS (HOMER, APOLLONIUS, VIRGIL) presented as the female character with the ability Depending on the above, we can conclude that the to fight against the men. epithet in the works by Homer, Apollonius and Virgil All of these indicate that the gender of women in is the leading stylistic device, which is the best way of the epic poems by Homer, Apollonius and Virgil is expressing the characters. Its also the best way for cre- not the subdued and depended category. Although ation the artistic faces and the individualization of any the role of women was differently realized in the real character; which gives us an opportunity to analyze the life of the author’s modern Greek and Roman soci- artistic faces of women presented in the poems and to ety, male authors often represent the sex of women evaluate the reality which the authors provide about as a source of action. the issue of the society’s dependence on women. Although in Homer’s works the women are repre- Based on the analysis of the epithets used in sented as the objects of love and aesthetics, but at the their works, we can say that the three authors of same time, epithets make Helen’s artistic face as a fate- the ancient epic poetry give female gender more ful woman. For example in the “Iliad”, the old Trojans meaning than they had in reality. In the works by mention Helen’s beauty as “celestial charm” which “For Homer, Apollonius and Virgil, the woman is pre- nine long years have set the world in arms” (Hom. Il. sented as an individual with a physical and spiritual III. 205–206). Helen mentions herself as “The guilty strength. The male authors emphasize the wisdom dame” (κακομηχάνου όκρυοέσσης) (Hom. Il. VI. 432). and loyalty of the women through the epithets that This clearly indicates that Helen is the main moti- are the main indicators that define human dignity vator for the development of a number of tragic sto- in epic works. ries in her own mind as well as in the old men’s opin- With the help of the epithets the male authors ion. It should be noted here that Homer has made have shown the portrait of a woman who is repre- those words out of the old men and not a young, sented as an emancipated, independent, strong and emotional person. competitive individual, who is also beautiful, loyal In the poem “The Aeneid” by Virgil the reason of and reliable partner. Men epic writers do not fear fighting is also the female character that is expressed women’s representation as the individuals who are in the narrative of the author. Lavinia is mentioned equal to men according to their physical abilities with the epithet a source of so much trouble (causa and in the time when the men are actually the main mali tanti) (Virg. Aen. XI. 480), it makes clear that characters in reality and only the men are the leading in this case Lavinia is the female character who is the heroes they represent women as the main sources main determination of the development of action. of action. References: 1. Apollonius Rhodius. “The Argonautica”. Translated by Seaton R. C. William Heinemann. – London: 1912. 2. Arthur M. “Early Greece: The Origins of the Western Attitude toward Woman”. In: Arethusa, Woman in Antiquity, – Vol. 6. 1. The John Hopkins University Press. 1973. 3. Bryant J. “Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece (A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicurean and Stoics)”. State University of New York Press. – Albany: 1996. 4. Chikhladze N. “Motive of the Amazons in Ancient Literature”. Logos. – Tbilisi: 2003. 5. Homer. “Illiad”. Translated by Alexander Pope. Gutenberg Ebook. 2006. 6. Homer. “Odyssey”. Translated by Ian Johnston. Richer Resources Publications. – Virginia: 2006. 7. Jitpranee J. “A Study of Adjective Types and Functions in Popular Science Articles”. In: International Journal of Linguistics. – Vol. 9. – 2. 2017.
165 Section 10. Philology and linguistics
8. Melion W., Ramakers B. “Personification: Embodying Meaning and Emotion”. In: Interdisciplinary Stud- ies in Modern Culture, ed. Melion W., Ramakers B. – Vol. 41. – Leiden-Boston: – Brill. 2016. 9. Rozier C. “Tradition and Character: Helen’s Divine Epithets in the Iliad”. In: Syllecta Classica. – Vol. 28. University of Lowa. 2017. 10. Schade G. “Lectures on Greek Poetry”. Poznan: Wydawnictwo Naukowe. 2016. 11. Virgil. “The Aeneid”. Translated by Kline A. S. Roman Roads Media. – M.: 2015.
166 THE MORAL WRONG OF DRUG LEGALIZATION
Section 11. Philosophy
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-167-172 Zhengbo Li, Sophomore of Highschool, Wellesley High School, named after Hongchun Li E-mail: John. z. [email protected]
THE MORAL WRONG OF DRUG LEGALIZATION “The said truth is that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong.” Jeremy Bentham Abstract. If more drugs are legalized, the number of available drugs for the average population will increase, which would result in more addicts. This increasing number of addicts would lead to significant unwanted effects, to both individuals and the whole society. Addiction does serious harm to human health and decreases the physical strength of human beings. Thus, an addict would most likely not be suitable to work, but at the same time, would still need to make money, perhaps even more money than before. If their income could not cover the cost of drugs, the likelihood of turn- ing to robbery in order to fulfill their needs might increase, and a greater police force would then be needed to prevent crime. The decreasing number of police available for other purposes would make society less stable. People’s first concern would be to survive but not to study or better themselves; if the addicts were parents, their children would also be affected. Additionally, if more people take jobs on the police force due to the increasing need for law enforcement, people working in other fields would decrease, and less innovation would take place. For these reasons, legalizing drugs is not the greatest good for the highest number of people, and should not be allowed by governments. In conclusion, from a utilitarian perspective, the legalization of drugs is morally incorrect. Keywords: morality, utilitarianism, drug legalization, marijuana, Opium, accidents, illegal trades, Opium Wars, personal health, crimes, child development, addiction, addicts. Introduction legalization. For instance, the state of Massachusetts Addiction takes over a person, and nothing is has just legalized marijuana, which is a drug from the more addictive than certain kinds of drugs. Addicts cannabis plant. It is used for medical and recreation- not only damage their own lives, but also become a al purposes, and it can be smoked, vaporized, built factor affecting their society. Governments of indi- into foods, or extracted. Some argue that marijuana vidual states in the United States are legalizing cer- is not addictive but research suggests otherwise. Re- tain drugs and arguing for the overall good of such sults from the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use
167 Section 11. Philosophy and Health show that “approximately 4.1 million were legalized like alcohol, drug sales would likely American adults over the age of 12 battled a mari- significantly increase and would influence a larger juana use disorder in 2017” [13]. From a Utilitarian population. In addition, according to the NCBI, not perspective, the possibility of potential negative con- all alcohol trades were legal, “pseudo-underage buy- sequences of the legalization of currently prohibited ers were able to purchase beer in 50% of 82 attempts drugs is not the greatest good for most people, and (SD=0.50).” This high rate of illegal trades implies thus it is a moral wrong. In this paper, I will argue that when more drugs are legalized, the underaged that a product that does so little good for society and could have easier access to them, just like they have leads to primarily negative consequences is therefore a 50% rate of getting alcohol, which is also a legal- morally wrong. Even though drugs have incredibly ized drug [15]. Even when it is legalized and under adverse effects, some argue that drug trade would the supervision of the government, illegal trade still support the economy, and would be subjected to happens. This indicates that the government would more regulation were they legalized. The positive not sufficiently be able to monitor and regulate drug aspects of legalization would be true benefits if drugs trade after it is legalized. If not all drug sales are ac- did not have any other effects on society, but the counted for and monitored, the risk of spreading negative impact on individuals and society outweigh drugs widely is still extremely high. If tens of millions any perceived benefits and makes the legalization of of people are using drugs illegally now, the number drugs a moral wrong. of people abusing drugs will grow exponentially with Containment After the Legalization easier access. Thus, an increasing amount of people If all drugs were legalized, they would be avail- would be affected by drugs and the problems that ac- able at convenience stores and pharmacies. The ease company them, which would not produce the most of access would allow people with passing curiosity good for most people. A Utilitarian framework for to try drugs without any of the former obstacles to ethics tries to reason what is likely the greatest good stop them. For instance, the underaged group, which for the most people. The likelihood that addiction would not have had access to drugs previously, would will increase with easier access to drugs shows, there- be more likely to purchase them. The current restric- fore, that legalizing drugs is not morally right. tion system is not efficient enough to prevent drug Effects on Individuals sales and related addictions. With current restrictive Illegal drugs are more powerfully addictive than policies, alcohol and drug addiction is still a major alcohol. The National Institute on Drug Abuse “esti- issue in the U. S. According to the Department of mates that nearly one-fourth (23 percent) of people Health and Human Services, “In 2015, 66.7 million who try heroin will become addicted” [14]. An addict’s people in the United States reported binge drinking personal health is also significantly affected by drugs: in the past month” [13]. Furthermore, even with • Drug abuse and addiction can affect almost heavier restrictions, there are “27.1 million people every system in your body. You probably were current users of illicit drugs or misused pre- know that drugs affect feelings and moods, scription drugs” [13]. The large number of people judgment, decision making, learning, and involved in using drugs indicate that the policies memory. But they can also cause or worsen designed to control illegal drugs have failed. But other health problems – cancer; heart dis- abuse of legal substances is even more prolific. Ac- ease; lung disease; liver function; mental dis- cording to the data provided, the population which orders; and infectious diseases such as HIV/ drinks alcohol is more than 100% larger than the AIDS, hepatitis, and tuberculosis. Some of population which used illicit drugs. Thus, if drugs these effects occur when drugs are used at
168 THE MORAL WRONG OF DRUG LEGALIZATION
high doses or after prolonged use, and some Societal Influence may occur after just one use [5]. Addicts are not capable of living a safe and produc- People with mental illness and poor health find it tive life. For instance, they cannot drive safely, yet many physically hard to work, and studies have shown that continue to drive. “According to the 2017 National over 42 percent of employees who have substance Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), in 2017, abuse or addiction in their family feel their pro- 21.4 million people aged 16 or older drove under the ductivity suffers as a result [1]. Thus, an increasing influence of alcohol in the past year and 12.8 million population affected by drugs would lead to a higher drove under the influence of illicit drugs” [9]. It is rea- percentage of employees experiencing decreased sonable to assume that legalized drugs would increase productivity during work. Moreover, these em- the rate of impaired driving and subsequent accidents. ployed addicts would make more mistakes and cost People working in many fields would also be affected the company more. They would then face increased by the lack of productivity that comes with addiction. possibility of losing their jobs, which would result in They would not be able to do what they used to do, failures to support themselves and their families. Un- and they would need to rest more than before. This employment due to poor work performance cannot would lead to early retirement as other workers, in bet- be considered the highest good for the greatest num- ter physical condition, would replace them. ber of people and, as drug abuse increases the risk These hypothetical widespread consequences of of unemployment, it is thus not suitable for society. addiction have historical precedent. Right before the During work time, addicts find it difficult to fo- Opium War, due to the importation of opium, “China cus when attention is necessary. Data has shown found itself with many millions of addicts – men and that 15.1% of engineering and related technicians women, court officials, students preparing for exams, and 8.1% of all computer and mathematical scien- soldiers going into combat, and common laborers tists are dependent on or abusing drugs [4]. This seeking to overcome the pain and drudgery of their high rate of drug abuse has high costs in terms of work” [11, 937]. However, when people affected by productivity. Addiction Center estimates “$25.5 drugs lose their jobs, they still need drugs to fulfill billion dollars of this money [$81 billion dollars their need to get high. The damage that drugs cause spent per year on drug abuse in the workplace] is society is potentially significant, and if more drugs spent due to lost productivity and absenteeism at are introduced to the market, the potential possibil- work due to drug abuse each year. Another $25 bil- ity of more harm would be higher, thus increasing lion is lost due to healthcare costs per year. Also, an potential damage. These risks make the legalization estimated 80% of drug users supported their drug of drugs contrary to any plan for the greatest good use by stealing from their work” [12]. Direct costs for the greatest number of people. come to companies in other ways as well. Accord- Subsequent Effects ing to studies, workers with alcohol problems were Drugs like cocaine and heroin are extremely addic- 2.7 times more likely than workers without drink- tive and expensive. In Cleveland, 1/10 gram of heroin ing problems to have injury-related absences [1]. is worth $10–20, 1 gram is worth $90–120 [2]. People According to research, “approximately 16 percent without jobs are usually not able to afford drugs, es- of emergency room patients injured at work have pecially when large quantities are needed because of alcohol in their system” [1]. The significant cost addiction. People who struggle with addiction will do for both individual workers and their companies anything they can to prevent their suffering, but with- cannot be justified as the greatest good for most out money they often are unable to provide for them- people. selves. They might commit robberies, even with great
169 Section 11. Philosophy risk to themselves, as robbery would lead to more relief not be maximized. Eventually, this might lead to a than pain as compared with other options (for exam- safe society, but fewer innovations might take place ple, visiting a drug rehabilitation center to go through than should in normal society. a long, painful withdrawal). If they succeed, they gain People in such a society would prioritize their sur- money to get high, and do not have to worry about vival and they wouldn’t study as much as they would working for a while, so robbery might seem like the in a safer place. Especially for children, the environ- best option to them. If more drugs were legalized, the ment which they live in could greatly affect their devel- possibility of more addicts would increase the chance opment of habits. According to the NIH, “the home of robberies and other crimes, and would thus cause environment, especially during childhood, is a very problems for social stability. Furthermore, in the U.S., important factor. Parents or older family members with legalized guns, the chance of violence would be who use drugs or misuse alcohol, or who break the even higher. When addicts have firearms, they could law, can increase children’s risk of future drug prob- cause more potential damage. The study “Loaded: lems” [3]. If the children also do drugs, their future Gun Involvement among Opioid Users” suggests that would be extremely limited and all their talents would “opioid users had significantly higher rates of gun in- be wasted, study have shown that addicts will “will volvement than persons in alcohol detoxification; for compulsively seek and use drugs even though doing example, 31.3% (vs. 3.9%) had carried a gun for pro- so brings devastating consequences to his or her life, tection, 45.1% (vs. 25.5%) had been threatened with and for those who care about him” [6]. In pregnant a gun, and 13.8% (vs. 2.0%) had shot at another per- mothers, drug abuse is “interfering with normal fetal son” [10]. With the higher possibility of gun violence development, damaging the baby’s organs, damaging and casualties during robberies, the potential threat of the placenta and putting the baby’s life at risk, and in- such events is sizeable. It is reasonable to assume that creasing the risk of miscarriage” [7]. The mother ac- in a society with legalized drugs, a larger police force cepted the risk which might sacrifice the health and would be required to protect innocent people from life an unborn baby; under all scenarios, drugs have increasing theft and violence. The increasing chance threatened and limited the future of the youth. A deci- of people being injured and the necessity of a larger sion that puts the children of a society at such risk is police force is not the greatest good for most people. not the greatest good for the greatest number and is The purpose of a police force is not only to pro- therefore not a moral good. tect people from robbery and the police must serve Failure of Prior International trade many other purposes. However, because a greater As new products are introduced to the market, le- number of police force would be needed to handle gal drugs might boost the local and national economy robbery, police available for other purposes would and trade, but such economic benefits would be short decrease. The entire police force would need to in- lived. Developing an international trade would not be crease to protect citizens, but since the total number any different, as it would not be beneficial for partici- of people in the U.S. would not increase, it could lead pants and the situation would be more complicated to one of the two undesirable results. First, as few if the drug trader opened new markets by export- people want to work in law enforcement, the police ing drugs to foreign lands. Even for countries where would not be able to recruit enough new officers. drugs are still illegal products, drug trades could still Second, if people did become police officers just to develop. For instance, in China in the 1800 s, “opium fight the increase in crime, people who might have importation was illegal, it had to be smuggled into been great scientists might end up in the police de- China, thus flouting Chinese law” [11, 936]. In 1838, partment and their contribution to society would the British exported 40,000 chests, each of which
17 0 THE MORAL WRONG OF DRUG LEGALIZATION held about 130 to 160 pounds of opium [8, p. 74–75]. treaty, which the emperor Daoguang rejected saying, Though risky, the huge profit was worth it. Thus, le- “nothing will induce me to derive revenue from the galizing drugs in one market could lead to negative vice and misery of my people” [8, p. 75–76]. Despite consequences in other markets. all this, the amount of opium transported into China People argue that government regulations could was not affected, and there were an increasing num- prevent overdoses, and taxation of legal drugs could ber of addicts, causing more problems. The Qing be used to provide treatment centers for addicts; Dynasty then lost the second Opium War, which al- whereas now criminals control the market and no lowed more foreigners to trade and travel, and lost taxes are collected on this commerce. However, it is control of its own territory [11, p. 937–938]. The challenging for the government to fully control and failure to stop the trade indicated that the Chinese monitor all legal drug trading. If drugs are legalized, government lacked agency over its market and soci- criminals who now sell drugs could then do business ety. Even the Qing government tried to resist, but the with a lower risk. History suggests that it is close to resistance only led to war, and more damage to the impossible to regulate the drug trade. In China, the country. In conclusion, the legalization lead to these Opium trade caused great damage; it led to the col- consequences which could not be morally justified as lapse of the tea transportation industry, which led to greatest good for most people, so legalization is not the displacement of many laborers who later became the greatest good for most people, and is thus wrong. addicts [8 p. 74–75]. The addicts existed because Conclusion of the Opium importation, and lead to the destruc- Everything has another side to it; even legaliz- tion of many industries. Because of the cause was the ing drugs has some short-termed positive effects. only the Opium Trade, thus further drug legalization However, it is long-term effects that destabilize so- and international drug trade would cause a similar ciety, and the effects on the next generation are too consequence. Thus, in conclusion drug legalization significant to ignore. People’s life and property are was not moral. Furthermore, in 1838, the Chinese threatened and their own future is destroyed by drug government attempted to change the situation. One addiction. Legalized drugs would be harmful to soci- of its officials, Liz Zexu, “imposed increasingly -se ety, and the government should proceed cautiously vere penalties on users and traffickers and destroyed with any legalization effort because of all the effects 20,183 chests of confiscated opium” leading to the that legalization could have on society. It is reason- first Opium War [8, 74]. The British won a complete able to posit that society would be safer and better victory over the Qing dynasty, and in order to sat- without drugs; it is therefore morally right to limit isfy the British, the Qing dynasty signed the Nanjing them as much as possible. References: 1. “Addiction in the Workplace – Occupational Hazards of Drug Use,” AddictionCenter, 2018. [Online]. Available: URL: https://www.addictioncenter.com/addiction/workplace/ Accessed: 25-Dec‑2019. 2. Brown D. “Study: The Cost, Quality and Availability of Drugs Around Cleveland,” Cleveland Scene, 11-Feb‑2015. [Online]. Available: URL: https://www.clevescene.com/scene-and-heard/ar- chives/2015/02/11/study-the-cost-quality-and-availability-of-drugs-around-cleveland/ Accessed: 25-Dec‑2019. 3. “Drug Misuse and Addiction,” Drugabuse.gov, 2018. [Online]. Available: URL: https://www.druga- buse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-misuse-addiction/ Accessed: 25-Dec‑2019.
171 Section 11. Philosophy
4. “Drug Use in the Workplace,” Treatment 4 addiction.com, 2010. [Online]. Available: URL: https://www. treatment4addiction.com/find-out/drug-use-by-occupation/ Accessed: 11-Oct‑2019. 5. “Get the Facts: Drug Abuse Puts Your Whole Body at Risk | Scholastic: Nida,” Scholastic.com, 16- Oct‑2007. [Online]. Available: URL: http://headsup.scholastic.com/students/get-the-facts-drug-abuse- puts-your-whole-body-at-risk/ Accessed: 08-Dec‑2019. 6. “How Drugs Alter Brain Development and Affect Teens | Get Smart About Drugs,” Getsmartaboutdrugs. gov, 2017. [Online]. Available: URL: https://www.getsmartaboutdrugs.gov/consequences/how-drugs- alter-brain-development-and-affect-teens/ Accessed: 09-Dec‑2019. 7. “Pregnancy-medication, drugs and alcohol,” Vic.gov.au, 2012. [Online]. Available: URL: https://www. betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/pregnancy-medication-drugs-and-alcohol/ Accessed: 09- Dec‑2019. 8. Primary Source, Inc, China in the world: a history since 1644. Boston: Cheng & Tsui Company, 2009. – P. 70–80. 9. “Results From the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables,” Sep. 2018. 10. Stein M. D., Kenney S. R., Anderson B. J., and Bailey G. L., “Loaded: Gun involvement among opioid users,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, – Vol. 187. – Jun. 2018. – P. 205–211. 11. Strayer R. W. Ways of the world: a brief global history with sources, 2nd ed. – Boston Mass.: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. – P. 930–940. 12. “Substance Abuse and Addiction in the Workplace – Addiction Center,” AddictionCenter, 2017. [On- line]. Available: URL: http://www.addictioncenter.com/addiction/workplace/ Accessed: 08-Dec‑2019. 13. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US and Office of the Surgeon Gener- al (US, “Introduction and Overview of the Report,” Nih.gov, – Nov, 2016. [Online]. Available: URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK424860/ Accessed: 08-Dec‑2019. 14. The Recovery Village. “Can You Become Addicted to Heroin the First Time?,” The Recovery Village, 13-Dec‑2014. [Online]. Available: URL: https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/heroin-addiction/faq/ addicted-first-time/#gref/ Accessed: 11-Oct‑2019. 15. Toomey T. L., Erickson D. J., Patrek W., Fletcher L. A. and Wagenaar A. C. “Illegal Alcohol Sales and Use of Alcohol Control Policies at Community Festivals,” Public Health Reports, – Vol. 120. – No. 2. – Mar. 2005. – P. 165–173.
172 THE ART MARKET IN CHINA: TRENDS AND ASSOCIATION WITH THE GENERAL PUBLIC’S ECONOMIC CONDITION
Section 11. Economics and management
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-173-182 Yinqi Shi, E-mail: [email protected] THE ART MARKET IN CHINA: TRENDS AND ASSOCIATION WITH THE GENERAL PUBLIC’S ECONOMIC CONDITION Abstract. Background: In recent years, the economy of China has been growing rapidly. As the economy grows, the art industry of the country with spiritual developments should be paid attention to. Therefore, this report evaluates the trend of the art market in China in recent years, and whether improvements in people’s economic conditions correlate to the art market. Methods: Data relating to economic status and the art industry from the National Bureau of Statistics of China are utilized. Graphs for the art factors throughout the years are drawn in excel for a clear view of the trend. Also, correlation diagrams and linear regression models are assessed for evaluating the relationship between art indicators and economic factors. Results: Most of the graphs showing the trends of the art indicators possess a positive trend from the year 2008 to 2017. Also, correlation diagrams and linear regression models show the positive relationship between art indicators and economic indicators. Conclusion: The study shows that the Chinese art market has been increasing over the past 10 years, and the economic development benefits the development of the art industry. Keywords: Art market, China, Income level, Positive relationship. 1. Background nizations. Several high-quality museums are based China’s museums and art has boom in recent on the funds of private corporations, including the years with an increased number of buildings for mu- Rockbund Art Museum and Yuz Museum in Shang- seums. For a brief concept of this tendency, in 2000, hai, Ullens Center for Contemporary Art located in the number of museums was 1,373, while the num- Beijing, and the lavish Sifang Art Museum in Nan- ber was almost tripled to 3,800 in the year of 2014 jing. These museums are results of the rising interest [1]. This trend of increasing numbers of museums of private corporations and individuals in investing might have resulted as a new objective determined in the developing art market and the willingness to by the Chinese government, with the constant ex- share one’s collection with the public [1]. pansion of the National Art Museum of China, one There should be both political and economic of the significant buildings related to the arts. The reasons for the rapid increase of museums and the development of art museums in China incorporates development of the culture of the arts. As China de- the economic power of the Chinese government as velops as a rising star worldwide, its soft-power could well as support from private companies and orga- be gained from art-related activities, as the Chinese
17 3 Section 11. Economics and management government pursues to build a positive image of Chi- mand for cultural activities in domestic regions, the na in the world despite the negative controversies that same for recent China and the West in the 18th cen- it has in other societies [2]. Therefore, the develop- tury, that the number of newly affluent individuals ment of museums and cultural activities might have boosted. Since art-related activities are related to resulted from the aspiration that China is determined people’s economic conditions at a large scale, the to have citizens with artistic appreciation that is at the increase of a prosperous population indicates that same level with Western countries. It could also be there will be a rising demand in such activities [2]. the result of China’s determination to raise the aver- This explains how the economic growth of a coun- age level of artistic appreciation of the citizen. try is positively related to the development of the At the same time, the growth of the middle aesthetic value of the society. classes in a society triggers an increase in the de-
Figure 1. Global Art Market Share by Value in 2017 Study objective: • Number of Domestic Performance by Art This study aims to evaluate the trend of the art Performance Troupes (1000 shows); market over the past years in China. Meanwhile, we • Number of Rural Performances of Art Per- explored if there is an association between the art formance Troupes (1000 shows); market and people’s economic condition. • Number of Domestic Audience in Art Per- 2. Methods: formance Troupes; 2.1 data source • Number of Spectators of Rural Audience of I used data from the National Bureau of Statistics Art Performance Troupes; of China. (http://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easy- • Number of Art Performance Places(unit); query.htm?cn=E0103) – Museum: This website includes indicators of the country’s • Number of Museums(unit); art market and economic conditions over the past ten • Number of Employed Persons in years. Specifically, the following indices are included: Museums(person); – Art performances: • Number of Collections in Museums(piece/ • Number of Art Performance Troupes (unit); set);
174 THE ART MARKET IN CHINA: TRENDS AND ASSOCIATION WITH THE GENERAL PUBLIC’S ECONOMIC CONDITION
• Number of Spectators in Museums (10000 to people’s living conditions. Five models were tested person-times); for the following five indicators: – People’s economic condition: – Art performances: • Per Capita Disposable Income Nationwide • Number of Art Performance Troupes; (yuan); • Number of Domestic Performance by Art • Per Capita Expenditure Nationwide(yuan); Performance Troupes; All data is by region/province. • Number of Domestic Audience in Art Per- 2.2 Data analysis formance Troupes. Part 1: Descriptive analysis, using Microsoft Ex- – Museum: cel to generate graphs for visually observing trends • Number of Museums; and making comparisons. • Number of Spectators in Museums. Part 2: Linear correlation In the models, we also adjusted for the potential We examined how the art market and economy confounding effect of year and population size. indicators are correlated with each other. 3. Results Part 3. Linear regression analysis Art performances: Then, using linear regression analysis, we mod- eled if the art market indicators are linearly related
Figure 2.
Figure 3. Number of Art perfomance troupes by region, sorted from highest in year 2017
17 5 Section 11. Economics and management
Figure 4. Number of perfomance (*1000 times)
Figure 5. Number of domestic audiences (*1000 persons)
Figure 6.
176 THE ART MARKET IN CHINA: TRENDS AND ASSOCIATION WITH THE GENERAL PUBLIC’S ECONOMIC CONDITION
Figure 7. Number of perfomance places by region, sorted from highest to lowest in year 2017 Indicators of Museum
Figure 8. Museum indices
Figure 9. Number of Museums by region,sorted from highest to lowest in year 2017
17 7 Section 11. Economics and management
Figure 10.
Figure 11. Number of Spectators in museums (10000 person-times) by region, sorted from highest to lowest in year 2017
Figure 12. Correlation between art variables
17 8 THE ART MARKET IN CHINA: TRENDS AND ASSOCIATION WITH THE GENERAL PUBLIC’S ECONOMIC CONDITION
Figure 13. Correlation between museum variables
Figure 14. Correlation between living condition variables
Table 1. – Correlation between living condition and art market indicators Domestic Rural per- Domestiс Rural audi- Performance Art troupes performance formance audience ence places disposable 0.14912 0.05321О598 0.00278136 0.05160961 0.006307 0.2992393 іncome expenditure 0.10713 0.009022818 –0.0369812 0.00844724 –0.05147 0.2409856 Table 2. Museums Museum employees Museum collection Museum spectators disposable іncome 0.07635 0.12443575 0.3439143 0.1709386 expenditure 0.02588 0.08341223 0.3253602 0.1355785
17 9 Section 11. Economics and management
Table 3. – Linear regression results: Coefficients: art troupes domestic audience domestic performance Estimate P-value Estimate P-value (Intercept) –0.524 0.99 8270.604 0.533 2.68 0.92 Year: reference: 2013 2014 12.127 0.88 114.25 0.991 36.01 0.14 2015 69.0000 0.4 1255.193 0.91 21.4 0.38 2016 114.394 0.17 8871.763 0.434 14.035 0.56 2017 201.029 0.02 * 8161.014 0.479 2.392 0.92 population size 0.06 < 0.001 *** 6.562 < 0.001 *** 0.015 < 0.001 *** disposable_in- 0.041 0.02 * 6.249 0.015 * 0.012 0.02 * come expenditure –0.057 0.04 * –9.125 0.016 * –0.019 0.02 * Table 4. Coefficients: Number of museums Museum spectators Estimate P-value Estimate P-value (Intercept) 21.182 0.21 –874.124 0.01 * Year: reference: 2013 2014 5.188 0.71 197.991 0.483 2015 10.312 0.47 353.03 0.214 2016 18.56 0.2 512.781 0.075 . 2017 33.81 0.02 * 824.835 0.005 ** population size 0.022 < 0.001 *** 0.554 < 0.001 *** disposable_income 0.008 0.009 ** 0.041 0.524 expenditure –0.012 0.01 * –0.024 0.796 4. Summary and Discussion The findings that the art industry indicators are In summary, China has been erecting museums linearly associated with people’s income are also and art places at a prodigious rate. Regions like Jiang- within expectation. This observation result proves su, Zhejiang, Shandong, and Sichuan have the high- the hypothesis that the art industry is developing est number of art performance places and museums positively as the economic standards of Chinese in the year 2017. This is largely in accordance with citizens and the society progress at a positive rate. the financial support from the region’s local govern- The Art Basel and UBS Global Art Market Report ment. According to data in 2012, the governmental stated that “The performance of today’s growing financial support in art performances was highest in and globalized art market is a fascinating reflection Zhejiang province and Sichuan province, followed of wider economic trends and highly correlated with by Beijing and Shanghai, which are two highly de- GDP and high net worth populations” [4]. veloped cities in the country that own a substantial Meanwhile, the number of employees in mu- portion of art-related activities [3]. This data shows seums also increased with a similar pattern. This is how the art industry has developed with reasonable consistent with the global finding that the devel- financial factors that are evident within China. opment of the art market has a positive economic
180 THE ART MARKET IN CHINA: TRENDS AND ASSOCIATION WITH THE GENERAL PUBLIC’S ECONOMIC CONDITION impact on the country since more employment in From the correlation diagram, a majority of the society means that the income of people would the art market indicators are positively correlated increase by scale and unemployment would be re- with the national expenditure level. However, in duced, which is helpful to the development of an the multivariate linear regression model, they are ongoing economy [4]. negatively associated. What can happen is that the The Chinese government has identified art and marginal effect of expenditure is being taken up by culture as a pillar to reinforce China’s national iden- one or more of the other variables (for example, tity as a world superpower. As stated by one of China’s income), so that the negative effect of expenditure newspapers, People’s Daily, “A nation cannot stand is existent, but we are not seeing it in the correlation among great powers without its people’s spiritual afflu- diagram because that part of negative effect is can- ence and the nation’s full expression of its creativity.” celled by the positive effect that the income shows In art and other forms of cultural expression, people with the art indicators, which is a situation that is can come together to share an experience even if they common in big data analysis [5]. see the world in different ways. The arts and culture 5. Conclusion also represent one of the few areas in a society where As China constantly develops like a rising star in disagreement is accepted and embraced. Art also en- the world, it is important that the country not only courages people to cherish uncertainty, intuition, and develops its hard power, like the economy and po- creativity and to search constantly for new ideas. Even litical effects but also “soft powers”, for example, the more, as China flows in history for thousands of years, art industry. Whether the development happens in from villages in the old ages, to the dynasties, and the rural arts or domestic arts, development is essential modern country of China, different forms of art and in increasing the average art-sensitivity of citizens culture have appeared as representatives of a period of and the total appreciation of the society to arts and time. With the evolution of the art industry with posi- performances. Fortunately, the Chinese government tive economic supports and influences, these arts can and society have been working on this process, as the be promoted at a higher rate and helped with preser- data from 2017 shows how economic factors posi- vation since more attention is put on these art forms. tively correlate to art indicators such as the number With the development of the economy and of museums and the number of art performance people’s living conditions, as well as the role of troupes. Analysis of the data shows how positively art in society, we believe that the future of China’s the economic factors affect the art indicators, sug- art market will be bright. It is also hoped that art gesting that the art industry is developing lively as fundamentally becomes a valued space for ideas, the economy in China blossoms. Therefore, the creativity, and knowledge that will enrich the soci- future of the art market in China is believed to be ety, helping China to be physically and spiritually bright and flourishing, as the development benefits rich with art-sensitive citizens and an art-friendly the country, society, and the citizens. society [1]. References: 1. Hsu C. What does China’s art boom tell us about its society? (Jan 25, 2014). URL: https://www.wefo- rum.org/agenda/2014/01/chinas-art-boom-tell-us-society/ (Accessed date: 09.04.2019). 2. The Economist Intelligence Unit. The economist. Emerging Economies & The Culture Boom. (Dec. 20, 2014). URL: https://perspectives.eiu.com/technology-innovation/emerging-economies-culture-boom (Accessed date: 09.06.2019)
181 Section 11. Economics and management
3. Zang Z. 中国文化产业政府补助研究 (Governmental financial support in art industry in China). (China social sciences press, 2015). – 235 p. (In Chinese). 4. McAndrew C. Art Basel and UBS Global Art Market Report. (2018). URL: https://www.artbasel.com/ news/art-market-report (Accessed date: 09.05.2019). 5. Positive correlation but negative coefficient in regression [duplicate]. Stackexchange. URL: https://stats. stackexchange.com/questions/65446/postive-correlation-but-negative-coefficient-in-regression (Ac- cessed date: 09.10.2019).
182 SUBSTANTIATION OF THE METHOD AND EFFECTIVE USE OF THE METHOD ON LITTLE DAIRY FARMS
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-183-186 Iskenderova Nazila Ramiz, Associate professor, Faculty of Economics and Management Department of Management and Tourism Ganja State University E-mail: [email protected] Baghirova Gulnara Goshgar, Assistant, Faculty of Economics and Management Department of Management and Tourism Ganja State University Valiyeva Azada Murad, Assistant, Faculty of Economics and Management Department of Management and Tourism Ganja State University SUBSTANTIATION OF THE METHOD AND EFFECTIVE USE OF THE METHOD ON LITTLE DAIRY FARMS Abstract. As you know, a number of positive developments in collective farms, created over the years during the republican reforms, have led to the emergence of numerous small farms, where in most cases the complexes built on the intensive technologies. Such farms make up more than 95% of the country and do not have more than 10 head of cattle. In most cases, most of these works were not mechanized. It should be noted that this feature is a common jurisdiction in all agricultural countries, and although large farms with orders and orders are created, they will not exceed 10–15% of the total number of households in the present and the future. Thus, in analyzing the experience of the world, it is clear that the share of smallholder farmers in agricultural production in more than 80% of the world’s countries is more than 85–90%. Thus, these factors should be taken into account when considering the prospects for their devel- opment in the Republic, and should be established, and technical support should be provided to improve productivity in such small farms and the system should establish efficient use of technical means. Local conditions and opportunities for this must be systematically analyzed and substanti- ated, or the product must be derived from a productive animal product. Keywords: farm, farmer, production, milk, consumption, machinery. Introduction: Local agriculture is one of the country, leasing equipment at the national stage of most important and pressing issues that can give a the national economy is one of the main forms of significant boost to the country’s economic develop- state support for the agricultural sector in the Re- ment. Agro-leasing should also serve as an advocacy public of Azerbaijan [1]. and campaign to help farmers establish and use their In such conditions, due to the limited cash logistics system. To do this, their seat sets were wide flows in farms, the problem of effectively provid- and their functions had to be multitasking. In our ing leasing machines and equipment to farmers is
183 Section 11. Economics and management of particular importance. The formation of leasing the logistics base varies from logistical and incomplete relations in the agricultural sector allows update the to logistical base. Therefore, attempts to develop ele- composition of the tractor park. The condition of ments of the logistics base do not completely solve the this park, which needs to be shaped and improved problem of the intermittent use of special assignments through leasing, can effectively affect total produc- in the production process. Therefore, it was intended tion and productivity [2]. to concentrate more logistical support in this area. As Therefore, the development of agriculture had to in agricultural areas, including dairy production, the expand its scope in order to streamline leasing opera- work of machines and units is both mobile and sta- tions and improve its efficiency and systematic work tionary, as in other areas [5]. for all large and small scale farms in the country. The Therefore, the use of technology from both the logistics base of agriculture consists of a combina- road business and other service areas must be adapt- tion of all material elements and productive means ed to the different characteristics of both mobile and in agriculture. There are quantitative and qualitative stationary working conditions. Mechanization of differences between logistics and logistics. Unlike agriculture is the replacement of manual labor with the logistics base, when determining the logistics simple and unproductive machines with more effi- base, all means of production are interconnected cient and modern machines, as well as machines for and combined. If one or two elements of produc- retail. The process of mechanization in its develop- tion facilities are not in conflict, this unity is broken ment takes three stages: partial mechanization, inte- in the process and despite the fact that the logistics grated mechanization and automation. In particular, base is low. Therefore, the value of the logistics base there are still many opportunities for manual labor must be given in terms of its integrity and systemic- to be mechanized as individual production processes ity. Because of the overall technological evolution, are mechanized; used to handle hand-held machines the state of the logistical base is characterized by the in complex mechanization [6]. In automation, all ability to follow technological modes [3]. workflows and physical controls are administered. One of the important issues determining the World practice shows that these three methods are development of the agricultural logistics base is the widely used on dairy farms, especially on small, consideration of the characteristics of the logistics where there are 3–5 animals. In systems automation, base and its components. Productive work of ani- shows yourself better for farms. It is even more im- mals plants perennial plantings and etc. Because of portant to use automation in dairy farming. It plays the development of biological laws, the agricultural the role of human control in automation, in which production apparatus must develop at a level consis- case the hygienic situation in the enclosure is more tent with this development, so problems of legality reliable [7]. need to be addressed, resulting from the develop- Comprehensive mechanization and automation ment of cows in the milk production process [4]. are now being introduced in many areas of agricul- The zonal characteristics of the agricultural and ture, including large dairy complexes. For example, it seasonal production process also manifest themselves can be noted that the complex mechanization of grain in its use. Thus, the characteristics of animal species in production can be carried out in poultry farms using the zones create the need for appropriate machines automated machine systems and so on. The degree and mechanisms to service them. As a result, a system of mechanization in dairy farming can be determined of different machines in the zones and production ar- by individual works, in general, by crop production eas has been assembled. Depending on seasonality the and specific areas. The degree of mechanization in in- use of machines, mechanisms and other elements of dividual works is the ratio of mechanical work to the
184 SUBSTANTIATION OF THE METHOD AND EFFECTIVE USE OF THE METHOD ON LITTLE DAIRY FARMS percentage of total work. Vehicles: cars, special equip- is due to animal productivity, as the amount of feed ment, trailers, semi-trailers, etc. tractors, cars and their needed to sustain life is within certain limits. Thus, as trailers. Productive animals and livestock are a specific the amount of animal feed increases, the proportion component of the logistics base. At the end of 2013, of its need for the product increases and, as a result, 1.2% of the country’s main agricultural land is made increases productivity. milk production, based on im- up of industrial and working livestock [8]. They feed proved rock composition and the creation of a solid on the food produced in the milk, meat, wool and eggs and nutritious feed base [9]. and soon agriculture or more precisely its processing, Model of the functional activity of a productive turn it into a food product. The growing need for feed animal. Animal Productivity Model in Livestock
Figure 1. Model of functional activity of animals
In the model, mainly internal and external factors x1 – air, x2 – water, x3 – feed, xi – reproducibility influence the feeding habits of animals. Internal, that Output products obtained as a result of animal is, factors affecting performance, can be viewed as: feed processing can be summarized as follows:
f 1 – the ability of livestock fertility y1 – produced milk, y2 – meat produced, y3 – the
f 1 – the ability of livestock to turn the feed into milk appearance of the manure obtained, yi – received cub
f 1 – the ability of livestock to turn food into meat The model of functional activity of animals can
f 4 – is a cattle breed property be expressed as. External factors include the following. These In (Figure 1), A is the operator system. factors affect crops and produce food as a result of biological processes. References: 1. Measures relating to the activities of Agrolysing, provided for by the “State Program for the Social and Economic Development of the Regions of the Republic of Azerbaijan for 2014–2018.” [Electronic re- source]: State Program on socio-economic development of regions. 2. “The state program for safe food supply in the Republic of Azerbaijan.” [Electronic resource]: Expert: Azerbaijan’s State Food Safety Program to stimulate. URL: http://www.azernews.az 3. The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Azerbaijan addressed the resultsof the country’s socio-eco- nomic development in 2011 and the upcoming tasks in 2012. [Electronic resource]: URL: http://State Program on socio-economic development of regions senaye.gov.az 4. Cabinet resolution of October 21, 2015 and other orders. [Electronic resource]. 5. Resolutions and Orders of the Cabinet of Ministers URL: http://www.minenergy.gov.az
185 Section 11. Economics and management
6. The Law on Leasing of Azerbaijan, adopted on November 29, 1994. [Electronic resource]: URL: http://Small and Medium Entrepreneurship in Azerbaijan; Country … cesd.az › new › uploads › 2011/05. 7. The law on leasing services. [Electronic resource]: URL: http://Law on Financial Leasing URL: http://www.nbs.rs › internet › english 8. Babaev A. Farmer’s Diary. – Baku. Fromhell. 2003. 9. Mammadov V. B., Mammadov. Intensification of livestock production based on mechanized technologies in farms. Printing house of the Ministry of Agriculture. – Baku. 1999. 10. Hasanova N. R. Development of energy-saving cooling technology for dairy farmers / Collection of scientific works of Azerbaijan. – Ganja, 2002, 2nd edition.
186 THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE
https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-2-187-201 Kovalevska Alla, Associate Professor, PHD in Economics, Associate Professor of the Department of Management and Administration Education and research institute Karazin Business School V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University E-mail: [email protected] Zelensky Sergiy, doctoral student of the Economic Department O. M. Beketov Kharkiv National University of Urban Economy E-mail: [email protected]
THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE
Abstract. The implementation of effective strategic management of sustainable urban develop- ment requires a substantiated methodological approach to the assessment of the current state, the achieved level of development, which will allow to identify current and strategic problems in the development of individual districts and to identify specific areas aimed at taking into account the interests and needs of different stakeholders, will allow to substantiate strategic priorities of city development. The paper presents an analysis of existing methodological approaches and principles of forming a system of indicators used in them; awareness of the advantages and disadvantages of existing methods; a methodological approach to the assessment of the achieved level of development of the city and its districts is proposed, which takes into account the possibility of making strategic decisions on the basis of stakeholder-oriented approach. The paper substantiates the feasibility of using cenological modeling as a tool that will determine the level of sustainable urban development. Keywords: city, sustainable development, strategic management, cenological modeling, meth- odological approach, stakeholder. Formulation of the problem. Nowadays the un- ways of reasonably control system based on measur- disputed fact is the increasing role of cities in ensur- ing the achieved status. Management should ensure ing the processes of balanced socio-economic de- appropriate ordering system, its integrity, proper velopment of regions and the country, which makes functioning and development. Any management relevant issues of improving the management of ur- activity consists of successive stages. Therefore, ban development. The rate of social and economic evaluation and analysis are a basis for the decision- country development depends directly on the inten- making process at all levels, the basis of the entire sity of municipalities and economic entities develop- management process. ment located in their territory [1]. We conclude that urban development man- Management always assumes the goal of tar- agement requires evaluation and analysis of the geting and implementation, and hence formulated achieved level of development, identification of the
187 Section 11. Economics and management most important issues and awareness of the bene- definition of index, indicators, approaches to assess- fits, justification of priority areas for further action. ing the level of development achieved. The most relevant and viable management con- The authors of the scientific report “Inclusive cepts should be assigned: concept of sustainable Measurement of the Development of Cities – Busi- development and concept of strategic management. ness Activity Centers of Ukraine: Trends and Pros- Our point of view regarding the urgency of improving pects” emphasize: “Large and medium cities, as cen- urban development management processes based on ters of local, regional and inter-regional levels, act as these concepts is presented in [2; 3]. We assume that “poles of growth” because of the higher concentra- “the developing of sustainable development strate- tion of economic, innovative, scientific, infrastruc- gies, locally and regionally and nationally, is fraught tural, cultural and information development poten- with many difficulties that are inherent in the ambigu- tial. Today, particularly large cities are generating not ity of the concept of sustainable development itself, only social development trends, but also new ideas its goals and quantitative characteristics. Achieving where new sustainable development concepts are sustainable development goals can be interpreted found (“smart cities”, “creative cities”, “green cities”, as achieving a set of environmental, social and eco- “learning cities”, etc.) in them newest elements of nomic indicators in spatial and temporal terms. But local governance (e-governance, participatory gov- this interpretation makes sense only if management ernance, etc.) are tested. Therefore, the competitive- agents have information on all the data characteris- ness of regions and the country as a whole depends tics and indicators of trends in the future” [4]. We on the vector and the level of development of cit- conclude that the improvement of strategic manage- ies, in particular, perspective and creative types of ment of sustainable development of Ukrainian cities economic activity, based on self-identification and requires substantiation of methodological approach key competitive advantages of their development” to the assessment of the existing state, the achieved [14, P. 4]. And we completely agree with that. level of development, which determines the relevance The appropriate opinion is presented in the paper of this work. We mean by successive assessment iden- [15]: “There is no doubt that cities and towns are, tified a set of actions that lead to the formulation of on the one hand, the largest territorial units whose concrete reasoning about the state socio-economic population is directly affected by the numerous dis- and environmental system of the city. turbances of architectural, social, economic, politi- Analysis of recent research and publications. We cal, resource and environmental balance that bring conclude that a large number of works of domestic harm to the modern world. At the same time, the city and foreign specialists are devoted to the problems level is the smallest scale in which these problems of evaluation and analysis of the achieved level of can find a constructive, integrated, holistic solution”. development of socio-economic systems. More re- In [16] it is defined: “For qualitative and effec- search is concerned with determining the regional tive city management as a complex of organizational level of socio-economic developmentand among and economic structure it is necessary to have a set them are such well-known experts as B. Danilyshyn of summary indicators that would reflect the state [5], Z. Varnalii [6], A. Galchinsky [7], V. Heitz of its development in three main directions (dimen- [7; 8], Z. Gerasymchuk, I. Vakhovich [9], A. Epi- sions): economic, social, environmental. These in- fanov, I. Salo [10], A. Kinakh [11], V. Pavlova [12], dicators and their correlation make it possible to D. Stechenko [13] and others. At the same time, make managerial decisions on priority measures of there are more and more scientific papers on the is- an organizational or financial nature in adjusting the sues of sustainable urban development, including the development of a certain region”.
188 THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE
The author of paper [1] emphasizes that “im- – firstly, the development of generalized sustain- provement of the analytical basis of the mechanism able development indices that allow to draw conclu- of management of social and economic develop- sions about the degree of stability as a whole. The ment of municipalities, which in the conditions of most common indexes are: Human development dynamic changes is the driving force of transforma- index, Ecological footprint, Environmental Sustain- tion processes and ensuring their effective flow. This ability Index. The biggest problem with such assess- component of the mechanism cannot be formulated ments is that they are difficult to apply at regional qualitatively without timely and comprehensive as- and local level, primarily because of the lack of avail- sessment of the state and level of development of able systematic analytical information; such general- social and economic processes”. ized indexes are not understood by non-specialists In [17], a system of indicators for assessing the and need further clarification; they do not identify level of regional economic development was investi- priorities for future impacts and actions; gated and the following major problems were identi- – secondly, the development of a “baseline indi- fied, namely: in the practice of regional governance, cator” system based on a pragmatic approach when there is no single set of indicators that comprehen- selecting a list of indicators and their relevance to sively characterize the state of the regional econo- policy objectives. This approach allows us to focus my and on the basis of which an integral indicator on solving major societal problems and to identify could be calculated; the absence of a scorecard that undesirable trends in a timely manner. Among the not only selects individual economic indicators, but most well-known systems are those developed by also determines the relationship between them; lack the UK Government, the European Environment of a unified approach to the use of units in which the Agency, the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The main main economic indicators of the region should be advantages of this approach should be include sim- presented. It is worth noting that during the evalua- plicity, visualization of the progress of sustainable tion of the level of the city development, these prob- development in accordance with the stated goals. As lems are even more relevant. for the disadvantages, they are the following: a close Analysis of sources of information allows us to relationship with the political views that dominate, determine that the issues of developing a system therefore, the possibility of losing key future drivers of indicators, that determine the achieved level of of influence; sustainable development of systems of different – thirdly, the development goals oriented indica- levels are relevant at the end of the twentieth cen- tors. The most influential study in recent years in this tury. (in the work [15] the 70’s are specified, in the field is MDGI – the Millennium Development Goal work [18] – 90’s of the XX century.). The main driv- Indicators. This approach identifies a set of develop- ing force behind this process is the United Nations ment goals that address the most pressing problems Conference on Environment and Development. The of developing countries. The scorecard should reflect event emphasized the “need to develop sustainable the existing relationship between goals, reflect how development indicators to provide a sound basis for quantifying performance metrics will help achieve decision-making at all levels and to promote the sus- and deliver long-term sustainability forecasts. tainability of integrated environmental and evolving So there is quite a large number of approaches systems” [18]. to the development of indicators of sustainable de- At present, globally, there are several method- velopment, with no presence of common principles ological approaches to develop a system of sustain- include indicators such systems. Assessment of the able development indicators [15, p. 102–103]: achieved level of sustainable development requires
189 Section 11. Economics and management consideration of local specificity, adaptation of inter- and allow to justify the strategic priorities of the city national indicators to the level of the system being development. The tasks that are solved in this work evaluated. This is all leading to the development of are: review of existing methodological approaches an increasing number of national, regional, and local and principles of forming a system of indicators (in- systems of sustainable development indicators. dicators) used in them; awareness of the advantages It should be noted that Ukraine has developed and disadvantages of existing methods; developing a methodology for assessing the level of sustainable a methodological approach that takes into account development, which was prepared by the Depart- the ability to make strategic decisions based on a ment for Macroeconomic and Regional Analysis stakeholder-oriented approach. of the Main Directorate for Economic Policy of the The main material research. Presidential Administration of Ukraine. In addition, As defined in [18]: “According to the world com- a team of scientists from the Institute for Applied munity, the sustainable city development provides its Systems Analysis of the NAS of Ukraine and the population with a high quality of life while preserving Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine de- the natural environment and the balance of economic veloped a metric to measure the processes of regional and social life”. A. Skrigan notes that, “By the UN defi- sustainability (MPRS) and developed a system of nition a sustainable city is the city in which achieve- factors, indices and indicators of sustainable devel- ments in social, economic and physical development opment. Increasingly, there is a growing body of re- are permanent. The sustainable city is constantly pro- search with the justification of a system of indicators vided with natural resources, on which the process of and a method of assessing the level of sustainability sustainable development depends. The sustainable of national, regional and local systems. city supports long-term safety of residents, includ- The presence of a large number of scientific -pa ing natural disasters” [15]. In turn, the authors of the pers, analytical reports, the relevance of the issue of paper [19, p. 65–66] emphasize: “Since sustainable implementation of sustainable development prin- urban development is a balance of socio-economic ciples in socio-economic systems of different levels and environmental development based on the ratio- (and especially the smallest level – the city) proves nal use of urban resource potential, which leads to an the importance of assessing the achieved level of improvement in the quality of life and safety of city sustainability and determining priority directions dwellers, so for the effective management of the city of urban development strategies based on the re- as a complex organizational and economic structure sults of the analysis. At the same time, an important you need to have the appropriate analytical data. A and urgent issue is the developed and practically set of aggregate indicators reflecting the status of city implemented mechanism for assessing the level of development in major areas (economic, social, en- sustainable development of Ukrainian cities, which vironmental), their correlation and changes make it determines the purpose of this work. possible to make informed management decisions on The purpose of this work is to develop a the priority measures of organizational, economic, methodological approach to the assessment of the social or financial nature in order to adjust the devel- achieved level of sustainable development of Ukrai- opment of a certain territorial unit)”. nian cities in order to timely identify problems in the O. Bobrovskaya notes that the most commonly development of individual districts, which are inte- used methods of evaluation are following [1]: gral elements of the local development system, and a) parametric: according to the system of local to identify specific areas that take into account the indicators – status parameters, normative, planned, interests and needs of different stakeholder, parties forecasted, etc;
190 THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE
b) integral: taking into account the compatibil- the city and the individual features of its develop- ity and complementarity of individual indicators in ment. The social level implies an assessment of the obtaining the overall final result; available human development potential at the com- c) by coefficients, by indicators of specific gravity munity level” [20, P. 162]. This methodological ap- and significance, taking into account the importance proach is just a reflection of the fourth direction of of individual indicators in the overall result; development of indicators system. d) rating (by the method of determining the In [19, P. 66] a evaluating indicators system for amount of places or made a “contribution” to devel- the achieved level of sustainable city development opment). was created. They were grouped into four groups Regardless of the selected groups of possible (by city life spheres): methods for assessing the effectiveness of corpo- 1) group of social indicators: rate governance, the following components should –– against poverty; be taken into account in the hierarchy of evaluation –– demographic dynamics and sustainability; processes: –– improving education, awareness and upbring- –– cluster and marketing analysis of the strengths ing of society; and weaknesses of individual components of –– protecting and improving health and more. the city’s economic system; 2) group of economic indicators: –– canonical analysis – its content is revealed – international cooperation for sustainable in logical, structural, graphical, mathemati- development acceleration and related local policies; cal models of analysis, the choice and use of –– changes of consumption characteristics; which allows to create an idea of the content of –– financial resources and mechanisms; social and economic development processes. –– introduction of resource- and environmental- A. Skrigan emphasizes that the existing multiple ly-friendly technologies; sustainability indicators can be roughly divided into –– production capacity building, etc. several groups: (1) anthropogenic load level indi- 3) group of environmental indicators: cators, including diverse interpretations of these –– maintaining the quality of water resources and indicators that limit predominantly anthropogenic providing them; impact; (2) indicators of quality of life or quality of –– integrated approach to planning and rational ecosystems; (3) problem-oriented indicators; (4) use of land resources; the index of human development [15, P. 102]. –– environmentally friendly usage of biotechnol- For example, V. Boychenko [20, P. 161] proposes ogy; to evaluate the level of human development in Ukrai- –– protection of the atmosphere; nian cities – an indicator that is adapted to the level –– environmentally friendly management of of communities on the basis of studies of existing solid, hazardous and radioactive waste, waste methods of assessment of human development at the water and toxic chemicals, etc. state and regional level with the studied methods of 4) a group of institutional indicators: assessing the effectiveness of urban activities. The –– programming and planning policy; difference between this methodological approach is –– scientific developments; that the integral index is calculated on the basis of lo- –– legal instruments; cal indicators, grouped into two blocks – individual –– information support, etc. and social. “The individual level allows to study the The authors of [16] used the already men- demographic volume of the human component in tioned metric to measure sustainable development
191 Section 11. Economics and management processes (MSDP) as a basis for calculating the scorecard lacks per capita or per capita output, making achieved level of sustainable city development. the “production growth rate” indicator insufficiently O. Bobrovskaya proposes to take into account informative to draw conclusions about development; the various types of city life and include for the the evaluation is conducted on a non-systematic range evaluation following areas: economic growth, social of indicators, which makes it impossible to use them development, innovation and investment, environ- in planning the further cities development; the evalu- mental security, socio-spiritual development, the ation system lacks indicators of the efficiency of the level of business activity of local authorities and their use of the most important resources of cities, such reproductive function. The set of quantitative and as scarce resources that cities purchase etc. In [19], qualitative indicators, which should be used in the indicators of sustainable urban development are ex- evaluation system of both individual directions and plored for the benefit of a range of stakeholders, in- the development of the city as a whole, can also be cluding: persons affected by decisions on the city’s divided into separate groups. For example, complex, development strategy (at local and national levels), structural, local, etc., which will comprehensively the public, scientific communities and international identify the level of perfection of internal processes organizations, activities which provides comparative and patterns of development. Studies of its will allow assessments and characteristics of urban development to move to the next stage of management develop- in different countries, etc. A similar approach is pre- ment, when various changes in the economic, social sented in the paper of A. Bobrysheva, who proposes and other subsystems of urban development will to take into account the interests and specifics of the occur not unexpectedly, but rather, more regulated, information needs of four target audience groups dur- managed and strengthened by the relevant functions ing the evaluation and monitoring: the state, investors, of local governments [1]. business community and population [21, P. 11]. We In our opinion, very important in developing a agree with this point of view. We emphasize the need system of indicators take into account the objectives for a stakeholder-oriented approach to the strategic of the assessment and analysis and the consumers management of sustainable urban development. We of the valuation actions, the entities for which the suggest that the involvement of various stakeholders achievement of the level of sustainable development in all stages of strategic management (from planning is being evaluated and what further tasks are ahead to implementation) will enhance the practicality and for which such assessment is being carried out. effectiveness of management processes. Therefore, it The analysis of various methodological approach- is important to take into account the interests and ex- es and techniques revealed both advantages and limi- pectations of different stakeholders in the assessment tations, disadvantages. The analysis of the composi- of the achieved level of sustainability of the city, to in- tion and content of indicators shows that the system clude in the evaluation procedure a certain number of of assessment of specific directions of development stakeholders, to have among the evaluation indicators is incomplete, not all the indicators used are capable that are informative and understandable to them. of reflecting the level of actual development – lifting We stress that the joint efforts of stakeholders in or stabilization, because they are temporary charac- strategic planning is very important for the reasons teristics of certain phenomena. Quite often the set of that none of the stakeholders has sufficient resources indicators is estimated differently – in statics, dynam- to implement strategies to address urgent and strate- ics, structure, which does not allow to estimate the gic issues. But, anyway, the decision-making process actual economic or social “movement” or “speed” of needs support – adequate information about the sta- the development processes that occur in cities; the tus of the city or its neighborhoods. Unfortunately,
192 THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE methodological approaches discussed above do not economic cenosis, and substantiates the feasibility of meet the needs of quality information. Therefore, we using the theory of cenoses in solving development believe that an approach to assessing the status of ur- problems territories and cities. In a study [28], the ban development should be based on the results that author demonstrates the results of the successful use can be obtained when considering cities as natural of cenoses theory in the formation and evaluation of phenomena that obey the natural course of develop- methods for regulating innovation activity in the re- ment. According to the estimations of domestic and gion. Article [29] presents a new methodological ap- foreign economists, in recent years such approach proach to research and management of the regional can be implemented by using the theory of cenoses, market environment on the basis of price laws. which is successfully used in solving a wider range of It is considered expedient to use the approach to scientific issues in the study of economic processes, the assessment of the achieved level of sustainable expanding its scope. development of the city, which is presented in [22] Thus, in [23] the functioning of the state finan- – the methodology of cenological modeling. The cial control system on the basis of systems theory, starting points of this approach are the following: cenological and transdisciplinary approaches, the A) the city is a complex system, which self makes law of structural harmony of systems was investi- the management object and the management sub- gated. The expediency of using the cenological ap- ject; there are definite interconnections and syn- proach in the system of economic security is substan- ergies among all elements of this system that are tiated. The relationship between transfer pricing and designed to address the challenges of achieving sus- the pricing approach in the public financial control tainable development; system is shown. In [24] methodological approaches B) the city is formed by population and territory, to the mathematical analysis of economic conflicts and is provided and maintained at the expense of were developed, which use economic expertise on economic activity of enterprises and organizations, the basis of the concept of cenosis ranking, and as a which actualizes the need to identify those economic result. The performed calculations give grounds for structures that create value and are included in the further analysis of deviations from the theoretical large and long value chain (preferably world); line of a possible scenario for the development of C) the city as a system is capable of reproduc- conflict situations. In [25], the authors emphasize ing, shaping and developing innovations, supporting the need to formulate new approaches to the redis- them, managing them with a life cycle based on the tribution of resources between territories. As such integration and interaction of different stakeholders, new approaches to solving this problem, the authors which substantiates the need for their identification, consider the relevance of the use of the possibility evaluation and development of communication and of censored distributions within the framework of cooperation strategies; the model of economic community of the territo- D) the major constituents of the city are able to ries. The study [26] is devoted to the study of the formulate a coherent development strategy based nature and characteristics of economic cenoses. The on the consideration and balancing of different and order of interaction of elements of economic ceno- lasting interests; on specific local specialization and ses is considered. The author of [27] argues that it benefits; at the division of responsibility zones. is from the standpoint of development theory that Cenological theory reflects the results of the an important component is the provision of “eco- development of a systematic management para- nomic viability”, and for spatial entities, which are digm based on interdisciplinary research, which al- cities, this actually means ensuring the stability of lows introducing mechanisms of self-organization
193 Section 11. Economics and management
[30, P. 28]. This theory is based on the fact that unified by a single management system and a common it is not appropriate to use decomposition when resource base. We conclude that the methodology of studying the system and developing proposals for cenological analysis can be applied to cities, the results its improvement. As defined in [31, p. 22–23]: in of analysis can become the basis for managing sustain- the study of a complex socio-economic organism, able urban development, justify actions aimed at en- “decomposition-based methods – the formulation suring structural stability and balance of development. of the properties of a complex object on the basis of These, and many other local and foreign scien- the properties of its constituent elements – are little tists, in the study of economic processes, increasingly used. It is impossible to draw reliable conclusions come to the conclusion about the effectiveness of the about the state and dynamics of the development of use of cenosis theory. Many researchers argue that it is the research object, even with complete information in cenoses that all entities act on the principles of op- about the properties of the elements of the system”. timization, constantly coordinate their own decisions The achieved level of development of the system de- and form additional conditions under which optimal pends not only on its properties. It is important to management decisions will be implemented. In addi- understand the place / position of a particular so- tion, cenosis theory is now a complete concept that cio-economic system among similar systems, which has appropriate theoretical, methodological, philo- are closely interconnected, in which the interests of sophical foundations and research apparatus. That different entities are competing. It should be em- is, there are grounds to argue that the application of phasized that the above theses correspond to the es- cenosis theory in solving the problem of sustainable sence of the study of sustainable urban development urban development is appropriate. management: 1) the city is a complex self-organizing The following methodological approach is pro- system; 2) even if we have complete and reliable in- posed to evaluate the level of sustainable urban formation about all business entities, social entities, development, which is developed on the basis of management entities and others, we will not be able cenosis theory, and is important in decision-making to determine the properties of the city system; 3) to regarding the formation of sustainable development evaluate the achieved level of sustainable develop- programs, since timely identification of problems is ment of a city, including to determine the position of the key to their successful solution (Figure 1). a particular city among other cities of Ukraine, which Detailed overview of the developed method- are comparable for comparison by certain criteria. ological approach to the level of sustainable urban Based on the provisions of the cenosis theory, we development evaluation, which aims to support de- can say that the city is an object whose individual el- cision-making in the process of formulating urban ements, on the one hand, are independent and not development strategies below. tightly linked (there is competition for resources, So the first step is to conduct statistical data col- consumers, etc.), and on the other they are united by lection in accordance with the task of modeling, and completely different connections (weaker in terms to generate, by the results of their processing, a statis- of impact) – a single system of management, supply, tical sample. Further, the data obtained should be di- operation, overall purpose of operation and develop- vided according to their belonging to the respective ment. Thus, the socio-economic system of the city is group. Thus, in modeling the process of sustainable a large-scale cenosis, consisting of a large number of development of the city, we consider it necessary to technical, social, infrastructural, economic elements, distribute the indicators into such groups that cover which are poorly interconnected within certain bound- all areas of the city’s development, namely economic, aries. These elements compete with each other but are social and environmental.
194 THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE
Figure 1. Methodical approach for evaluating the level of sustainable urban development Based on the results of the grouping, we obtain – vector of indicators values characterizing the vectors formed from the indicators for each of the economic component of sustainable city development: groups selected for the study: cc=…()12,,�cc,,l – vector of indicators characterizing values the where l – the number of indicators characterizing economic component of sustainable city develop- the environmental component of sustainable urban ment: development.
aa=…()12,,�aa,,m In the second stage, all indicators for the groups where m – number of indicators characterizing the identified in the first stage are subject to distribution economic component of sustainable urban devel- by city districts, resulting in matrices for each group opment; of indicators by districts of the city: – vector of indicators values characterize the – matrix of indicators characterizing the eco- social component of sustainable city development: nomic component of sustainable city development: aa bb=…(),,bb� ,, 11 1m 12 k , = == where k – number of indicators characterize the en- aij ,,in��11,,jm, vironmental component of sustainable urban devel- aann1 m opment; where n – the number of districts of the city;
195 Section 11. Economics and management
– matrix of indicators characterizing the social The sixth stage. As follows from the law of opti- component of sustainable city development; mal cenosis construction, the ratio of systemic and
dd11 1k Gaussian clusters of cenosis resources should be con- = == sidered as a criterion for determining abnormal val- diij ,,��11nj,,k , ues of indicators [32; 33], with the Gaussian cluster ddnn1 k being equal to: – matrix of indicators characterizing the ecologi- r2 cal component of sustainable city development: WW= g rdrr −−rW G ∫ () ()()21 2 (3) r1 cc11 1l = ==. where Wrij () – the rank parametric allocation over сij ,,��in11,,jl the j-th index in the i-th zone; cc nn1 l Wrg () –Gaussian allocation which is corre- The third stage of the simulation involves rank- sponding to the zoned of indicators in rank differen- ing the indicators of each group by each of the city tial form; districts. According to the theory, the structure of W2 – the value of the indicator corresponding to economic cenosis should be described by using the the right rank boundary of the zone. rank parameter of the type of distribution, and its The system resource of the i-th district of the city shown by the expression: by the j-th indicator is determined as follows [32; 33]: r W(r) = W1/r (1) 2 WW= rW− g rdr where W(r) – the number of objects; Z ∫()() () (4) W – the object with the highest value parameter. r1 1 The procedure of clustering of rank parametric Further, we proceed to the fourth stage of model- distributions according to the investigated param- ing, which involves determining the approximating eter is significantly complicated because of the non- function and calculating its parameters. The hyper- Gaussian distributions, which inevitably leads to bolic function was used for modeling, but in prac- non-Gaussian clusters. This violates the main mini- tice the approximating function makes the smooth- mum criterion for the cluster analysis (statistically, est the statistical dependence. Economic coenosis within the cluster, the functional parameters of the of territories is mainly appeared by the change in objects must be distributed according to normal the number and correlation of territorial resources law). The solution to this problem is possible due elements in order to approximate their distribution to the increase in the number of clusters, whereby within the model to “ideal”, which allows to obtain the system and Gaussian resources of the clusters are the most adequate estimate of the level of city sus- reduced in accordance with the system and Gauss- tainable development as a whole. Thus, in this study, ian confidence interval of objects and ranks. The the approximation of the ranked indicators for each systematic interval of rank distribution should be zone will be carried out by the exponential method understood as a set of upper and lower confidence according to the formula: limits, each resulting from the statistical processing brij xaij = e (2) of a sample of values corresponding to a certain rank In the fifth stage of the simulation, the empiri- over a certain number of time intervals. The concept cal values of the indicators are calculated from the of interquartile scope is used to calculate the width obtained parameters of the approximation func- of the confidence interval. The interquartile scope tions, which are necessary to determine the system is a sample of values on the j-th indicator in the i-th resource of cenosis. district of the city.
196 THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE
gg ∆WWZ =−07,,50W 25 (5) value can be treated as a measure of the individual- g where W07, 5 – the upper quartile of the distribution ity of the object. The width of the systemic confi- of values of the j-th indicator in the i-th zone (quar- dence interval is determined by the background to tiles of the order 0,75); the cenosis development taken as a whole, and if it g W02, 5 – the lower quartile of the distribution of is small, this indicates that cenosis develops steadily values of the j-th index in the i-th zone (quartiles of and in a balanced manner, all changes in it occur the order 0,25). smoothly. On the contrary, a wide interval indicates The quartiles of the distribution are defined as sudden structural changes. The Method of determin- the value of the j-th parameter in the i-th zone, where ing the system interval allows to contrast its Gauss- the distribution function becomes equal to the value ian confidence interval, which is determined not by (0,75 and 0 m, 25). Assuming that the distribution the rank of distribution, but by the object of cenosis. of the values of the j-th index of the i-th zone for one The Gaussian confidence interval of rank parametric rank over a number of time intervals is normal [34], distribution of cenosis refers to the set of upper and the width of the interquartile range can be deter- lower confidence limits, each of which is obtained mined on the basis of the decision on the variable as a result of the statistical processing of a sample of
∅WZ of the following equation: parameter values (regardless of the ranks it takes in the process of operation) [33; 35]. To determine the ∆WZ /2 −1 pd = Ф (6) σ 2 width of the Gaussian confidence interval, we also use the concept of interquartile scope with respect where ∅WZ /2 – half the width of the system confi- dence interval for mathematical expectation (em- to a sample of values that characterize an object over pirical value); a series of time intervals [33]: −1 gg Ф – the inverse Laplace function; ∆WWG =−07,,50W 25 (8) σ – mean-square deviation; Assuming that the distribution of values character-
pd – probability belief (0,95). ize an object over a number of time intervals is also The normal Laplace function is used to model normal [34], then the width of the interquartile scope the normal distribution function: can be determined on the basis of a decision on a vari- τ 1 2 able of the following equation, similar to [33]: Фe()τ = ∫ −x /2dx , (7) 2π ∆WG /2 −1 pd 0 = (9) where х – formal variable integration. σ 2 The system confidence interval is a measure of The Gaussian confidence interval is a measure the system resource of an entity that currently occu- of the Gaussian resource of an object on a rank pies a certain rank on a rank parametric distribution. parametric distribution and characterizes the vari- It characterizes the variation of cenosis parameters ance of the parameters of an object at which its at which its functioning can be considered normal. functioning can be considered as normal (regard- In fact, this interval reflects the requirements or con- less of cenosis behavior). The width of this interval straints imposed by the system on objects to ensure is determined by the background of the object de- their stable inertial operation. If the empirical value velopment, if the width if smaller, its functioning is of an object parameter (including a metric) goes be- the more steady. If the empirical value of an object yond the system interval, it means that the object parameter falls outside the Gaussian interval, it can does not conform to the system requirements and be said that the object itself has undergone sudden in this sense exhibits individuality. The deviation changes or the system has introduced new require-
197 Section 11. Economics and management ments for which the object is forced to change its Empirically, as noted above, the coherence coef- operation mode. ficient can be defined as the ratio of the system con- Thus, the determination of Gaussian and system fidence interval to the Gaussian. If the coherence confidence intervals allows us to proceed to the sev- coefficient is close to one (that is, the system and enth stage of modeling. For each group of indica- Gaussian intervals are approximately equal), then we tors, for each district of the city, a ratio of system can talk about the coordinated behavior of the object and Gaussian confidence intervals can be obtained, and the cenosis. called the coherence coefficient and showing the The eighth stage. The result of modeling the sus- degree of coherence of the object’s behavior with tainability of urban development in the seventh stage respect to cenosis [33; 35]: is the matrix, the number of which corresponds to ∆W the number of groups of indicators selected for the k = Z GZ (10) study, with each matrix gives full information on each ∆WG of the studied indicators for each zone. Such a result Therefore, theoretically, the coefficient of coher- is fully detailed but not demonstrable for analysis. ence can be defined as the limit of the ratio of the Therefore, in order to obtain a more visual analysis of cluster system resource to its Gaussian resource, the result, it is necessary to reverse the obtained data provided that the cluster width is reduced to zero by calculating the integral indicators for each group (the cluster number is driven by the total number of in each zone. The calculation of the integral indicator cenosis objects). The result of this step is the matrix of the sustainability of regional development should of coherence coefficients for each group of indica- be calculated by the following formula: tors: economic, social and environmental: n I – matrix of coherence coefficients, characteriz- kk= n GZij ∏ GZij (11) ing the state of sustainable development of the city j =1 in terms of economic component: where n – is the number included in the integral coef- kkaa11 1m ficient of indicators of thei -th group. = ,,==11,, kaij ��injm According to the simulation results, a matrix of integral coefficients of sustainable urban develop- kkaann1 m ment will be constructed (Table 1). – matrix of coherence coefficients, characteriz- The ninth stage. Analysis of the simulation re- ing the state of sustainable development of the city sults allows to obtain information on the develop- from the point of view of social component: ment of individual districts of the city by individual kkdd11 1k indicators. The analysis is as follows: if the value of = ,,==11,, kdij ��injk the indicator is less than 0.5, or greater than 1.5, that kkddnn1 k is, its deviation from the unit is more than 0.5, then – matrix of coherence coefficients, characteriz- it can be argued that in this area of the city for the ing the state of sustainable development of the city corresponding component of its sustainable devel- from the standpoint of environmental component: opment (economic, social or environmental) there are certain issues. kkcc11 1l It should be emphasized that the procedure of k = ,,��in==11,,jl c ij analysis of the obtained integral coefficients and the kk ccnn1 l size of their deviation from the unit provides the nec- essary information for further managerial decisions.
198 THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE
Table 1. – Matrix of integral coefficients of sustainability of urban development The area of the city\Group of Economic Social Environmental performance k I k I k I The area # 1 a11 d12 c13 k I k I k I The area # 2 a21 d22 c23 … … … … k I k I k I The area #i ai1 di 2 ci 3 … … … … k I k I k I The area #n an1 dn 2 cn 3 In general, we can say that the simulation results elements. This methodological approach takes into allow to clearly and meaningfully assess the level of account the specifics of the process of managing the urban development, which confirms the hypothesis sustainable development of the city; allows to de- about the possibility of using the method of ceno- termine the level of stability in three directions; the logical modeling in the study of regional and local results of the calculations are the basis for further development processes. management decisions, namely, they justify the pri- Conclusions. Thus, the paper substantiates the ority areas of strategic efforts, allow to identify the feasibility of using cenological modeling as a tool most important “zones” or territories that need pri- that will determine the level of sustainable urban ority allocation of resources; requires the collabo- development. The advantage of the developed meth- ration of different stakeholders to finalize goals and odological approach is that the city is considered as rank them, allocate scarce resources, and coordinate a large-scale cenosis, which consists of a large num- actions both at the strategic planning stage and in ber of technical, social, infrastructural, economic the future. References: 1. Бобровська О. Ю. Удосконалення системи оцінювання соціальноекономічного розвитку міст як чинник підвищення ефективності місцевого самоврядування [Електронний ресурс]. Режим досту- пу: URL: http://www.dridu.dp.ua/zbirnik/2009–01/BobrovskaStat.pdf 2. Ковалевська А. В., Петрова Р. В., Зеленський С. В. Стійкий розвиток міст: сутність поняття та пере- думови впровадження. Соціальна економіка: науковий економічний журнал. Випуск 53. – № 1. 2017. С. 69–75. Режим доступу: URL:file:///D:/Downloads-Web/9775-%20статті‑19392-1-10-20171130.pdf 3. Зеленський С. В. Стратегічне управління стійким розвитком міст / С. В. Зеленський. Соціальна еко- номіка: науковий економічний журнал. Випуск 56. 2018. – С. 119–129. Режим доступу: file:///D:/ Downloads-Web/document%20(1).pdf 4. Скриган А. Ю. Опыт формирования системы индикаторов устойчивого развития города [Електрон- ний ресурс]. Режим доступу: URL: https://pskgu.ru/projects/pgu/storage/prj/prj_09/prj_09_14.pdf 5. Данилишин Б. М., Чернюк Л. Г., Фащевський М. І. Соціально-економічні проблеми розвитку регі- онів: методологія і практика / за редакцією д. е. н., проф., чл.‑ кор. НАН України Б. М. Данилишина. – Черкаси: ЧДТУ, 2006. – 315 с. 6. Державна регіональна політика України: особливості та стратегічні пріоритети: монографія / за ред. З. С. Варналія. – Київ: НІДС, 2007. – 768 с.
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201 Contents
Section 1. Study of art ...... 3 Tatarnikova Anzhelika POETICS OF “GLORIA” IN THE CHRISTIAN MUSICAL-HISTORICAL TRADITION OF THE PAST AND PRESENT ...... 3 Zhang Jiaohua PERFORMANCE AS THE ART OF INTONEMENT ...... 11 Chubotina Iryna TRANSFORMATION OF THE DESIGN OF MEN`S COSTUME1960S – 1970S IN UKRAINE: STYLE, SILHOUTTE, COLOR, TEXTURE ...... 15 Section 2. History and archaeology ...... 19 Dostiyev Tarikh Meyrut MEDIEVAL CITIES OF AZERBAIJAN IN THE SYSTEM OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION ...... 19 YiFei Zhang STIMULATING THE MODERNIZATION OF CHINA’S LEGISLATIONS: AN ESSAY ON A LEGACY OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM ...... 26 Michael Yu THE UNITED STATES IN1942: SCARED, RACIST, AND DIVIDED ...... 36 Minenko Lyudmyla Mykolayivna APPLIED ASPECTS OF THE MUSEUM HEURISTICS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MILITARY-HISTORY OF UKRAINE IN THE PERIOD1995–2013 ...... 46 Jonathan Fu CICERO’S RHETORICAL BALANCE IN THE FIRST CATILINARIAN ORATION ...... 53 Section 3. Cultural studies ...... 62 Kozek Mykola Ivanovich WATER IN THE RITUAL CALENDAR OF THE BUCOVYNA HUTSULS ...... 62 Section 4. Philology and linguistics ...... 68 Altaeva Gulnar, Moldabayeva Ainur, Aynakulova Zhanat TERMINALIZATION OF DIALECT LEXIS ...... 68 Section 5. Management ...... 71 Nguyen Huu Nang MANAGING BETWEEN PRIVATE UNIVERSITY’S JOINT TRAINING PROGRAM AND VIETNAM BUSINESS NOWADAYS ...... 71 Section 6. Pedagogy ...... 75 Akhmedova Laylokhon Tolibzhonovna FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF TEACHING THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN UZBEKISTAN (ON THE EXAMPLE OF CREATIVITY V.I. ANDRIYANOVA AND I.N. STYRKAS) ...... 75
202 Bader Svetlana Alexandrovna MEDIA TEXT AS A MEANS OF FORMING THE VALUE-SENSE ORIENTATIONS OF FUTURE KINDERGARTEN EDUCATORS ...... 79 Vu Van Khoa IMPLEMENTATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION QUALITY ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES – SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE LABOR RESOURCE QUALITY IN VIETNAM TODAY . . . 83 Heorhadze Tetiana FAMILY AS AN INSTITUTE OF UPBRINGING ...... 87 Do Manh Quyen MANAGEMENT OF ACADEMIC RESULT ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS AT VIETNAMESE PEOPLE’S MILITARY INSTITUTIONS UNDER CAPACITY APPROACH ...... 91 La Thanh Trung ENHANCING THE COMPETENCE OF THE DEANS OF EDUCATIONAL FACULTIES OR INSTITUTIONS ACCORDING TO COMPETENCE-BASED APPROACH ...... 96 Normuratova Valentina Ivanovna LEGAL GENRE IN ENGLISH METHODOLOGY FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES ...... 104 Parkhomenko Iryna Volodymyrivna CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONS OF EXTRACURRICULAR EDUCATION OF THE TOURIST AND LOCAL LORE DIRECTION OF THE NORTH-EASTERN UKRAINE (SECOND HALF OF THE XX – BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURIES) ...... 108 Pochinkova Maria PHILOSOPHICAL METHODOLOGICAL LEVEL IN FORMING CRITICAL THINKING IN THE PROCESS OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF FUTURE TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ...... 112 Sulaymonov A. P. ARTISTIC AND AESTHETIC EDUCATION OF STUDENTS BY MEANS OF ART BOOKS ...... 117 Section 7. Political science ...... 122 Phung Thanh RESEARCHING AND APPLYING HO CHI MINH LEADERSHIP STYLE ON INNOVATING THE LEADERSHIP STYLE OF THE CURRENT VIETNAMESE CADRES ...... 122 Hoang Ngoc Son SOLUTION TO PROMOTE THE ROLE OF LOCAL MILITARY PARTICIPATING IN THE MOBILIZATION OF PROTESTANT COMPATRIOTS IN THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS AT PRESENT ...... 127 Bader Anton Vasilievich ESSENCE AND DEFINITION OF TERRORISM AS A KIND OF ARMED VIOLENCE ...... 132 Komarova Tatyana Gennadievna FEATURES OF IMPLEMENTING OF POWER IN THE INFORMATION EPOCH: INEQUALITY, FREEDOM, JUSTICE ...... 136
203 Section 8. Psychology ...... 141 Tao Wu SAFETY INFLUENCED BY INTERRUPTING NOISES IN REALITY ...... 141 Section 9. Sociology ...... 152 Ngo Thi Phuong Thao TRADITIONAL VALUES OF MARRIAGE OF THE CAO BANG RED DAO AND THE ISSUES RAISED TODAY ...... 152 Section 10. Philology and linguistics ...... 157 Vasilevich Elena RAP-POETRY OF THE2000S: VECTORS OF ARTISTIC SEARCHES (ON THE EXAMPLE OF CREATIVITY OF THE ICONIC FIGURE OF THE PHENOMENON OF MIRON FEDOROV) ...... 157 Arveladze Natia MALE AUTHORS AND FEMALE CHARACTERS IN EPITHETS (HOMER, APOLLONIUS, VIRGIL) ...... 162 Section 11. Philosophy ...... 167 Zhengbo Li THE MORAL WRONG OF DRUG LEGALIZATION ...... 167 Section 11. Economics and management ...... 173 Yinqi Shi THE ART MARKET IN CHINA: TRENDS AND ASSOCIATION WITH THE GENERAL PUBLIC’S ECONOMIC CONDITION ...... 173 Iskenderova Nazila Ramiz, Baghirova Gulnara Goshgar, Valiyeva Azada Murad SUBSTANTIATION OF THE METHOD AND EFFECTIVE USE OF THE METHOD ON LITTLE DAIRY FARMS ...... 183 Kovalevska Alla, Zelensky Sergiy THE METHODICAL APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF UKRAINE ...... 187
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