A Chronology of Key Events in U.s. Environmentalism since 1945
1945 August 6 and 9: The United States drops atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending World War II. 1948- 1949 William Vogt publishes Road to Survival and Fairfield Osborn publishes Our Plundered Planet. Aldo Leopold's A Sand County Almanac is published in 1949, a year after his death. All three books bridge the concerns between conservation and a new con• ception of global responsibility. 1951 The Nature Conservancy is founded. By 2000, it has 900,000 members and has protected ten million acres. 1953 Tests show radioactive iodine from testing nuclear weapons present in children in Utah. 1955 Congress passes the Air Pollution Control Act (a precursor to all subsequent clean-air legislation); smog closes schools in Los Angeles; people die from smog-related illness in New York and London throughout the decade. 1956 Congress rejects a proposal to dam part of Dinosaur National Monument at Echo Park. A dam at Glen Canyon remains part of the project. 1962 Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring. 1963 Congress passes the first Clean Air Act "to improve, strengthen, and accelerate programs for the prevention and abatement of air pollution."
Portions of the chronology have been taken from William Kovarik, Environmental History Timeline
156 CHRONOLOGY 157
1964 The Wilderness Act creates a National Wilderness Preservation System with 9.1 million acres. 1965 Congress passes the Water Quality Act, the Noise Control Act, the Solid Waste Disposal Act, and the Beautification Act. 1966 Paul Ehrlich publishes The Population Bomb. The Sierra Club publishes advertisements in the New York Times and Washington Post against a proposed dam that would flood the Grand Canyon. 1968 Garrett Hardin publishes "The Tragedy of the Commons" in Science. 1969 The Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, catches fire from oil and chemical pollution, focusing national attention on urban water pollution. The Santa Barbara oil spill releases more than 200,000 gallons of crude oil across thirty miles of coastline; Congress passes the National Environmental Policy Act. 1970 April 22: The first Earth Day. Congress passes a series of amendments to the Clean Air Act, entirely rewriting the law. The new act sets national air quality standards, regulates emissions from motor vehicles, and allows citizens the right to sue corporations and the government for vio• lations of emissions standards. Natural Resources Defense Council is founded to litigate for envi• ronmental causes. Marjory Stoneman Douglas founds Friends of the Everglades. Environmental Protection Agency established by law. Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) signed into law. 1972 Congress passes the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Coastal Zone Management Act, the Ocean Dumping Act, and the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Donella H. Meadows and Dennis Meadows publish Limits to Growth. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment con• venes in Stockholm, Sweden; United Nations General Assembly establishes the UN Environmental Programme to act on the rec• ommendations of the Stockholm meeting. Congress bans DDT. 1973 Congress passes the Endangered Species Act. 158 CHRONOLOGY
1974 Lester Brown and others found Worldwatch Institute. 1975 Edward Abbey publishes The Monkey Wrench Gang. 1976 A report of the National Academy of Science warns that CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons, commonly found in refrigerators and aerosol sprays) damage the ozone layer. 1978 Lois Gibbs and her neighbors form the Love Canal Homeowners Association. 1979 The Three Mile Island nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, partially melts down, confirming environmentalists' fears about nuclear energy. Earth First! is founded by Dave Foreman, Howie Wolke, and Mike Roselle. James Lovelock publishes Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, theorizing that the earth is a self-regulating organism. Global 2000, a report prepared by the Council on Environmental Quality and the Department of State on "probable changes in the world's population, natural resources and environment through the end of the century," is delivered to President Jimmy Carter. 1980 President Carter announces the relocation of 700 families in the Love Canal area of Niagara Falls, New York. Superfund Law (CERClA The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act) directs the EPA to clean up abandoned toxic waste dumps. 1984 A U.S.-owned Union Carbide Co. fertilizer plant leaks methyl ico• cyanide in Bhopal, India, killing 2,000 people. Another 8,000 die of chronic effects, and 100,000 are injured. 1985 British scientist Joe Farman publishes his discovery of an ozone hole over Antarctica, confirmed by a NASA satellite. UN Environmental Programme begins negotiations under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone, leading to the 1987 Montreal Protocol. 1986 The Chernobyl nuclear reactor explodes in Ukraine; over 2,000 square miles are evacuated. 1987 Twenty-four countries, including the United States, sign the Mon• treal Protocol, an international agreement to phase out ozone• depleting chemicals. 1988 NASA scientist James Hanson warns Congress about global warming. CHRONOLOGY 159
The World Meteorological Organization and UN Environmental Programme establish the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). West Harlem Environmental Action is founded by Peggy Shep• ard, Vernice Miller, and Chuck Sutton. 1989 The oil tanker Exxon Valdez runs aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska, spilling 11 million gallons of oil. 1991 First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Sum• mit, Washington, D.C. 1992 The first Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 1997 The Kyoto Protocol is adopted by 122 nations, but not ratified by the U.S. Senate; American industry predicts "disaster" if carbon dioxide reductions are enforced; environmentalists argue the treaty is too weak. 1998 The warmest year since record keeping began in 1860. 1999 The earth's population exceeds six billion. 2001 President George W. Bush's energy plan emphasizes oil explo• ration and new construction of coal and nuclear power plants, as well as conservation. 2003 Twelve eastern states win federal court injunctions preventing the Bush administration from weakening federal clean air laws. 2004 Kenyan environmentalist and human rights campaigner Wangari Maathai wins the Nobel Peace Prize, the first African woman to be awarded this prize, for her work in the Green Belt Movement that began in the 1970s. Maathai has planted tens of millions of trees across Africa to slow deforestation. Questions for Consideration
1. Identify two turning points in the history of American environmental• ism since 1945, and identify one document for each turning point. Explain the importance of the documents you have chosen. 2. Why is wilderness so central to the beginnings of environmentalism? What did it come to symbolize after the atomic bombs that ended World War II? 3. Environmentalists have advocated various kinds of transformation: intellectual and moral (Documents 11, 15, and 27), political (Docu• ment 20), and technological (Documents 13 and 21). Others have advocated political resistance and sabotage (Documents 19 and 22). Based on the documents presented here, what has been the ideology of environmentalism? 4. What is the environmental critique of economic growth and techno• logical progress? Why have these concerns been so central to envi• ronmentalism? Identify three documents that critique economic growth and technological progress. 5. What is ecology and why has it been an important idea in the forma• tion of environmentalism? In particular, what arguments are at the heart of AIdo Leopold's "Thinking like a Mountain" (Document 11) and the selection from Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (Document 12)? How do these authors make use of science? 6. How have women contributed to American environmentalism? Con• sider the work of Marjory Stoneman Douglas (Document 2), Donella Meadows (Document 9), Rachel Carson (Document 12), Lady Bird Johnson (Document 24), Lois Gibbs (Document 28), and Vernice Miller (Document 30). What is distinctive about the way women have contributed to environmentalism? 7. Where have environmentalists placed responsibility for progress toward a clean and stable environment: on industry, government, or individual consumers? Which documents speak to the role of technol• ogy in environmental improvement? Will technology solve the prob• lems these authors see in the ways that Americans consume?
160 QUESTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION 161
8. What is the "tragedy of the commons" (Document 7), and what does it assume about society and human behavior? Can you think of ways of resolving it, or is it inevitable? 9. What might various authors say about global warming, its causes, and how it should be confronted? Imagine responses from Rachel Carson (Document 12), Paul Ehrlich (Document 8), Barry Commoner (Docu• ment 13), and Vernice Miller (Document 30). 10. What has been the relationship between environmentalism and the U.S. government? 11. In the 1980s, various environmental organizations and philosophies appeared that many labeled "radical" environmentalism. Describe their goals and explain how they differ from the mainstream environ• mental movement. Selected Bibliography
Abbey, Edward. Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness. New York: Ballantine Books, 1968. Berry, Wendell. The Unsettling of America: Culture and Agriculture. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1977. Bullard, Robert D. Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994. Callenbach, Ernest. Ecotopia. Berkeley, Calif.: Banyan Tree Books, 1975. Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1964. Christofferson, Bill. The Man from Clear Lake: Earth Day Founder Sena- tor Gaylord Nelson. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004. Cohen, Michael P The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. Colten, Craig E., and Peter N. Skinner. The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996. Commoner, Barry. The Closing Circle: Nature, Man, and Technology. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971. Daly, Herman E. Steady-State Economics. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1977. Devall, Bill, and George Sessions. Deep Ecology: Living as If Nature Mat• tered. Salt Lake City: G. M. Smith, 1985. Donahue, Brian. Reclaiming the Commons: Community Farms and Forests in a New England Town. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999. Dorman, Robert L. A Word for Nature: Four Pioneering Environmental Advocates, 1845-1913. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Douglas, Marjory Stoneman. The Everglades: River of Grass. New York: Rinehart, 1947. Dowie, Mark. Losing Ground: American Environmentalism at the Close of the Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996. Ehrlich, Paul. The Population Bomb. New York: Ballantine Books, 1968. Flippen, ]. Brooks. Nixon and the Environment. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000.
162 SELECTED BIBUOC;RAPHY 163
Fox, Stephen. The American Conservation Movement: John Muir and His Legacy. Boston: Little, Brown, 1981. Foreman, Dave, ed. Ecodefense: A Field Guide to Monkeywrenching. 1985; third edition, edited with Bill Haywood. Chico: Calif.: Abbzug Press, 1993. Gibbs, Lois. Love Canal: My Story. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983. Gottlieb, Robert. Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993. Guha, Ramachandra. Environmentalism: A Global History. New York: Longman, 2000. Hardin, Garrett. "The Tragedy of the Commons." Science. New Series 162 (December 1968): 1243-48. Harvey, Mark W T. A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994. Hays, Samuel P. Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Hays, Samuel P. Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920. New York: Atheneum, 1959. Helvarg, David. The War against the Greens: The "Wise-Use" Movement, the New Right and Anti-Environmental Violence. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1994. Hofrichter, Richard, ed. Toxic Struggles: The Theory and Practice of Envi• ronmental Justice. Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1993. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 200l. Kaufman, Polly Welts. National Parks and the Woman's Voice: A History. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996. Lear, Linda J. Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature. New York: Henry Holt, 1997. Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac. New York: Oxford University Press, 1949. Lovins, Amory B. Soft Energy Paths: Toward a Durable Peace. San Fran• cisco: Friends of the Earth, 1977. Martinez-Alier, Joan. The Environmentalism of the Poor: A Study of Ecolog• ical Conflicts and Calculation. Northhampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2002. Meadows, Donella H., and Dennis Meadows. Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind. New York: Universe Books, 1972. Muir, John. My First Summer in the Sierra. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1988. 164 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Oelschlaeger, Max. The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991. Philippon, Daniel ]. Conserving Words: How American Nature Writers Shaped the Environmental Movement. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004. Porter, Eliot. The Place No One Knew: Glen Canyon on the Colorado. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1963. Rome, Adam Ward. The Bulldozer in the Countryside: Suburban Sprawl and the Rise of American Environmentalism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 200l. --. "'Give Earth a Chance': The Environmental Movement and the Sixties." Journal of American History, 90 (September 2003): 525-54. Rubin, Charles T. The Green Crusade: Rethinking the Roots of Environmen• talism. New York: Free Press, 1994. Runte, Alfred. National Parks: The American Experience. Lincoln: Univer• sity of Nebraska Press, 1979. Schrepfer, Susan R. Nature's Altars: Mountains, Gender, and American Environmentalism. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005. Spence, Mark. Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Mak• ing of the National Parks. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Sutter, Paul S. Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002. Turekian, Karl L. Global Environmental Change: Past, Present, and Future. Upper Saddle River, N.].: Prentice Hall, 1996. Wilson, Edward O. The Future of Li/e. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002. World Watch. Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, 1988-. Worster, Donald. Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Yergin, Daniel. The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991. Zakin, Susan. Coyotes and Town Dogs: Earth First! and the Environmental Movement. New York: Viking, 1993. ACKNOWLEDGMEN1? 165
Acknowledgments (continued from p. ivY Document 1. Clearing Winter Storm (1944). Photograph by Ansel Adams Collection Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona, © Trustees of The Ansel Adams Publishing Rights Trust. Document 2. From the book The Everglades: River of Grass 50th Anniversary Edition, copyright © 1997 by Marjory Stoneman Douglas. Used by permission of Pineapple Press, Inc. Document 3. February 1954 issue of the Sierra Club Bulletin reprinted with permission from the Sierra Club. Document 4. From The Sound of Mountain Water by Wallace Stegner. © 1969 by Wal• lace Stegner. Used by permission of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. Document 5. David Brower, "Foreword," in Eliot Porter, The Place No One Knew: Glen Canyon on the Colorado (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1963), 7-9. Excerpted by permission of the Estate of David Brower. Document 6. Reprinted by permission of Don Congdon Associates, Inc. Copyright © 1968 by Edward Abbey, renewed 1996 by Clarke Abbey. Document 7. Reprinted with permission from Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science, 162 (December 13, 1968), pp. 1243-48. Copyright © 1968 MAS. Document 8. From The Population Bomb by Dr. Paul Ehrlich, copyright © 1968, 1971 by Paul R. Ehrlich. Used by permission of Ballantine Books, a division of Random House, Inc. Document 9. Reprinted with permission from D. H. Meadows et aI., Limits to Growth (New York: Universe Books, 1972),45-46,50-54. Third Edition published as D. H. Mead• ows et aI., Limits to Growth-The 30-Year Update (White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green Publishing), 2004. Document 10. From Outgrowing the Earth: Rising Food Prices, the Growing Politics of Food Scarcity by Lester Brown. Copyright © 2004 by Earth Policy Institute. Used by permission of W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Document 11. From A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There by Aldo Leopold, copyright © 1949, 1953, 1966, renewed 1977, 1981 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Used by permission of Oxford University Press, Inc. Document 12. "The Obligation to Endure," from Silent Spring by Rachel Carson. Copy• right © 1962 by Rachel L. Carson, renewed 1990 by Roger Christie. Reprinted by per• mission of Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Document 13. From The Closing Circle by Barry Commoner, copyright © 1971 by Barry Commoner. Used by permission of Alfred A Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc. Document 15. Bill Devall, George Sessions excerpt from Deep Ecology: Living as If Nature Mattered (Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith Books, 1985) 7-9, 67-70. Reprinted with permission from Gibbs Smith Publishers. Document 16. Used by permission of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Document 17. From The Future of Life by Edward O. Wilson, copyright © 2002 by E. O. Wilson. Used by permission of Alfred A Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc. Document 19. Reprinted with permission of Denis Hayes. Document 20. From Ecotopia by Ernest Callenbach, copyright © 1975 by Ernest Callen• bach. Used by permission of Banyan Tree Books, a division of Random House, Inc. Document 21. Reprinted by permission of Foreign Affairs (October 1976). Copyright © 1976 by the Council on Foreign Relations, Inc. 166 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Document 22. From Ecode/ense: A Field Guide to Monkeywrenching, copyright © 1985. Reprinted with permission of Dave Foreman and Bill Haywood. Document 23. From The End 0/ Nature by William McKibben, copyright © 1989 by William McKibben. Used by permission of Random House, Inc. Document 25. Copyright © 1966 by Ben H. Bagdikian. Document 27. From the Unsettling 0/ America: Culture and Agriculture, by Wendell Berry. Copyright © 1977 Wendell Berry. Reprinted by permission of Sierra Club Books. Document 28. From Love Canal: My Story, Lois Marie Gibbs. Reprinted by permission of Lois Marie Gibbs. Document 29. Reprinted with permission from The Cesar Chavez Foundation. Document 30. Reprinted with kind permission of Vernice D. Williams. Index
Abbey, Edward, 117, 120, 158 animals. See also wildlife ecology "Desert Solitaire," 49-53 biological diversity, 97-103 Abraham, 75 endangered species, 87-89 Adams, Ansel, 10 ants, 101, 102 "Clearing Winter Storm," 29, 30f Apollo mission, view of Earth from space, 3f advertising archaeans, 98, 99 "environmentally friendly" strategy, 21 Arches National Monument, Utah, 49 newsprint for, 85 Arthropoda, 100 pollution by, 57 artists, romanticism and, 6 affluence, natural resources and, 60 Austin, Mary, 125, 126 Africa automobiles Green Belt Movement, 159 alternatives to, 106, 107, 111-13 population issues, 69 environmental consequences of, 5, 17 African Americans in wilderness areas, 50-52 environmental justice and, 150 Axelrod, David, 142 industrial waste and, 23 agrarianism, 136-40 bacteria, 98, 99-100, 103 agribusiness Bagdikian, Ben H. agrarian views on, 137-40 Rape a/the Land, The, 129-34 farmworkers and, 147-49 Beautification Act of 1965, 11, 127-29, 157 Agricultural Crisis as a Crisis 0/ Culture, Bentham, Jeremy, 55 The (Berry), 136-40 Berry, Wendell Agricultural Testament, An (Howard), Agricultural Crisis as a Crisis 0/ Culture, 138 The, 136-40 agriculture Bhopal, India, 158 agrarian critique of, 136-40 bicycles, 113 culture and, 137-40 billboards, 127 farmland, 62-66, 69, 70 biocentric equality, 90-91 farmworkers and, 145-49 biocides, 16, 78 global warming and, 125 biodegradable containers, 105 insects and, 79-80 biological diversity, 97-103 single-crop farming, 80 biosphere, 97, 99 AIDS, in Africa, 69 biotic communities, 15 air pollution, 5 Birkett, Terri, 20 clean air laws, 19, 156, 157, 158 botany, 101 Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, 156 Brand, Steward, 104 algae, 99 Brower, David, 10, 11, 48n1 Alston, Dana, 23 "Place No One Knew, The," 46-49 alternative ways of living, 104-7 Brown, Lester, 158 aluminum containers, 105 Outgrowing the Earth, 67-71 amphibians, 102 Bullard, Robert, 153
167 168 INDEX
Bureau of Land Management, 20 Kyoto Protocol and, 92-96 Bureau of Reclamation, 10, 11, 36 unpredictability of, 124-25 Glen Canyon Dam and, 46-49 climate forcing, 95 Bush, George w., 24, 158 Climate Stewardship Act, 24-25 business institutions. See also agribusiness Closing Circle, The (Commoner), 83-86 environmental issues and, 109-10 clothing, 113 butterflies, 102 coal resources, 48 Coastal Zone Management Act, 157 caecilians, 102 Cole, Thomas, 6, 8 California farmworkers, 145-49 collective bargaining, farmworkers and, California State Land Commission, 134 146-47 Callenbach, Ernest Colorado-Big Thompson diversion project, Ecotopia, 111-13 47-48 Calochortus tiburonensis, 101 Colorado River calories, 55 Bureau of Reclamation plans for, 10-11, campgrounds, in wilderness areas, 50 36 cancer, agricultural chemicals and, 146 hydroelectric projects and, 10-11 "Cancer Alley," 23 western development and, 10 Capitol Reef National Monument, 45 commercial land uses, 5 carbon dioxide emissions, 122-23, 158 Commoner, Barry, 14-15 automobiles and, 17 Closing Circle, The, 83-86 climate change and, 17, 24-25 compost heaps, 106-7 industrialism and, 16 Congressional Black Caucus, 153 nature's capacity to absorb, 67 conservation, 9-11 public policy and, 71 conservatives, 20-21 carcinogens, in pesticides, 147 consumer, 4-5 Carlyle, Thomas, 4 consumption Carson, Rachel, 16, 156 criticism of, 11-13 Silent Spring, 76-82 pollution and, 15-16 Carter, Jimmy, 22, 158 U.S. affluence and, 60 CERCLA (The Comprehensive containers Environmental Response, biodegradable, 105 Compensation, and Liability Act), 158. returnable, 105 See also Superfund Law coral, 102 Chavez, Cesar, 23 Council on Environmental Quality, 19, 158 What Is the Worth of a Man or a Woman? cows, wolves and, 74 145-49 crested quail, 126 Chavis, Ben, 151, 153 crustaceans, 100 chemical pollution, 21-23, 76-82, 84 culture, agriculture and, 137 Chernobyl nuclear reactor explosion, 158 Cuyahoga River, 157 children Cycliophora, 100 pesticides and, 148 cycliophorans, 100 toxic waste and, 141 China, 71 Daly, Herman, 12 chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, 105 dams chlorine production, 84 conservation and, 9 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 122, 158 Echo Park Dam, 38, 39,41 cigarettes, 105 Glen Canyon Dam, 11, 46-49, 156 City in History, The (Mumford), 15 Hetch Hetchy Valley dam, 8-9, 36, 38, 48 civil rights, environmental justice and, for hydroelectric power, 47-48 149-55 Split Mountain dam, 38, 39 clean air laws Daniel Boone Express Highway, St. Louis, Bush administration and, 158 131 Clean Air Act of 1963, 156 Darwin, Charles, 13, 43, 78 Clean Air Act of 1970, 19, 157 DDD,105 "Clearing Winter Storm" (Adams), 29, 30f DDT, 105, 126 Clematis morejieldii, 101 banning of, 18, 76 climate change, 70. See also global warming environmental effects of, 16, 76 effects of, 123-26 decentralized society, 19 human-induced, 17-18, 122 deep ecology, 89-92 INDEX 169
Deep Ecology (Devall and Sessions), 89 defined,13-14 deer, wolves and, 72-74 technology and, 83-86 "Defense of Dinosaur, The" (Sierra Club), Ecotopia (Callenbach), 111-13 36-41 Edwards, Don, 154 defoliation, 109 Ehrlich, Paul, 157 "Desert Solitaire" (Abbey), 49-53 Population Bomb, The, 58-62 Deserts on the March (Sears), 15 Eiseley, Loren, 126 desert water trails, 126 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 40 desert wilderness, 45 electric power. See also hydroelectric power detergent pollution, 106, 110 conserving, 107 Deukmejian, George, 146-47 distribution systems, 115 Devall, Bill, and George Sessions for synthetic chemical production, 84 On Cultivating Ecological Consciousness, elm tree disease, 80 89-92 Elton, Charles, 80-81 dimethylsulfide, 99 endangered species, 126 Dinosaur National Monument, 156 critical habitat, 88-89 national environmental movement and, defined,88 39-40 protection of, 87-89 Sierra Club and, 10-11,36-41 Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973, 14, disease-carrying insects, 79 19, 157 diseconomies of scale, 115 intent of, 87 Douglas, Marjory Stoneman, 10, 157 text of, 87-89 "Everglades, The," 31-35 End of Nature, The (McKibben), 122-26 Dr. Seuss, 19-20 energy. See also hydroelectric power drinking water, pollution of, 22-23 coal resources, 48 consumption, 114-17 earth electric power, 84, 107, 115 Gaia hypothesis, 21, 99, 158 hydroelectric power, 9, 10-11, 47-48 viewed from space, 3f nuclear power, 48, 158 Earth Day, 18, 19, 76, 107, 108-10, 157 plan, G. W. Bush, 158 Earth Day (Hayes), 108-10 renewable, 114-17 Earth First!, 117-22, 158 solar power, 48,114,116-17 Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the "Energy Strategy: The Road Not Taken" Human Spirit (Gore), 23-24 (Lovins), 114 Earth Summit, 153-54, 158 environ, defined, 3-4 Echo Park Dam, 38, 39, 41 environmental economists, 12 Ecodefense (Foreman), 117-22 environmental impact reports, 14, 19 ecofeminist theory, 21 environmentalism ecological consciousness, 89-92 alternative ways of living, 104-7 ecology, 13-18, 72-103. See also wildlife chronology, 156-59 ecology conservation vs., 9-11 alternative ways of living, 104-7 consumption and, 11-13 chemical pollution and, 76-82 defined, 2-4 deep ecology, 89-92 Earth Day and, 18 defined, 13 ecology and, 14 environmentalism and, 14 industrialism and, 4-5 humans and, 74-75 Lorax, The (Dr. Seuss) and, 19-20 moral values and, 72, 74-75 opposition to, 20-21 natural checks and balances, 72-74, 80 origins of, 2, 11 principles of, 14-15 philosophy of, 2 Ecology of Invasions, The (Elton), 80-81 public opinion on, 24 economic growth. See also industrialism public policy and, 24-25 agriculture and, 137-40 environmental justice, 23 endangered species and, 87 civil rights and, 149-55 energy consumption and, 114 farmworkers and, 145-49 environmental effects of, 12-13, 85 geographic equity, 152 wilderness areas and, 52-53 grassroot activism, 140-44 ecosphere, 83 international issues, 153-54 ecosystems procedural equity, 152 biological diversity, 97-103 social equity, 152 170 INDEX
"environmentally friendly" advertising freedom. population growth and. 57-58 strategy. 21 Friends of the Everglades, 157 environmental. origins of term. 3-4 Fuller. R. Buckminster. 104 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), fungi. 100. 103 14.17.19.21.123.157 Future of Life. The (Wilson). 97 environmental justice and. 153 environmental sabotage, 117-22 Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth environmental teach-ins, 18 (Lovelock). 158 epiphytes, 102 Gaia hypothesis, 21. 99, 158 essayists. romanticism and, 6 Geisel. Theodor Seuss, 19-20 Essay on the Principle of Population geographic equity. 152 (Malthus), 13 Gibbs. Lois. 21-22. 158 eukaryota, 98n7 Knocking on Doors at Love Canal. Everglades. 31-35 140-44 burning of. 34-35 glaciers. 94 description. 31-33 Glen Canyon Dam. 11. 46-49. 156 drying of, 33-34 hydroelectric power and. 47-48 national park designation. 31 Global 2000 (Council on Environmental "Everglades. The" (Douglas). 31-35 Quality and U.S. Department of State). Everglades. The: River of Grass (Douglas), 158 31 global warming. 17. 122-26. 158. See also Exxon Valdez. 158 climate change effects of. 123-26 Faraday. Michael. 101 food supply and. 69. 70 Farman. Joe. 158 human activities and, 95-96 farmland, See also agriculture Kyoto Protocol and, 92-96 agrarian view of, 136-38 unpredictability of. 124-25 environmental trends, 69 Gore. Albert. 23-24. 153 population growth and, 62-66 grain production, 68-69, 71 productivity of. 70 Grand Can:, on. 52, 72 single-crop farming and, 80 grape boycott. 145 farmworkers grape production. 147 agribusiness and. 147-49 grassroots organization. 140-44 environmental justice and. 145-49 grazing, in wilderness, 44 pesticides and. 145-49 Great Depression. 15 Federal Water Pollution Control Act of greenbelt communities. 131 1972. 19. 157 Greenbelt. Maryland. 131 fertilizers. 66. 69 Green Belt Movement, Africa, 158 First National People of Color Greendale. Wisconsin. 131 Environmental Leadership Summit. 23, Greenhills. Ohio. 131 150-55.158 greenhouse gases. 17 fisheries. 70-71 climate effects of. 95 flareback. 78 Kyoto agreement on. 92-96 flowering plants, 101 green movement. 19-21 Food and Drug Administration. 105 Green Party (Germany). 19 food supply Green Party (United States). 24 excess production. 79 Greenpeace. 19. 134 fertilizer and. 69 green politics. 104-26 global warming and. 69. 70 "greenwashing." 21 grain production. 68-69, 71 grape production. 147 Haeckel. Ernst. 13 land and. 63-66. 69 Hanson. James. 17.158 population growth and. 13. 67-71 hard energy paths. 114 prices and. 71 Hardin. Garrett. 157 pure foods. 19 "Tragedy of the Commons. The." 54-58 technology and. 69 Hayes. Denis Foreign Affairs. 114 Earth Day. 108-10 Foreman. Dave. 158 health Ecodefense.117-22 agricultural chemicals and, 146-47 forests. 44. 102-3 pesticides and. 145-49 fossil-fuel systems. 115 toxic waste and. 141-44 INDEX 171
Heisner, Lois, 144 Knocking on Doors at Love Canal (Gibbs), Heisner, Tom, 144 ]40-44 herbaceous plants, 102 Kyoto Protocol, 18, 24-25, 92-96, 158 herbicides, 78, 109 Hetch Hetchy Valley dam, 36, 38, 48 Lake Mead, 47 conservationists and, 9 Lake Okeechobee, 32 Sierra Club and, 8-9 Lake Powell, 11 Highlander Center, 153-54 land. See also farmland highways, 5 food production and, 63-66, 69 Hiroshima, bombing of, 1, 156 Land, The, 15 Hoffman, John, 123 land ethic, 74-75 Hooker Chemical Corporation, 21-22 "Land Ethic" (Leopold), 15 Howard, Albert, 138, 140 Latino Americans, 150 How to Save the Earth (Whole Earth leather flower (Clematis morejieldiz), 101 Catalog), 104-7 Leonard, Dick, 11 humanitarian aid, population growth and, Leopold, Aldo, 10,91, 156 59,60 Thinking like a Mountain, 72-75 hydrochloric acid, 105 Lewis, John, 153 hydroelectric power Lieberman, Joseph, 24 Colorado River and, 47-48 lilies, 101 conservation and, 9 Limits to Growth (Meadows and Meadows), Dinosaur National Monument and, 62-66,157 10-11 littering, 105 Glen Canyon Dam and, 47-48 Lorax, The (Dr. Seuss), 19-20 New Deal and, 10 Loricifera, 100 hyphae, 103 loriciferans, 100 Love Canal, New York, 21-23, 158 Index Kewensis, 101 grassroots organization, 140-44 India, 71 Lovelock, James, 21, 99, 158 industrialism. See also economic growth; Lovins, Amory manufacturing Soft Energy, 114-17 consumption and, 11-12 environmental effects of, 4-5 Maathai, Wangari, 158 Lorax, The (Dr. Seuss) and, 19-20 maintenance calories, 55 natural resources and, 12 Malthus, Thomas Robert, 13, 54, 59, 62 pollution and, 15-16 mammals, 102 romanticism and, 5 Man and Nature (Marsh), 9 industrial tourism, 49-53 manufacturing. See also industrialism industrial waste, 21-23 environmental consequences of, 4-5 insects, 100. See also pesticides opponents of, 4-5 agriculture and, 79-80 supporters of, 4 disease-carrying, 79 Mariana Trench, 97 introduced species, 80-81 Marine Mammal Protection Act, 157 plant diseases and, 80-81 Marsh, George Perkins, 9 interdependence, biological, 13-18 Marshall, Robert, 10 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 62 Change (IPCC), 17-18 mass production, 4-5 Summary for Policymakers (2001), McCain, John, 24 92-96 McKay, Douglas, 38, 40 invertebrates, 98 McKibben, Bill End of Nature, The, 122-26 Johnson, Lady Bird, 11, 130 Meadows, Donella, and Dennis Meadows, Remarks before the General Session, 157 127-29 Limits to Growth, 62-66 Johnson, Lyndon B., 11, 41, 127, 130 meiofauna, 101 Journal of Forestry, 123 mercury consumption, 84 methyl icocyanide, 158 Kaibab Plateau, 72 microorganisms, 97-98, 103 Kazakhstan, 71 Miller, Vernice D., 23, 158 Kennedy, John F., 11 Quest for Environmental Justice, The, Kennedy, Robert, 145 149-55 172 INDEX mining New York City Coalition for Environmental coal, 48 Justice, 153-54 in wilderness, 44 nitrate fertilizers, 66 minority groups, environmental justice and, Nixon, Richard, 19, 23 149-55 Noise Control Act of 1965, 157 mites, 102-3 noise pollution, 57 Mittermeier, Russell, 102 North Pole, 17 Mollusca, 100 nuclear bomb Monkey Wrench Gang, The (Abbey), 49, 158 Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1, 256 monkeywrenching, 117-22 radioactive fallout from, 1, 77, 156 Montreal Protocol, 158 nuclear power, 48, 158 moral values, ecology and, 72, 74-75 nuclear war, 12 Morefield, James, 101 mountains Occupational Health and Safety housing construction on, 131 Administration (OSHA), 157 wilderness, 44 Ocean Dumping Act, 157 Mt. Katahdin, Maine, 8 oceans Mt. Whitney, 52 biological diversity of, 97-98, 99, Muir, John, 8-9, 10 100-101 Muller, Paul Hermann, 16 climate-related changes to, 94-95, 96 Murrrlord,Lewis,15 sea level rise, 94-95, 96 mussels, 100 octopuses, 100 My First Summer in the Sierra (Muir), 8 off-shore oil drilling, 134 oil spills, 134-36, 158 Nader, Ralph, 24 On Cultivating Ecological Consciousness Naess, Arne, 89, 91 (Devall and Sessions), 89-92 Nagasaki, bombing of, 1, 156 open space NASA, 17, 158 greenbelt communities, 131 National Academy of Science, 158 loss of, 129-34 National Environmental Policy Act, 19, 157 Organic Act (National Park Act of 1916), national forests, preservation of, 44 48nl National Geographic, 134 organically grown food, 107 National Park Act of 1916, 48 Organic Style magazine, 21 national parks Osborn, Fairfield, 16, 156 dam projects and, 38 Our Plundered Planet (Osborn), 16, 156 Everglades, 31 Outdoor Recreation Resources Review protection of, 11 Commission, 42 wilderness and, 41-45 Outgrowing the Earth (Brown), 67-71 Yosemite, 8-9, 29 ozone layer, 158 National Park Service, 38, 48n1, 50 National Resources Defense Council, 157 packaging, 105, 107 National Wilderness Preservation System, paper use, 85 157 passenger pigeons, 126 National Wood Flooring Association, 20 passive solar collectors, 116 natural beauty, 127-29 Patton, James L., 102 natural resources pedestrian spaces, 19, 112-13 conservation and, 9-11 people of color, 149-55 finite nature of, 12-13 People's Alliance, 153-54 industrialism and, 12 People's Forum, 153-54 population growth and, 12-13, 54-58 peregrine falcons, 126 state vs. federal control of, 20 Pesonen, David, 41 U.S. consumption of, 60 pesticides nature, romantic attitude toward, 5-9 appropriate use of, 82 Nature Conservancy, 156 chlorinated hydrocarbon, 105 Nelson, Gaylord, 18 environmental effects of, 16, 76-82 nematode worms, 100, 101 farmworkers and, 145-49 Neviusia clijtonii, 101 food production and, 66 New Deal, 10 health effects of, 145-49 Newfoundland fisheries, 70-71 Pheidole, 101 "new Malthusians," 67 phosphates, 106, 110 newsprint, 85 photography, wilderness, 29 INDEX 173 phytoplankton, 99 radiative forcing, 95 picoplankton, 100 radioactive fallout, 1, 77 Pinchot, Gifford, 9 Rape o/the Land, The (Bagdikianl, 129-34 "Place No One Knew, The" (Brower), Reagan, Ronald, 20-21, 89, 108 46-49 Regional Planning Association of America, plants 15 botany. 101 Remarks be/ore the General Session introduced species, 80-81 (Johnson), 127-29 plastics, 16, 85 renewable resources, 19 Podocarpus, 102 energy alternatives, 114-17 poets, romanticism and, 6 residential land use, 5, 129-34 polar ice caps, 17,94,96 Road to Survival, The (Vogt), 16, 156 political institutions, 109 Robbers' Roost country, Utah, 45 pollution romanticism, 5-9 advertising as, 57 nature and, 5-9 air pollution, 5 wilderness and, 29-53 chemical, 76-82 Roosevelt, Franklin, 10 Earth Day and, 108-10 Roosevelt, Theodore, 9, 39 economic growth and, 85 Roselle, Mike, 158 environmental consequences of, 76-77 Rostand, Jean, 82 industrialism and, 15-16 Rovers, Frank, 143 industrial waste, 21-23 Ryan, William, 154 plastics and, 85 population growth and, 56-57, 86 Sagebrush Rebellion, 20 social class and, 22 salmon, 126 sound, 57 Sand Country Almanac, A (Leopold), 72, synthetic chemical production and, 84 156 technological development and, 86 San Francisco, 111-13 toxic waste, 83, 140-43 San Joaquin Valley, California, 145 water pollution, 5, 22-23 Santa Barbara Declaration 0/ pollution laws, 18 Environmental Rights, 134-36 Pollution Probe, 134 Santa Barbara oil spill, 134-36, 157 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 105 Santa Monica Mountains, California, 131 Population Bomb, The (Ehrlich), 58-62, Sartor Resartus (Carlyle), 4 157 Saturday Evening Post, 129 population control, 58, 59-62, 107 Saudi Arabia, 71 population growth, 158 Schumacher, E. F., 19 arable land and, 62-66 Schweitzer, Albert, 77 environmental consequences of, 70-71 sea level rise, 94-95, 96 food supply and, 13,67-71 Sears, Paul, 15 freedom and, 57-58 Sessions, George, and Bill Devall natural resources and, 12-13 On Cultivating Ecological Consciousness, pollution and, 56-57, 86 89-92 resource depletion and, 54-58 Shasta snow-wreath (Neviusia cliftoniz), 101 water supply and, 67 Shepard, Paul, 81 poverty, industrial pollution and, 22 Shepard, Peggy, 158 prairie wilderness, 44-45 Sierra Club predator-prey relationships, 72-74, 80, 91 Adams, Ansel, and, 29 primates, 102 Dinosaur National Monument and, 10-11 procedural equity, 152 founding of, 8 Prochlorococcus bacteria, 99 -1 00 Glen Canyon Dam and, 46-49 protists, 98 Grand Canyon and, 157 protozoans, 100, 101 Hetch Hetchy Valley and, 8-9 public policy urban areas and, 23 carbon emissions and, 71 Sierra Club Bulletin, 37f environmentalism and, 24-25 "Defense of Dinosaur, The," 36-41 political institutions, 109 Silent Spring (Carson), 16, 76-82, 156 pure foods, 19 Small Is Beautiful (Schumacher), 19 snail darter, 87 Quest for Environmental Justice, The snails, 100 (Miller), 149-55 snow cover, 94 174 INDEX
Snyder, Gary, 90 trees, 80, 102. See also forests social class, industrial pollution and, 22. See tree spiking, 120-22 also environmental justice Truax, The (National Wood Flooring social equity, 152 Association), 20 Soft Energy (Lovins), 114-17 Turner, Neely, 81 soft energy paths, 114-17 Soil and Health, The (Howard), 138 Ukraine, Chernobyl nuclear reactor soil erosion, 70 explosion, 158 solar energy, 48, 114, 116-17 underdeveloped countries, population solar process heat, 116 growthin,60 Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965, 157 Union Carbide Co., 158 species Union Oil Platform A oil spill, Santa biological diversity, 97-103 Barbara, 134-36, 157 number of, 99 United Church of Christ Commission for spiders, 100 RaciaIJustice, 150 spiritual values, wilderness and, 41-45 United Farm Workers, 23, 145-47 Split Mountain dam, 38, 39 United Nations Conference on Environment St. Louis, 131 and Development (UNCED), 153-54 Stegner, Wallace United Nations Conference on the Human 'Wilderness Letter," 41-45 Environment, 157 sterilization, 61 United Nations Environmental Programme, strontium 90, 77 17, 157, 158 student activism, 11, 18, 19 United Nations Food and Agriculture Subra, Wilma, 23 Organization (FAO), 63 suburban sprawl, 5, 129-34 United Nations Framework Convention on Summary for Policymakers (2001) Climate Change, 18, 92-96 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate United States Forest Service, 15 Change),92-96 United States Office of Plant Introduction, Superfund Law, 22, 140-41, 158 80-81 Superfund Reauthorization Act, 153 Upper Colorado Storage Project, 38 supersonic transport, 57 urban areas surplus-food storage program, 79 environmental justice in, 154 survival of the fittest, 78 growth of, 131-33 Sutton, Chuck, 158 industrial pollution of, 22-23 synthetic organic chemicals, 84 natural areas in, 130-34 suburban sprawl, 5, 129-34 table grapes, boycott of, 145 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Tansley, Arthur B., 13 Development, 130 teach-ins, 18 U.S. Department of State, 158 technological development, 83-86 usufruct, 139 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 10 utilitarianism, 55n1 teratogens, in pesticides, 147 Thinking like a Mountain (Leopold), vegetarianism, 91 72-75 vertebrates, 102 Third World, environmental justice in, Vienna Convention for the Protection of 153-54 Ozone, 158 Thoreau, Henry David, 6, 8, 90 Vietnam War, 11, 18, 19, 108, 109, 149 Three Mile Island nuclear power plant, View of Schroon Mountain (Cole), 6, 7f 158 vines, 102 To the Ends of the Earth (Wilson), 97-103 Vogt, William, 16, 156 tourism, in wilderness areas, 49-53 Toxic Tours, 154 Walden Pond, 6, 8 toxic waste Warhol, Andy, 124 ecosystem and, 83 water conservation, 106 health and, 141-44 water pollution, 5, 22-23 Superfund Law and, 140-41 Water Quality Act of 1965, 157 Toxic Wastes and Race (United Church of water supply Christ Commission for Racial Justice), food production and, 66, 71 150 population growth and, 67 "Tragedy ofthe Commons, The" (Hardin), resource management, 10 54-58, 157 water trails, in desert, 126 INDEX 175
Watt, James G., 20 Wilderness Act of 1964, 41, 42, 157 weather. See also climate change; global "Wilderness Letter" (Stegner), 41-45 warming Wildland Research Center, University of climate change and, 125-26 California, 41 West Harlem Environmental Action, 23, wildlife ecology, 15. See also ecology 149,154-55 biological diversity, 97-103 Whalen, Robert, 142, 143 critical habitat, 88-89 lVhat Is the Worth 0/ a Man or a Woman? endangered species protection, 87-89 (Chavez), 145-49 Wilson, Edward O. 1Vh0ie Earth Catalog, 104, 136 To the Ends a/the Earth, 97-103 How to Save the Earth, 104-7 wind-hydraulic systems, 116-17 Whole Foods supermarket chain, 21 "wise use" movement, 20 wilderness Wolke, Howie, 158 accessibility of, 51-53 wolves, 72-74 grazing in, 44 Wordsworth, William, 8 mining in, 44 work calories, 55 national parks and, 41-45 World Meteorological Organization, 17 photography of, 29 Worldwatch Institute, 67-71, 158 preservation of, 10-11, 44-45, 157 romanticism and, 29-53 yellowwood conifer, 102 spiritual value of, 41-45, 90 Yosemite National Park, 8-9 tourism and, 49-53 Yosemite Valley, 29