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The Role of Managed Aquifer Recharge in Developing Northern Australian Agriculture CASE STUDIES to DETERMINE the ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

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The Role of Managed Aquifer Recharge in Developing Northern Australian Agriculture CASE STUDIES to DETERMINE the ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY Managed Aquifer Recharge ISSN 2206-1991 Volume 2 No 3 2017 https://doi.org/10.21139/wej.2017.029 THE ROLE OF MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE IN DEVELOPING NORTHERN AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE CASE STUDIES TO DETERMINE THE ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY R Evans, L Lennon, G Hoxley, R Krake, D Yin Foo, C Schelfhout, J Simons ABSTRACT more economically attractive for horticulture production. Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is a commonly used technique in many countries to artificially increase the INTRODUCTION This paper describes a study to consider the role recharge rate over the wet season and hence increase of MAR in developing irrigated agriculture in the the groundwater storage available during the dry season. Northern Territory (Daly catchment and Central Considering northern Australia’s long dry season and Australia) and the Pilbara in Western Australia. The relatively short wet season, MAR has the potential to play fundamental advantages of MAR based developments a major role in water resource development. over conventional water sources (typically large dams) Shallow weirs, infiltration trenches and injection bores are the cost of transporting water, lack of evaporative were considered as the main MAR methods. Five losses, seasonal variability and the scalability of sites were assessed in the Pilbara and seven across MAR projects. Conversely, impediments are believed the Northern Territory. After consideration of a range to be primarily the economic feasibility rather than of factors such as the available source water, local the technical feasibility. When compared to other hydrogeology, soil suitability and potential irrigation water supply options, MAR can be attractive both demand, most sites were considered technically feasible. economically and environmentally. A cost benefit analysis was completed on the feasible The perception of northern Australia of having abundant sites to determine the capital and operation and water resources, and hence huge potential for irrigated maintenance costs of water supply and on-farm benefits. agriculture, has been around for decades. This has led to Preliminary costings estimated in the Pilbara show that many large irrigation schemes, predominantly based on with a weir, the annualised (levelised) cost to supply surface water development. However, most schemes fail for water to irrigate range between $77 and $282/ML. In the a variety of reasons. Ash (2014) and others point out that Daly catchment, preliminary costings show that, with a many of the irrigation schemes in northern Australia have weir, the annualised costs to supply water for irrigation failed because of cash flow. High initial capital costs (for ranges between $166 and $575/ML. The calculated net example for large dams) require large returns to service the benefit of fodder cropping is $110/ML, however, for loans. Many of the failed schemes simply could not service horticulture (mango, Asian vegetables and melons) this the interest payments. In contrast, those schemes which ranges between $2,000 and $10,000/ML. The annualised started small and then slowly grew were able to meet their costs suggest that MAR based irrigation schemes are growing capital needs with gradually increasing income. 1 Water e-Journal Online journal of the Australian Water Association Managed Aquifer Recharge This observation has led to the thought that, as even long gravity fed systems require major capital managed aquifer recharge (MAR) schemes are investment and ongoing maintenance. Hence the goal generally scalable, and can be sized to meet in this study is to seek the lowest pressure pumping expected income flow, they could fulfil situations available and, as much as possible, to use a key role in developing northern the aquifer as the “pipeline”. This generally means limiting the length of any supply channels to no more Australia. MAR could offer a useful than several kilometres. It also means limiting pumping tool to overcome the cash flow heads to less than 50 m ideally. dilemma of private irrigation enterprises. 2. Evaporation is very high. Surface water bodies (dams, lakes, channels) in northern Australia lose Given the scalability of a lot of water to evaporation. Evaporation rates of MAR based irrigation typically 3.5 m/year when the rainfall is only 0.5 to developments, the 1.0 m/year mean that any surface water body will implicit notion is that lose a significant amount of water. This factor has mosaic irrigation is driven the philosophy of storing as much water as preferred to large possible underground where evaporation rates are effectively zero. scale development. Mosaic irrigation 3. Wet season variability is high. There is considerable is where individual variation in the timing, magnitude and intensity of relatively small the wet season across northern Australia. A ‘failed‘ scale irrigation wet season, where the actual rainfall over the months of December to April can be much smaller developments are than the mean wet season rainfall, has significant spread over large impacts on stream flow (hence water supply) and areas and hence in agricultural water demand over the dry season. aggregate represent In the case of beef production this also controls a significant area of the dry season dryland feed availability and hence irrigated agriculture. fodder demand. Mosaic irrigation has 4. The need for scalable water resource been discussed by several development. As discussed previously a scalable authors (e.g. Grice et al., development can address cash flow issues to ensure 2013) who point out the success in the long term. advantages over traditional large These four principles have driven this project to scale, predominantly surface water be focussed on groundwater only, MAR and CWM based development. Perhaps the most (Conjunctive Water Management) as technically and significant advantage is cash flow, whereby economically viable options for Northern Australia. This relatively small capital cost can be repaid by the suggests that mosaic type irrigation developments, income produced from irrigated agriculture. The mosaic rather than broad acre cropping, is likely to be preferred. concept allows the development to gradually grow However broad acre crops have also been considered in proportion to the income generation. The overall where they appear to be feasible. purpose of this study is to assess the technical and economic feasibility of small to medium scale water METHOD resource developments to support appropriate irrigated Three principal MAR methods have been assessed: agriculture in specific locations in the Northern Territory and the Pilbara. Recharge Weirs The purpose of a weir is to alter the characteristics of This study has been conceived in the context of four a channel and to create a pool of water for recharge to fundamental principles which control the technical the underlying aquifer, while allowing excess flows to and economic viability of irrigated agriculture in continue over the weir downstream. It is essentially a northern Australia: surface spreading technique that is aimed at increasing 1. Transporting water is expensive. Water is heavy. It the contact area and residence time of runoff over is well recognised that pumping water is expensive and the subsurface. 2 Water e-Journal Online journal of the Australian Water Association Managed Aquifer Recharge The purpose of this is to increase the total volume of streamflow and allow it to infiltrate into the aquifer. This water infiltrating the subsurface to enhance the total is achieved by enhancing the infiltration rate of runoff amount of recharge occurring to the underlying aquifer. into the specific location of the trench. Even though Recharge weirs are commonly implemented in areas relatively efficient at capturing runoff, the successful with permeable ground conditions that have a high operation of infiltration trenches is heavily reliant on infiltration capacity and the presence of a permeable the hydraulic conductivity of the subsurface and the unconfined aquifer. Figure 1 shows the concept for a unconfined aquifer to be recharged. typical recharge weir. Infiltration trenches are relatively low maintenance To minimise environmental impact the adopted design systems with the main mode of failure being the allows for rock ramps either side of the reinforced clogging of the system by fine grained sediments. This concrete structure to provide nature like structures can be managed by introducing a vegetative strip to providing fish passage and aquatic habit for local fauna filter the runoff prior to infiltrating the trench. through the simulation of a natural stream environment. Recharge Bores In general, recharge weirs are robust structures that Also known as injection bores, recharge bores are a require minimal maintenance and operative effort. subsurface technique commonly implemented in the General maintenance activities include the clearing managed recharge of aquifers. In comparison to surface of debris from the crest, removing fines from the spreading such as recharge weirs and infiltration upstream end of the weir, opening of the penstock trenches, injection bores are aimed at recharging valve to permit dry season/low flows and carrying deeper aquifers that are overlain by low permeability out general repairs to the structure as required. The layers. The recharge technique involves the injection of desilting process upstream is of particular importance water into the aquifer via bores that penetrate through as this is where the overflow is being pooled. Once the lower
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