Management history as told by popular culture: the screen image of the efficiency expert

Mordecai Lee University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Winconsin, USA

Keywords chapters on ``Time Study'' Niebel,1992) and Efficiency, Management, History, Introduction ``Predetermined Motion-Time Systems'' Films, Televisiion Frederick Winslow Taylor unleashed the Sellie,1992). The focus ± even mania ± to be Abstract cultural norm of efficiency that has become efficient in all aspects of life seems to be This exploration of management an integral part of the industrialized world. accelerating with new technologies Gleick, history focuses on mass His thinking ``so permeates the soil of 1999,pp. 211-25 and passim). 24/7 is a motto entertainment media to determine modern life we no longer realize it's there'' that would make Taylor proud. the history of the efficiency expert In management history,the efficiency in popular culture. It reviews the Kanigel,1997,p. 7). Taylor was extremely history of the image of the influential in management and business expert can be studied through traditional efficiency expert in film and on administration. For example,when members research approaches Tatham,1964). American-produced television of the Management History Division of the However,given the omnipresence of programs. The review shows that Academy of Management were polled in 1977 efficiency throughout society,this exploration this profession is a universal and seeks to contribute to management history by pervasive one, permanently by Wren and Hay about the most important embedded in our culture and contributors to management thought and analyzing popular culture. Specifically,it catholic in background, practice,Taylor won handily reported in identifies the depictions of the efficiency occupation and workplace. It is Kanigel,1997,p. 10). A 1992 assessment expert on movie and television screens and generally a man's job. The most described contemporary experts as then attempts to identify trends and significant historical trend is a generalizations about popular culture's view sharp change from the efficiency continuing to ``refine what he did and to add of the efficiency expert. expert as an amusing and those nuances of which we are aware in relatively harmless character to a industry today'' Terry,1992,p. 274). malevolent one who is to be Blackwell's 1998 encyclopedia stated that feared. Although television has Overview of the movie efficiency only existed for about half as long ``even today many science management as motion pictures, the depiction principles and practices are still widespread'' expert of the efficiency expert on TV is Cooper and Argyris,1998,p. 581). Film is used for historical research in many similar to his movie image. This Similarly,public administration's widely recognized profession academic fields Pronay,1983; Raack,1983), needs no introduction to the intellectual roots came from Taylor Kanigel, including business and government Powers viewer. He is a negative figure, 1997,p. 489),focusing on operating et al.,1993; Smith,1996; Graham,1997; Jones, often laughed at but never government more efficiently and 1998; Lee,2000). Movies are also used in admired. economically Waldo,1984,Chapter 10). The management training Champoux,1999; first textbook in public administration Dubnick,2000; Jurkiewicz and Giacalone, declared ``that the achievements of scientific 2000). The University of Minnesota's Center management have aroused a vast amount of for the History of Information Processing dissatisfaction with the antiquated methods maintains a directory of movies about which have characterized many public computers University of Minnesota,2000). A offices'' White,1926,p. 13). The entry for management professor maintains an on-line ``efficiency'' in a 1998 encyclopedia noted its directory of Management Film Festival continuing vitality O'Neill,1998). Favorites Davidson,2000) and a for-profit Taylor's preoccupation with efficiency training company's Web site is entitled permeates industrial engineering. A Management Goes to the Movies 2000). codification of contemporary standards and No effort is made here to define an efficiency definitions in 1983 included entries for expert. Rather,the term was left to the sources efficiency,motion studies and time studies themselves. If a reviewer or summarizer of a Rigassio et al.,1983,pp. 235,239,244). A 1992 movie or television program used the phrase Management Decision handbook for the profession included ``efficiency expert'' to describe a character in 40/9 [2002]881±894 it,then it was accepted for use in this article. It is quite revealing to note the breadth of # MCB UP Limited The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at [ISSN 0025-1747] management activities which lay sources http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0025-1747.htm [DOI 10.1108/00251740210441081] describe as that of an efficiency expert. [ 881 ] Mordecai Lee Original literary source: 1935 serialized novel Management history as told Film portrayals of the efficiency in the Saturday Evening Post by Clarence by popular culture: the screen expert Budington Kelland Nolan,1937) image of the efficiency expert Management Decision Title: City Slicker Director: Tay Garnett 40/9 [2002]881±894 Year released: 1918 Category: Comedy Screenwriters): none credited. Country of origin: USA Original literary source: none Character described as efficiency expert: Director: none credited. Producer: Hal Roach Internet Movie Data Base IMDb),2000 Category: Silent comedy Reviews: ``rollicking screwball farce'' Scheuer,1991,p. 996) Country of origin: USA Plot relating to efficiency expert: Atterbury Character described as efficiency expert: Dodd Leslie Howard) is an efficiency expert Harold Lloyd Anthology A-1 Video and Film who believes everything can be reduced to Services,2000) mathematics. He is sent to Hollywood to see Reviews: ``Short on anything approaching a whether Colossal Pictures is a good connected story ... has a wealth of good investment. He soon learns that movie business'' Motion Picture News,1 June,1918, production doesn't fit his formulaic mindset. cited in D'Agostino,1994,p. 113). Plot relating to efficiency expert: Harold Title: Cheaper by the Dozen Harold Lloyd) is an efficiency expert from Year released: 1940 the city who comes to a small rural hotel that Screenwriters): Lamar Trotti is in need of modernizing. He installs all sorts of gadgets and time saving devices such as a Original literary source: book Gilbreth and bed that comes out of the wall,a tub that Carey,1948) emerges from the fireplace and a telephone in Director: Walter Lang the mantle picture. Category: Comedy and drama Country of origin: USA Title: Palmy Days Character described as efficiency expert: Year released: 1931 Narrator/daughter describes father as ``an Screenwriters): Eddie Cantor, industrial engineer and a leader in the field David Freedman,Morrie Ryskind and of scientific management. If that sounds Keene Thompson complicated,just say that he was an Original literary source: none efficiency expert.'' Director: A. Edward Sutherland Reviews: ``Heartwarming and funny ... Category: Comedy and musical nostalgic and corny at the same time'' Scheuer,1991,p. 175) Country of origin: USA Plot relating to efficiency expert: based on Character described as efficiency expert: the real-life story Frank Gilbreth,Sr Clifton Motion Picture Guide Nash and Ross,1986) Webb),an efficiency consultant who tried to Reviews: ``frantically paced comedy'' apply the same methods to his household, Scheuer,1991,p. 796); ``silly comic scenes ... with amusing results. For example,when he [with] Busby Berkeley overhead shots'' returns from a business trip,he summons Maltin,1998,p. 1031). his children and notes how long it takes Plot relating to efficiency expert: Owner of them to assemble. ``18 seconds,'' he says, bakery motto: ``Glorifying the American ``not bad,not bad. But I still think we can Doughnut'') seeks advice to improve his make it in less.'' He asks his wife to time him business. By mistake,the owner thinks that as he buttons his vest. Which direction is Eddie Simpson Eddie Cantor) is an faster? Seven efficiency expert and hires him to improve seconds from top to bottom while only five operations at the bakery. He falls in love and a half seconds the other way. Later,he is with the baker's daughter,while his invited to address the ``international neighbor and associated gangsters try to management conference in Prague.'' force him to help them steal the payroll from Him: It's going to be a pretty high powered the bakery's safe. meeting. Attract the best scientific minds in the world. Her: That's why it's such a wonderful Title: The Stand-In opportunity to show other countries what Year released: 1937 motion study really is. And to have your Screenwriters): Lamar Trotti methods accepted universally ... It will establish you as a leader in the whole field. [ 882 ] Mordecai Lee However,Gilbreth dies on his way Director: Charles Crichton Management history as told totheconference.Themovieendswithhis Category: Comedy by popular culture: the screen image of the efficiency expert wife delivering his paper in his stead and Country of origin: UK Management Decision then successfully taking over his business. Character described as efficiency expert: 40/9 [2002]881±894 Script see excerpt in plot summary) Title: Desk Set,aka His Other Woman Reviews: ``Sparkling British comedy with Year released: 1957 macabre overtones'' Maltin,1998,p. 90); Screenwriters): Henry and Phoebe Ephron ``tone shifts uncertainly between facile farce Original literary source: Play Marchant, and sharp satire'' Pym,1998,p. 62) 1956) Plot relating to efficiency expert: American Director: Walter Lang businesswoman Constance Cummings) meets the owner of an Edinburgh tweed cloth Category: Comedy factory: Country of origin: USA She: I'm a business consultant. Character described as efficiency expert: He: You mean a sort of efficiency expert? Maltin,1998,p. 338 She: Well,it's a little more than that. We try to apply psychology to business. Reviews: ``Great fun'' Maltin,1998,p. 338); He: Apply psychology to business? My ``laugh-filled comedy'' Scheuer,1991,p. 263) goodness,what will they think of next! ... Plot relating to efficiency expert: The head of Well,you're certainly efficient. a TV network hires efficiency expert Richard Sumner Spencer Tracy) to review its He hires her to modernize his family research and reference department. He business. The long-time and mild-mannered recommends that it be automated and chief accountant plots to murder her to computerized. restore the status quo ante.

Title: Pajama Game Title: I'm All Right Jack Year released: 1957 Year released: 1959 Screenwriters): George Abbott and Screenwriters): John Boulting and Richard Bissell Frank Harvey Original literary source: Broadway musical Original literary source: novel Hackney, Abbott and Bissell,1954); from the novel 1958) Bissell,1953) Director: John Boulting Director: George Abbott and Stanley Donen Category: Comedy Category: Musical and comedy Country of origin: UK Country of origin: USA Character described as efficiency expert: Character described as efficiency expert: BritMovie 2000) In script,``I'm a time study man'' Abbot and Reviews: ``Screamingly funny'' Scheuer, Bissell,1954,p. 3) 1991,p. 507); ``memorable comedy'' Maltin, Reviews: ``Exuberance'' Maltin,1998, 1998,p. 647) p. 1030); ``lively,infectious'' Scheuer,1991, Awards: Won two British Academy Awards, p. 796); ``Joyous'' Pym,1998,p. 676) for best actor and best screenplay and Plot relating to efficiency expert: Vernon nominated for most promising newcomer Hines Eddie Foy,Jr) is the time study man Plot relating to efficiency expert: Labor- at the Sleeptite Pajama Factory in Cedar management relations in a British factory Rapids,Iowa. He tries to increase production are complicated by the manager's attempt to by forcing the employees to work faster. He hide a time and motion expert John Le says to the workers,``I've got my stop watch Mesurier) among the workers to observe on you. Hurry up! Can't waste time!'' Abbott their pace. The expert documents how many and Bissell,1954,p. 7). His motto is `` tempus more crates could be loaded and unloaded if fugit'' Latin for ``time flies'') Abbott and the workers were more efficient. Using the Bissell,1954,p. 10). evidence,a new schedule is promulgated by management. The workers call a strike. Title: The Battle of the Sexes Year released: 1959 Title: The Rise and Rise of Michael Rimmer Screenwriters): Monja Danischewsky Year released: 1970 Original literary source: short story ``The Screenwriters): Peter Cook,John Cleese, Catbird Seat'' Thurber,1945) Graham Chapman and Kevin Billington [ 883 ] Mordecai Lee Original literary source: none that had helped design and build the nuclear Management history as told Director: Kevin Billington aircraft carrier USS Nimitz in the 1970s. The by popular culture: the screen Defense Department has asked him to image of the efficiency expert Category: Political spoof accompany the Nimitz on one of its routine Management Decision Country of origin: UK 40/9 [2002]881±894 cruises near Hawaii. An officer asks him Character described as efficiency expert: about his job: Pym,1998,p. 760 Lasky: I'm a systems analyst. Officer: laughs) `An efficiency expert right?' Reviews: ``Jokes fall a bit thin and the script Lasky: `Yeah,you could say that' In the can't make up its mind where to go out for novelization,he answers differently and narrative or a string of weak sketches'' Pym, acknowledges the negative image of the 1998,p. 760) efficiency expert. ``'And another way of Plot relating to efficiency expert: Michael saying efficiency expert,' Lasky said drily Rimmer Peter Cook),a business efficiency [sic],`is that; you're a son of a bitch fifty miles expert,becomes very successful in business from out of town.''' [Caidin,1980,p. 23].) and then in politics because of his reliance on Later,a different officer asks for elaboration polling the audience. He eventually becomes about his profession: prime minister of Great Britain and then Lasky: I'm a little bit of everything ...I look at dictator by submitting every issue to the way you people do things and,you know, national referendum. if I can think of any alternatives,I write up a report and submit it to the Department of Defense. Title: The Box Officer: Think you'll find some? Year released: 1975 Lasky: There are always alternatives, Commander emphasis in dialogue). Screenwriters): Tom Hegarty Original literary source: Television series of Lasky's presence on the Nimitz proves same name indispensable. The ship is battered by an unprecedented electrical storm and then Director: Paul Eddy loses all communications with Navy Category: Comedy headquarters. The captain and senior officers Country of origin: Australia try to figure out what has happened. Lasky Character described as efficiency expert: insists that they consider another Fountain 2000) alternative,no matter how incredible it may be. He points out that the data they have is Reviews: ``Sexy satire'' IMDb,2000); ``madcap consistent with the ship going through a time bunch'' Fountain,2000) warp to 6 December 1941,the day before the Plot relating to efficiency expert: Owner of TV attack on Pearl Harbor. Eventually,all station hires efficiency expert Dr S. M. Winter officers agree that this could be only correct Cornelia Frances) in the forlorn hope of explanation. making the station profitable. Employees first try to appease and impress her,but their efforts Title: Spotswood,aka The Efficiency Expert go awry. Then they try to sabotage her efforts. Year released: 1991 Screenwriters): Max Dann and Title: Final Countdown Andrew Knight 1992) Year released: 1980 Original literary source: none Screenwriters): David Ambrose,Gerry Director: Mark Joffe Davis,Thomas Hunter and Peter Powell Category: Mark Joffe Original literary source: story by Thomas Hunter,Peter Powell and David Ambrose. Country of origin: Australia Novelization of screenplay Caidin,1980) Character described as efficiency expert: Director: Don Taylor Alternate title of film Category: Science fiction and drama Reviews: ``Pleasant farce'' Maltin,1998, p. 392); ``credible note of pain [mixed] into the Country of origin: USA light-hearted proceedings'' Pym,1998,p. 850) Character described as efficiency expert: Awards: Won three awards from the Script and novelization Australian Film Institute and nominated in Reviews: ``Entertaining'' Scheuer,1991, six other categories p. 347); ``satisfying fantasy yarn'' Maltin, Plot relating to efficiency expert: Errol 1998,p. 442) Wallace Anthony Hopkins) is a consultant Plot relating to efficiency expert: Warren who has just worked on downsizing of a large Lasky Martin Sheen) works for a company auto parts factory. His next assignment is a [ 884 ] Mordecai Lee small moccasin factory that seems from and I will retire to the nerdery with our Management history as told another era. When he first meets Mr Ball,the calculators.'' by popular culture: the screen owner,he explains: image of the efficiency expert Wallace: We are an independent consultancy Title: The Champagne Safari Management Decision providing an independent assessment of your 40/9 [2002]881±894 Year released: 1995 business performance. Ball: ``Time and Motion'',that's the Screenwriters): Harold Crooks, expression isn't it? John Kramer and Steve Lucas Wallace: Well that's a rather dated term,there Original literary source: none are elements of performance orientated analysis certainly. But we look at your whole Director: John Kramer and George Ungar operation,not just manufacturing,but your Category: documentary equity position,debt to equity ration,market Country of origin: Canada determinants,tax minimisation,the whole corporate structure Dann and Knight,1992, Character described as efficiency expert: p. 11). Dudek 1997) However,Wallace's actual activities belie his Reviews: ``Holds your attention'' Kirkland,1995) fancy words. After observing a worker,he says: Plot relating to efficiency expert: Charles It's a waste of time. You make what? Fifty Bedaux was a self-made millionaire in the trips a day? You must waste twenty seconds USA in the 1930s as an industrialist and then every time you do that. Ten minutes a day, as an efficiency expert. He pioneered new say fifty,60 minutes a week. That's an hour ways to speed up assembly lines. The every week you could be saving Dann and documentary is a mixture of his biography Knight,p. 19). and footage of Bedaux's expedition across the However,the emotionless Wallace slowly uncharted Canadian Rockies. He later hosted begins to see for the first time the human toll the wedding of abdicated British King of his profession. Eventually,he urges the Edward VIII to Wallis Simpson and toured owner to keep things as just the way they are. Nazi factories with them. As a Nazi Yet,this heartwarming ending is followed by sympathizer he was arrested for treason and a coda: ``Ball's Moccasins closed two years committed suicide in 1944. later. Arthur Ball died three months after that. The Moccasin Factory now houses an Title: Dunston Checks In arts collective'' Dann and Knight,p. 82). Year released: 1996 Screenwriters): John Hopkins and Title: Tommy Boy Bruce Graham Year released: 1995 Original literary source: Story by Screenwriters): Bonnie Turner and Terry John Hopkins Turner; also,Fred Wolf uncredited) Director: Ken Kwapis Original literary source: none Category: Comedy for children Director: Peter Segal Country of origin: Canada Category: Comedy Character described as efficiency expert: Country of origin: USA Feeney 1996) Character described as efficiency expert: Reviews: ``Easy to take kids' comedy'' Knight-Rider Newspapers 1996) Maltin,1998,p. 383); ``obvious,trite and Reviews: ``Cinematic folly'' Pym,1998, unfunny'' Feeney,1996) p. 925); ``utterly predictable comedy with Plot relating to efficiency expert: Jewel thief scattershot laughs'' Maltin,1998,p. 1415) takes room at opulent hotel in preparation Awards: 1996 MTV Movie award for best for heisting guests' jewelry. Hotel owner Mrs on-screen duo Dubrow Faye Dunaway) considers herself an efficiency expert and is constantly riding Plot relating to efficiency expert: Inept heir the hotel staff. For example,she says,``I like tries to save the family business after the psychotic people. They get things done.'' sudden death of his father. He goes on the Dubrow thinks the thief is actually a hotel road to sell the company's products critic travelling incognito. Trying to impress accompanied by corporation's efficiency him,she makes life even more miserable for expert,Richard Hayden David Spade). the employees. Hayden is the comic counterpoint to the bumbling hero,a fussbudget who is super- Title: American Beauty organized and unemotional. For example, when given an assignment,he says he'll ``run Year released: 1999 these figures by accounting. My fellow nerds Screenwriters): Alan Ball 1999) [ 885 ] Mordecai Lee Original literary source: none Category: Comedy Management history as told Director: Sam Mendes Country of origin: USA by popular culture: the screen image of the efficiency expert Category: Comedy and drama Character described as efficiency expert: Management Decision Country of origin: USA Script 40/9 [2002]881±894 Character described as efficiency expert: Reviews: ``Comic cry of rage against the Script Ball,1999,p. 9) nightmare of modern office life'' Ebert,1999); ``hilarious sendup of cubicle culture'' Reviews: ``Satire so scalding ... strikes an Kempley,1999) unusually successful balance between the mordant and bright ... piercing vision'' Plot relating to efficiency expert: Peter Maslin,1999) Gibbons is a long-suffering ``everyman'' who hates his computer-programming job. The Awards: five Oscars,including best actor, company hires two efficiency experts,Bob best director,best picture and best writing Slydell John C. McGinley) and Bob Porter Plot relating to efficiency expert: To cut costs, Paul Willson) to downsize the company. the management at a media trade publication They explain their approach: brings in efficiency expert Brad Dupree Porter We always like to avoid confrontation, Barry Del Sherman). Dupree then meets whenever possible. with one of the employees: Slydell: We find it's always better to fire Dupree: So I'm sure you can understand the people on Friday. Studies have statistically need to cut corners around here. shown that there's less of a chance of an Burnham: Oh,sure. Times are tight,and you incident if you do it at the end of the week. gotta free up cash. Gotta spend money to make money. Right? Gibbons wants to be fired. He arrives at work Dupree: Exactly ...Nobody's getting fired yet. late and leaves early,wears inappropriate That's why we're having everyone write out a attire and ignores his boss. In the twisted job description,mapping out in detail how world of corporate thinking,this standout they can contribute. That way,management behavior impresses the efficiency experts. can assess who's valuable and ± They see a ``straight shooter with upper Burnham interrupting): ± Who's expendable. Dupree: It's just business Ball,1999,pp. 6-7). management written all over him.'' Gibbons is promoted. Title: Mr Death: The Rise and Fall of Fred A. Leuchter, Jr Title: The Specialist,aka Un Specialiste and Ein Spezialist Year released: 1999 Year released: 1999 Germany and France), Screenwriters): none credited 2000 USA) Original literary source: none Screenwriters): Rony Brauman and Director: Errol Morris Eyal Sivan Category: documentary Original literary source: none Country of origin: Canada Director: Eyal Sivan Character described as efficiency expert: Category: documentary Insomniac Movie Reviews 2000) Country of origin: French,German,Belgian, Reviews: ``Discomforting'' Howe,2000); Austrian and Israeli co-production ``disquieting'' Morris,2000) Character described as efficiency expert: Awards: Best documentary from Dallas-Fort Cockrell 1999a) Worth Film Critics Association,nominated Reviews: ``Singularly assured,sure-to-be for best directing of a documentary by controversial documentary ... Cutting edge, Directors Guild of America unique'' Cockrell,1999b) Plot relating to efficiency expert: The career Plot relating to efficiency expert: Portrait of of efficiency expert Leuchter,who worked to Adolph Eichman,the chief Nazi functionary improve the methods of killing convicts for implementing the Holocaust,who sentenced to death and then became a considered himself merely a logistics holocaust denier. efficiency expert who was following orders. Most of the footage comes from Eichman's Title: Office Space 1961 trial in Jerusalem. Year released: 1999 Screenwriters): Mike Judge Title: Cast Away Original literary source: none Year released: 2000 Director: Mike Judge Screenwriters): William Broyles 2000) [ 886 ] Mordecai Lee Original literary source: none shoe factory,magazine and Fed Ex. Only four Management history as told Director: Robert Zemeckis take place in government: US Navy ship,the by popular culture: the screen Holocaust,execution equipment at prisons image of the efficiency expert Category: Drama and adventure and partly) the UK prime ministership. Management Decision Country of origin: USA 40/9 [2002]881±894 Other commonalties include gender and Character described as efficiency expert: population category. Efficiency experts in the Holden 2000) 20 movies are predominantly white men, Reviews: ``As compelling a cinematic with only three white women. Most films adventure as any Hollywood has produced'' occur in anonymous urban areas. A few of Holden,2000) the locales are identified,including New York City,Los Angeles,Cedar Rapids Iowa), Plot relating to efficiency expert: Chuck London and Edinburgh. When the efficiency Noland Tom Hanks) is a troubleshooter for expert is out of his natural urban habitat,he Federal Express. When critiquing the slow is not as effective or successful,whether handling of packages at the Moscow shipping professionally City Slicker, Spotswood)orin center in Russia,he berates the employees, his private life Cast Away). ``Time rules over us without mercy ...We live The most striking trend is the change in or we die by the clock ...87 hours [to deliver a the presentation of the efficiency expert. In package] is a shameless outrage,87 hours is the earliest films,he is the hero of the movie, an eternity.'' Later,a FedEx plane he is on a central character that the audience is crashes in the Pacific. He is the only survivor rooting for to be successful. He is the hero in to make it to an uninhabited and remote the first three movies 1918,1931 and 1937) island. During the four years he is stranded and is one of the heroes in the Final there,he discovers that to survive he needs to Countdown 1980). In two later movies,he view time in a totally different way. becomes the hero by rejecting efficiency preoccupation Spotswood, Cast Away). Whether hero or not,the efficiency expert Trends in film portrayals of the efficiency expert shifts from a comedic and laughable character to a generally serious,menacing and near-evil What do these 20 films tell us about popular character. Of the 20 movies,the first ten culture's take on management history? The movies 1918-1975) are all comedies and efficiency expert is an enduring profession satires. The depiction of the efficiency expert over time,first depicted in silent era movies is in good humor,usually as the butt of good- and continuing through to the twenty-first natured joking. He is presented in broad, century. This profession is widely recognized satiric and near-absurd ways. While he may and associated with developed societies and want to hurry things up,his work doesn't cultures throughout the world. The profession inflict serious pain on the victims. The is universal,catholic and enduring. viewers don't see any real harm being done as Common themes include a great diversity a result of the machinations of the efficiency in the efficiency experts' nationality, expert. Since there is no suffering occurring, profession of origin and venue where the comic tone of the movie can be maintained expertise is applied. These movies were throughout. Thus,from 1918 to 1975,the produced in the USA,Great Britain, search for efficiency was not depicted as Australia and Canada. One of the necessarily a bad thing. It may be a comic documentaries was a pan-European activity,but it is understandable that various production,involving French,German, businesses have a goal of accomplishing Belgian,Austrian and Israeli companies. efficiency. The expert is usually not a hero These efficiency experts are citizens of the and is mostly a figure of mirth. USA,Great Britain,Australia,Canada and The last ten movies on the list 1980-2000) Germany. Their professions of origin include present a very different picture. A majority accounting,computers,management six) are not comedies. They consist of three consulting,survey research polling,systems documentaries about despicable people,two analysis,hotel management and top dramas and a science fiction fantasy about corporate management. the possibility of preventing the 1941 attack They apply their expertise largely in the on Pearl Harbor. This indicates a shift in world of business administration,rather popular culture's perception of the efficiency than public administration. Sixteen of the expert. The mood of these movies becomes movies take place in the private sector: much darker during the final quarter of the hotels,bakeries,Hollywood,family life,TV twentieth century. The tone shifts to a much network research department,pajama more serious one,with depiction of evil or factory,armaments factory,a tweed clothing near-evil efficiency experts. Whether in company,TV station,polling organization, documentaries,dramas and even one of the [ 887 ] Mordecai Lee comedies Office Space),the efficiency expert Date episode first aired: 18 August 1952 Management history as told is someone who creates real suffering. In two Screenwriters): not available by popular culture: the screen movies,he is the source of ultimate suffering: image of the efficiency expert Director: not available death. In two other movies,the viewer sees Management Decision Character described as efficiency expert: 40/9 [2002]881±894 the efficiency expert deciding which employees will be fired. Generally,these Eisner and Krinsky,1984,p. 600 movies present the audience with victims for Plot relating to efficiency expert: Vern prods which it feels empathy. Nothing good or his daughter,Margie,to find someone admirable results from the work of the ambitious to marry. She teaches him a lesson efficiency expert. He is to be loathed, by dating Dillard Crumbly Alvy Moore),an despised and reviled. Efficiency is a bad obnoxious efficiency expert who is driving thing and the professional is a villain. everyone in the office crazy. The changing image of the efficiency expert,from entertaining to negative,is Title of series: The Abbott and Costello Show particularly associated with two of the nine Category: Situation comedy decades of movies covered in this review. Title of episode with efficiency expert: There is a distinct clustering of the bi-polar Efficiency Experts presentation of the professional. Of the 20 Date episode first aired: 1953 movies,five were released in the 1950s and a sixth in 1960). They were all comedies and Screenwriters): Clyde Bruckman satires. Eight movies were released in the Original literary source: Long-running 1990s and a ninth in 2000). While they were a comedy act in film mix of comedies,documentaries and drama, Director: Jean Yarbrough in six of them the efficiency expert is a loathsome character. This presents a concise Character described as efficiency expert: take on popular culture's generalizations Cox and Lofflin,1990,p. 206 about eras. The 1950s were a time of Plot relating to efficiency expert: Bud and optimism,belief in progress,respect for Lou have landed jobs as efficiency experts. authority and deference to expertise. Their first client has two daughters who are Improving efficiency was a good thing. The spending too much money. Bud's and Lou's 1990s were a sour time of insensitive and job is to rein in the girls' spending. However, impersonal corporations engaging in large the girls trick the duo into taking them to a layoffs. Improving efficiency meant gambling casino where they lose all their increasing profits by firing employees. money Mulholland,1975,p. 252). Efficiency was a bad thing for individuals, even if it was good for profits. Title of series: Norby Category: Comedy Title of episodes with efficiency expert: Television portrayals of the permanent character in the series efficiency expert Date episodes first aired: appeared in most Title of series: The Ruggles episodes,January-April,1955 Category: Comedy Screenwriters): not available Title of episode with efficiency expert: Director: not available Charlie's Promotion Producer: David Swift Date episode first aired: 1950 Character described as efficiency expert: Screenwriters): not available Terrace,1991,p. 521 Director: not available Plot relating to efficiency expert: Mr Rudge Ralph Dunn) is vice president and the Character described as efficiency expert: efficiency expert at the Pearl River First Ebony Showcase Theatre 2000) National Bank in Pearl River,New York. Plot relating to efficiency expert: Charlie Ruggles expects a big raise after Title of series: National Velvet recommending an efficiency expert to the Category: Drama company. Instead,the expert eliminates Charlie's job. Title of episode with efficiency expert: The Efficiency Expert Title of series: My Little Margie Date episode first aired: April 30,1961 Category: Situation comedy Screenwriters): not available Title of episode with efficiency expert: Original literary source: Characters from the Efficiency Expert 1944 movie; from the novel Bagnold,1935) [ 888 ] Mordecai Lee Director: Abner Biberman Title of series: The Man From UNCLE Management history as told Character described as efficiency expert: Category: Adventure fantasy and satire by popular culture: the screen image of the efficiency expert National Velvet Efficiency Expert 2000) Title of episode with efficiency expert: Management Decision This TV series kept the key characters from The Man from Thrush Affair 40/9 [2002]881±894 the film and book,but made other major Date episode first aired: 4 December 1967 changes. While the movie took place in England in the late 1920s,the TV program Screenwriters): Robert I. Holt takes place in the USA in contemporary Director: James Sheldon times. In the movie,Velvet's father was a Character described as efficiency expert: butcher and they lived in a small town. On Koenig,2000 TV,he was a dairy farmer.) Plot relating to efficiency expert: Good guy Plot relating to efficiency expert: Harrison Petros accidentally kills bad guy and Willaby is hired by Winters Dairy to evaluate efficiency expert Filene. Good guy Napoleon the efficiency of the 20 farms that supply it Solo assumes Filene's identity to penetrate with milk. A young production engineer, secret Mediterranean island base of evil trained at an agricultural college,he visits organization THRUSH. To try to impersonate the farms and brusquely directs them how to the efficiency expert,Solo acts like an increase their milk output. To the lead obnoxious bureaucrat. This permits him to character,he criticizes the efficiency of her penetrate the base. family's farm,saying,``Your father is using the best possible area for a silo as a barn and Title of series: Black Sheep Squadron,aka paddock for a race horse.'' Willaby Baa Baa Black Sheep recommends discontinuing the dairy's contract with ten farms because their Category: Comedy and war production is below his expectations. Title of episode with efficiency expert: Velvet's father organizes the other farmers ``The Fastest Gun'' whose contracts are renewed to refuse to Date episode first aired: 22 March 1977 supply the dairy unless it also renews all 20 Screenwriters): Stephen J. Cannell and contracts. The dairy relents. Philip De Guere Title of series: Flintstones Director: Philip De Guere Category: Comedy and cartoon Character described as efficiency expert: Morton and Fergus,2000 Title: of episode with efficiency expert: ``High School Fred'' Plot relating to efficiency expert: Captain Floyd Matson Paul Lichtman) is a efficiency Date episode first aired: 7 December 1962 expert during the Second World War. He Screenwriters): Warren Foster studies the operations of the Black Sheep Director: not available Squadron that is based on a Pacific Island. Character described as efficiency expert: Cannistra,2000 Title of series: The Commish Plot relating to efficiency expert: Category: Comedy and drama Fred Flintstone's boss,Mr Slate,sends him Title of episode with efficiency expert: back to finish high school on the advice of an ``The Hatchet'' efficiency expert. Date episode first aired: 16 November 1991 Screenwriters): not available Title of series: F Troop Director: not available Category: Comedy and western Title of episode with efficiency expert: ``Is Character described as efficiency expert: this Fort Really Necessary?'' Mandel,2000 Date episode first aired: 6 April 1967 Plot relating to efficiency expert: Small town Police Commissioner Anthony ``Tony'' J. Screenwriters): Austin and Irma Kalish Scali clashes with the city's efficiency expert. Director: Hal March Character described as efficiency expert: Title of series: Melrose Place Lemaster and Fergus,1999 Category: Drama Plot relating to efficiency expert: Major Title of episodes with efficiency expert: Terence McConnell Charles Drake) is an ``Bye Bye Baby''; ``They Shoot Mothers,Don't army efficiency expert. He has been sent to They?'' review the operations at Fort Courage,with Date episodes first aired: 2 January and the authority to shut it down. 16 January 1995

[ 889 ] Mordecai Lee Screenwriters): Allison Robbins, Date episodes first aired: 30 September, Management history as told Dee Johnson and Carol Mendelsohn 28 October,4 and 11 November 1997 by popular culture: the screen image of the efficiency expert Directors: Jefferson Kibbee; Charles Correll Screenwriters): Brian Kelley; Joe Furey; Management Decision Character described as efficiency expert: Josh Lieb; Drake Sather 40/9 [2002]881±894 Mitchelmore 2000a) Director: Tom Cherones Plot relating to efficiency expert: Dr Peter Character described as efficiency expert: Burns co-owns an advertising agency. He Klobas,1999 hires efficiency expert Caitlin Mills Jasmine Plot relating to efficiency expert: The owner of Guy) to study,supposedly,the agency's the radio station hires efficiency expert operations. She becomes a major headache Andrea Lauren Graham) to cut costs. The for its president,Amanda Woodward. Peter staff tries to prevent her from firing the inept and Caitlin are actually conspiring to nullify Mathew,but fails. Dave Nelson,the station Amanda's employment contract and have manager,tries to rehire Mathew. Meanwhile, Caitlin replace her. Andrea hires another person to share Dave's responsibilities. She then forces all newsroom Title of series: Living Single employees to take lie detector tests. The news Category: Comedy room staff is anxious about the results, especially Lisa,who has a criminal past. Title of episode with efficiency expert: Despite this,Andrea promotes her. ``Stormy Weather'' Date episode first aired: 2 February 1995 Title of series: ER Screenwriters): Becky Hartman Category: Drama Director: Ellen Gittelsohn Title of episodes with efficiency expert: ``Freak Show; Obstruction of Justice; Do You Character described as efficiency expert: See What I See?; Sharp Relief; Carter's Choice'' Mitchelmore 2000b) Date episodes first aired: 20 November,11 Plot relating to efficiency expert: Kyle Barker and 18 December 1997; 15 and 28 January 1998 races to a store to buy a pregnancy test for a friend,partially to get away from an ill-advised Screenwriters): Neal Baer; Lance Gentile; one-night stand with Melissa Roxanne Linda Gase; Samantha Howard Corbin; Beckford),an annoying efficiency expert. John Wells Directors): Darnell Martin; Richard Thorpe; Title of company: ``OfficeMax'' Sarah Pia Anderson; Christopher Chulack; Category: Commercials John Wells Character described as efficiency expert: Titles of TV ads with efficiency expert: Buff,2000a Not available Plot relating to efficiency expert: Due to fiscal Date TV commercials first aired: Mid-1997 problems,Dr Kerry Weaver considers Screenwriters): not available affiliating the ER with Synergix,an ER Director: not available management group specializing in balancing Character described as efficiency expert: budgets. The company sends Dr Ellis West Zbar,1997 Clancy Brown) to observe. Weaver agrees to attend a conference on ER management with Three humorous TV commercials featured the West in St Barts. When back,Weaver begins company's stickman icon,Max,as a lobbying the other doctors to approve having wisecracking office efficiency expert. He is Synergix manage the ER. However,Weaver shown interacting with actor Ben Stein,talk begins to question West's budget cuts and show host Regis Philbin and an animated learns that Synergix closes most trauma character superimposed in a classic movie centers it acquires. She then campaigns scene. OfficeMax's ad agency had identified the against the affiliation. market niche for this advertising in efficiency terms,namely the small businessperson who is Title of series: Just Shoot Me ``pragmatic,time-poor,extremely cost- Category: Comedy conscious and skeptical of big-business bureaucracy'' Campbell-Ewald,2000). Title of episode with efficiency expert: ``Eve of Destruction'' Title of series: News Radio Date episode first aired: 5 May 1998 Category: Comedy Screenwriters): Jack Burditt and Pam Brady Title: of episodes with efficiency expert: Director: Pamela Fryman ``Planbee; The Public Domain; Super Karate Character described as efficiency expert: Monkey Death Car; French Diplomacy'' Buff,2000b [ 890 ] Mordecai Lee Plot relating to efficiency expert: Efficiency depicted efficiency experts 1950 to 1976,a Management history as told expert Bill Slatton Dan Butler) is hired to period of 25 years. Then,for 15 years,this by popular culture: the screen review the magazine's operations. With his image of the efficiency expert author has been unable to locate any `spit and polish' attitude,it seems that he is television appearances of an efficiency Management Decision 40/9 [2002]881±894 more interested in bullying the staff than expert. After that,he again made frequent improving their performance. It turns out television appearances,seven times in seven that he really is the publisher's caddy. years,1991 to 1998 with four in the 1997-1998 season). In the first grouping,the efficiency expert is amusing and relatively innocent ± Trends in television portrayals of even if a bad guy. In the second grouping,he the efficiency expert is a much more foreboding person,the An efficiency expert was depicted in 16 ``heavy'' in the plot. This parallels the television productions between 1950 and 1998. changes in the image of the efficiency expert Thirteen of those programs were sitcoms or in movies. Finally,like the movies,the TV efficiency another category that included comedy. experts work mostly in the private sector. Of Hence,the television's main presentation of 16 appearances,11 take place in businesses, the efficiency expert is light-hearted. Since a including banking,farming,quarrying, sitcom requires that its characters are advertising,office supplies,radio permanent and issues are generally resolved broadcasting and high fashion publishing. during a single episode,the work of the Only five take place in the public sector: US efficiency expert never has serious negative Army,US Air Force,municipal government, effect on the characters in the show. public hospital and a secret government spy Nonetheless,although the work of agency. television's efficiency experts is in a comic environment,their character is not necessarily comedic. In only three Abbott and Costello,Norby,Office Max),he is Summary and conclusions likeable. In one,the efficiency expert was a During the twentieth century,popular permanent member of the cast. Given the culture has changed the meaning of the term sitcom formula,Norby's Mr Rudge was an ``efficiency expert.'' While the original amusing and benevolent person. meaning was associated with time and In the other ten appearances in a comedy, motion studies Pajama Game, I'm All Right the efficiency expert is an unlikeable person. Jack),the title metamorphosed to mean Generally the efficiency expert is seeking to practically anyone connected with do something that the audience disapproves unpleasantness in the workplace. As seen in of,such as firing someone  Ruggles, movies,the efficiency expert expanded to NewsRadio) or cutting costs Commish, Just include a fussy hotel owner Dunstan Checks Shoot Me, ER). In Living Single,the efficiency In),a management consultant  Spotswood), expert is presented out of the workplace,but hired guns who fire employees Office Space, her profession is used to justify her American Beauty) and a corporate obnoxious personality. In the fantasy satire troubleshooter Cast Away). of Man from UNCLE,when the hero wants to While film has been a mass entertainment impersonate an efficiency expert,he acts as medium for about a century,television has an unlikeable and stereotypical bureaucrat. been so for about half that time,roughly 50 In three TV appearances,the efficiency years. Nonetheless,just like in the movies, expert is in a drama National Velvet, Melrose the efficiency expert has appeared on the Place, ER). In all,he is a ``heavy'' in the plot. television screen since the initial emergence In other respects as well,television's of the medium. The first efficiency expert on efficiency experts closely parallel their film was in 1918 during the silent era and the colleagues in films. They are overwhelmingly first one on television was in 1950. Like the male ten of 13) and only three are women movies,the TV efficiency expert has been a Living Single, Melrose Place, NewsRadio). continuing presence since then with one The TV efficiency expert is never the hero major gap). This indicates the pervasiveness that the audience is cheering on. He is never and permanence of the efficiency expert in the one who saves the business,only the one popular culture. who is a threat to its current composition and In a century of enormous upheaval and even existence. change,the professional goals of the The activities that make them unlikeable efficiency expert in popular culture have become sharper from the 1950s to the 1990s. been relatively fixed. The significant change The chronology of TV's efficiency experts has been in how films and television perceive reflects a major interval. Nine TV programs the efficiency expert. The trends in film and [ 891 ] Mordecai Lee television depictions of the efficiency expert Cannistra,R.M. 2000), Flintstones Episodes, Management history as told are similar. Beginning as a comic,humorous available at: www.acs.brockport.edu/ by popular culture: the screen and largely harmless figure,the efficiency ~robert/flintstone_episodes.html accessed image of the efficiency expert expert gradually turns into a feared and 15 September). Management Decision 40/9 [2002]881±894 despised professional. Champoux,J.E. 1999),``Film as a teaching This examination has been limited to film resource'', Journal of Management Inquiry, and US television. However,other forms of Vol. 8 No. 2,pp. 206-17. mass entertainment,such as radio,pulp Cockrell,E. 1999a),``Urban feel: the Berlin Film fiction and literature have also depicted Festival says goodbye to the old west and on efficiency experts. ``The Efficiency Expert'' its way to a new home'',12 February, was the title of two radio episodes,Mel available at: www.nitrateonline.com/1999/ Blanc's national network radio comedy fberlin99-1.html accessed 10 September 2000). series on 10 September 1946 Radio Showcase, Cockrell,E. 1999b),``The specialist'', Variety, 2000) and the sitcom series ``Life of Riley'' on Vol. 374 No. 2,1-7 March,p. 81. 11 January 1947 Mintz,2000). In print,the Converse,F. 1934), The Efficiency Expert, title has been used for a 1921 serialized novel John Day,New York,NY. Cooper,C.L. and Argyris,C. Eds) 1998), by Edgar Rice Burroughs creator of Tarzan) The Concise Blackwell Encyclopedia of 1966),a science fiction short story by W.R. 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