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Geological factors part in the Minoan society vulnerability process (-) G. Poursoulis

1. Introduction 2. Presentation of the historical situation The historical data concerning various Minoan sites The part of the geological factors in the Minoan like palaces as well as private houses on the whole society’s vulnerability process is one subject of my Cretish territory (Poursoulis, 1999) and the multi-disciplinary research project. From a long time interpretations of the economical Linear B whritings I am interested by the Minoan society’s evolution (Bennet, 1985, 1990; Duhoux, 1976; Duhoux and through the question of the minoan palaces Morpurgo-Davis, 1985) found in and also on destruction. The results I obtained until now in the Greek sites like Mycenae, Pylos and so on, led me analysing the Cretish seismicity, the architectural to consider that changes happened in the Minoan remains of numerous archaeological sites and the society. The result of these changes was a complete human comportment in seismic areas led me to think centralisation of the economical and political powers in a unique palatial structure: that of Knossos after that the historical complex situation I found in Crete destruction of the three other palaces found until now during the Bronze Age, was connected with the (Table 1). evolution of the Minoan society, generated by human Effectively, the continuous economical expansion of actions more than by natural phenomena. It appears the Minoan society as well as the regular increase of that, at a particular moment of its history, the minoan population, visible by the step up of settlements on the society, until then prosperous on the national scale whole island from 3000 to 1500 BC (Fig. 1a,b), and influencial on the international one, supported combined with an important developement of such a weakening that it offered to the Mycenaeans the external exchanges at this same date, involved that it possibility to supersede the Minoans inside Crete, by probably became necessary to manage more narrowly the agricultural and artisanal productions, firstly for taking the political power, as well as on the scale of 25 the satisfaction of the internal consummation needs in economical exchanges with all the Méditeranean area. continuous augmentation and secondly to answer to So, to understand the reasons of this weakening, we the external demand also in continuous increase must take into account all the different factors that The result of this situation visibly was a complete had able to play a part in the process, which had put centralisation of the economical and political powers, the Minoan society in a vulnerable state. Generally, a which led to put out of use the three palaces of Malia, and and let the palace of Knossos historical situation was more the result of numerous managing alone the economy of the whole island. This combination of circumstances, than the effect of a ultra-centralised system which seems to had worked unique factor. Among all the factors we could until 1300 BC results however with the hold of power consider, geological events represent the first stage of by the Mycenaeans at this date and further to the our research. decline of the Minoan civilisation.

The Mediterranean Instability from Yesterday to Today/L’instabilité méditerranéenne d’hier à aujourd’hui

Table 1 Chronological table for Bronze Age period in Crete Dates (BC) Phases Important events for the most known sites 7000–6500 Neolithic Aceramic First settings at Knossos 6500–5700 Old Neolithic First occupation at Palaikastro and Phaestos, numerous settlements in caves at Epano Archanes First occupation in west Crete, especially in caves around 5700–4700 Middle Neolithic 4700–3250 Last Neolithic First occupation on Lassithi plain 3250–2500 Old Minoan I First occupation at Kato Zakros, Gournia 2500–2300 Old Minoan II First occupation at Myrtos Pyrgos and Phournou Korifi 2300–2100 Old Minoan III First occupation at Malia, Vassiliki and Tylissos 2100–1900 Middle Minoan IA Beginning of exchanges with the east Mediterranean area Construction of the palaces at Phaestos, Malia and Knossos Multiplication of settlements on the whole island of Crete. 1900–1800 Middle Minoan IB 1800–1700 Middle Minoan II 1630–1628 Date of Thera’s eruption after the physico-chemical analyses 1700–1600 Middle Minoan III Transformation of the palatial and some ordinary buildings to use the new symmetrical plan divided in dynamic, seismo- resistant blocs. Construction of the palace at Kato Zakros; script used at Knossos 1600–1500 Last Minoan IA Transformations in the palace of Kato Zakros 1500 Date of Thera’s eruption after the pottery found at Akrotiri 1500–1450 Last Minoan IB Around 1450 BC, the three palaces of Malia, Phaestos and Zakros are set on fire and abandoned 26 The occupation of Crete was at its highest level around 1500 BC Multiplication of the settlements on the whole occupied sites, with an important concentration around Knossos 1450–1400 Last Minoan II Phase very strongly associated with the LMIB period and could constitute only one phase with it 1400– 1350 Last Minoan IIIA1 Burning of the east part of “Maison E” at Malia 1350– 1300 Last Minoan IIIA2 Appearance of the Linear B script on mud shelves, burning at Knossos

Geological factors part in the Minoan society vulnerability process (Crete-Greece)

Table 1 Chronological table for Bronze Age period in Crete Dates (BC) Phases Important events for the most known sites 1300–1200 Last Minoan IIIB Some badly constructed walls are located at Phaestos. Plan of Mycenaean type at Malia Palace’s North Court location Bad constructions on the east part of the “Maison E” at Malia Decrease of the occupied settlements on the whole territory, except at Epano Archanes where the occupation continues. The occupation continues in the east part of the palace of Knossos, after the burning and the appearance of the Mycenaeans in Crete 1200–1050 Last Minoen IIIC Period of crisis, collapse of occupation, Knossos continues; but it is the end of its power Appearance of a first cremation at Malia in “Maison E” (foreign element of Mycenaean origin) [New Dates after “The Aegean Civilisations” by R. Treuil et al. (1989), in P.U.F. Nouvelle Clio (Éd.)].

The date of Mycenaeans intervention in Crete is consider that the Mycenaeans intervention would discussed by the specialists of Minoan archaeology. This rather be situated near 1300 BC. Several arguments date is estimated on the base of Linear B tablets one, came to support this assumption. tablets found in the palace of Knossos and transcribing Mycenaean Greek. Some archaeologists want to consider these tablets contemporaneous with the palaces 2.1. The decreased number of occupied destruction localised in 1450 BC and by this way render settlements the Mycenaeans responsible for these destructions. Other archaeologists on the contrary (Palmer, 1969, p. 34; The war conflicts, generally, let remarkable traces in the Popham, 1970) gave these tablets a latest date, near territory’s occupation. An important decrease of the 1300–1250 BC, based on their analysis on the shapes and occupied settlements number could be a sign of conflict. decorations of ceramics found in the last state of Knossos It could represent an increase in mortality, resulting to palace, the same one in which were found the tablets. the battles, but also to the starvations generated by the My analysis of numerous Minoan settlements impossibility to produce sufficent quantities of the evolution on the whole Cretish territory led me to foodstuffs necessary to the day needs of the population.

StavrosGh A. Ioannis Koumarès O A. Triada Gh A. Onouphrios Chordaki Aphrata Kambani Akrotiri T Gramvousa ChaniaGh Maleme HT GoA. Marina Galatas O A. Pelagia Modi 27 NerokourosH H Kalyviani Vrysès Gh PerivoliaGo O2 Myronikitas Panormos Achladia H T HItanos O Drapania Myloniana Stavromenos Varypetro .Vai Alikianos H2 Platanos Debla Melidoni O3Héraklion HAmnissos Chani Ndalia Sissi Skourachlada Gavalochori Agelliana H T2 S Pigi Samonas Perama Go Marathos Kokkini Chani Chersonissos SItanos/Eileithia Malia H O T2Gazi Gouvès Platyvola PlatanièsH M. Arsani Viran Episkopi Prasan K. Vatheia H2 Chalepa Gh O H2 O Elaia GtSkotino Asphardon Therisos Rethymnon Kyani Akti Chamalevri Choumeri O Anopoli Koxari T Topolia Adele O Kalamas Kavrochori Gournès Gt A. Ioannis Voritsi Phouni H3Palaikastro Melidoni Pigi H5 Knossos O Kalo Chorio HSitia O Maroulas Tylissos Giophyrakia E. Vatheia Mochos T S H OT2 AgiaCH Photia Modi Petsopha Néa Roumata Mesi Axos Goniès H T T Moni Phoinikia OAïtania Choumeriakos Dramia Sklavokampos H2 Prasiès Anogia H2 Episkopi Krasi HPiskokephalo A. PelagiaO HAthanatoi Skopi H Voutès H H2 Mochlos Kato Episkopi Sitanos Korphos H H Kera H .Chamaizi H Armeni Stavrakia Youktas Varvaron T Achladia H Myrthios Apostoloi Agios Nikolaos Pseira CT Myrsini ExoT Mouliana Zou SAzokeramos Pyrgos Selli H8E. Archanès H H Krousonas Kounavoi Samba HKastelli Pinakiano Tourloti H T H2 A. Antonios Veni Monastiri H CO2 M. Vidiani H3 Tzermiado T M. MoulianaRiza Sphakia Voloniès H A. Myronas Zophori O H2 M. Kroustallenia H Maronia .Traostalos Thronos/Sybrita A. Paraskiès Kato Metochi O H5 Sphaka Koumi O Vathypetro O OMessa lassithi H2TEpano Zakros Chalara Vistagi Siva T O A. Kostandinos Lastro E. KriaH HEpano Episkopi T Astritsi Voni Mathia Plati H H6 Praisos AdromyloiH T Kato Zakros Missyrigia Patsos Meronas Kyparissos A. Paraskevi H H4 T A. Georgios O H O Pyrgos Choudetsi A. Charalambos T Kavousi Plati Tourtouloi H OH H3 Amari Monastiraki O Ideon Andron H Psychro Avrakontes Katharo Pyrgos H2 Kaminaki O H Messonisia Elenès Choumeri H4 H3 PachyammosT Zakathos Mixorouma O Vizari Partheni O OT Kalo Chorio Chandra H Nipiditos Etia Ziros O Zinda H2 O Gournia Xerokambos Vrisinas Koudoumalia H Stavrochori Kamarès Arkadi M. Epanosifi Vassiliki Pevkoi Mesa Apidi Chamaitoulo Ano Meros HAvli Marmaketo Doriès O H A. Ioannos Damania H H A. Stéphanos H H Kavallous H T Vlichia Kalamafka Kalo Chorio Apodoulou O Kasanos Xeniakos Episkopi Makrygialos Gergeri T Sphakia Sata Zaros H AlagniO Tepheli Klima DematioH OH2 Kalochorafitis Kanli Kastelli Ano Saktouria H2 Ligortynos Rizikas Kato Viannos Pevkos Valis AmirasH Kato Symi T O H H (habitat) TO Néochori SChondros H2 Kalami Myrtos/PyrgosT Galia Gortyne Moria H2 A. VassiliosO2H H Gangalès H T Myrtos/Phournou T (tombes) Kephali Chondrou Keratos Mitropoli Kouphonisi HS Keratokambos C (cimetière) A. Triada Phaistos Anegyroi Rotasi H Arvi OH2 H4 O2 C Petokephali S (sanctuaire) Apesokari Doraki Tsoutsouros Kousès Panagia Axenti Kalamaki Alithini Vassilika Anogia O (objets) H Sivas Pitsidia Pombia Kommos H Gt (tombes en grotte) Pigaïdakia A. Kyrillos Gh (habitat en grotte) Miamou Kapetania M. Odigitria Krotos Go (objets en grotte) Gs (sanctuaire en grotte) Levin Kaloi Limenès MRI

Fig. 1. Plan of occupation in Crete. Fig. 1a. Presenting a general proposition for settlements organisation around the palatial centers (by the author, to be published in the 9th International Congress of Cretan Studies Elounda Crete october 2001).

The Mediterranean Instability from Yesterday to Today/L’instabilité méditerranéenne d’hier à aujourd’hui

O A. Pelagia H Achladia

H2 O3Héraklion HAmnissos Chani Ndalia T2 S Marathos Kokkini Chani Chersonissos SItanos/Eileithia T2Gazi Gouvès PrasanO K. Vatheia GtSkotino H2 O Elaia Anopoli Gournès Gt Koxari Kavrochori A. Ioannis VoritsiO Giophyrakia H5 Knossos E. Vatheia Kalo Chorio Tylissos H OT2 H Moni Phoinikia OAïtania Sklavokampos Episkopi Smari HAthanatoi Voutès H H2 Korphos H H Stavrakia Youktas Varvaron H8E. Archanès Apostoloi Krousonas Samba Kastelli H CO2 Kounavoi H A. Myronas Zophori A. Paraskiès Kato Metochi Vathypetro O Thrapsano Siva Astritsi Voni Mathia Kyparissos A. Paraskevi PyrgosH Choudetsi A. Charalambos Choumeri Partheni O H Nipiditos O Zinda Arkalochori H2 Arkadi M. Epanosifi Damania HAvli Vlichia TKasanos Zaros Gergeri AlagniO Tepheli DematioH Kanli Kastelli H2 Ligortynos Rizikas Kato Viannos Valis TO Néochori Gortyne Moria H Gangalès Kephali Chondrou Mitropoli Anegyroi Rotasi

Apesokari Doraki Tsoutsouros Panagia Axenti Alithini Vassilika Anogia

Pigaïdakia A. Kyrillos Miamou Kapetania Krotos

Levin

Fig. 1b. Part of the same plan showing the strong focusing of settlements around Knossos during the Late Minoan I (near 1500 BC) (by the author, to be published in Topoi).

28 2.2. The society’s impoverishment reduced quantity of wonderful objects found in This type of conflictual situation is followed by excavations but also the mediocrity of constructions or economical difficulties leading to a general reconstructions appearing in the settlements. impoverishment of the society. One consequence of Effectively, when the life needs of a population this situation would be the impossibility to find the could hardly be satisfied, the research of quality and precious imported raw material used for the artisanal aesthetic in architecture, as well as in the others fields activities producing luxurious objects as it was of art, the conception of new models became developed by the Minoan society. superfluous. The constructions are made with the current, disposible materials, often with recovery materials. Poeple made the whole urgent works, 2.3. The constructions and productions mediocrity without any attempt to obtain exceptional materials, A witness of this impoverishment is the lesser quality which would require important financial means for of workmanship, the conservation of hold models, the transportation.

Geological factors part in the Minoan society vulnerability process (Crete-Greece)

2.4. The appearance of foreign elements in the instance in Knossos in the domestic quarter of the east original culture wing palace (Evans, 1900–1905), what Evans called the “squatters reoccupation” or in Malia in the east The last argument concerns the appearance of part of the Maison E (Pelon, 1967, 1970, 1980) on a foreign elements in the original culture, like different reduced surface of this habitation. object models, new techniques of workmanship and construction. About the appearance of foreign elements, I just In Crete, this sort of evidences, decrease of the present here an example, that of the building called occupied settlements number, impoverishment of the “Bâtiment Oblique” constructed in Malia in 1300 BC society, mediocrity of the constructions, appearance of at the location of the North Court of the palace, foreign elements in the original culture, did not exist abandoned long time ago, which presented a plan before 1300 BC. Effectively, we can recognise at this typically Myceanean. However, this building preserved time an important stage of occupation’s decrease on some Minoan characteristics like: the door openning the whole territory which took place near 1300–1200 established at the corner of the wall and not in the BC and the appearance of mediocre constructions, for middle as in the Mycenaean constructions (Fig. 2a,b).

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Fig. 2. Plan of the palace of Malia, part of the North-East wing. Fig. 2a. In black thick lines the « Bâtiment oblique » established on the North Court in 1300 BC, long after the abandonment of the palace (from O. Pelon, Malia Palais V in Études Crétoises XXV ed. Paul Geuthner Paris, 1980). Fig. 2b. Plan of the « Bâtiment oblique » caracteristic of myecenaean architecture in two rooms : entrance hall and main hall, but concerving the door’s opening at the angle of the partition wall typical of minoan architecture (by the author).

The Mediterranean Instability from Yesterday to Today/L’instabilité méditerranéenne d’hier à aujourd’hui

These different historical arguments, without any On other hand, if these two dates: 1500 and 1630 reference to a stylistic discussion about the ceramic BC did not coincide, they put the eruption of Thera models contemporaneous to the Linear B tablets from before the Minoan palaces destruction. So, in regard Knossos, led me to consider that the Mycenaeans had to these datations, the eruption of Thera cannot have arrived in Crete near 1300 BC. direct effects on the Minoan palaces near 1450 BC. And that for a second reason: this eruption was an explosive one, throwing important quantities of grey 3. The geological factors ashes (and not incandescent lavas) which had entirely So, how the geological factors had played a part in the recovered the site of Akrotiri on near 30 m high. The evolution of the Minoan society? destruction of this site was due to the accumulation of From a long time people try to explain the ash, which weight produced the collapse of roofs and destructions happened in Crete during the Minoan floors internally, letting the external walls intact on times by the occurrence of natural events like the their whole height. eruption of the Thera’s volcano and the tsunami In Crete, on the contrary, the destructions signalled in followed it, or the earthquakes (Table 1). 1450 BC on the whole territory are the result of a more or less violent burning and more or less extented on the 3.1. Thera’s volcano scale of buildings as well as on the scale of settlements Since the formulation in 1939 by Spiridon Marinatos (Figs. 3–4). The more affected constructions presented (Marinatos, 1939) of the assumption that the eruption remains preserved until their basement, upon which of Thera (Santorini) was responsible for the appeared some remains of the mud-bricks superstructure destruction of the Minoan palaces in Crete, numerous cooked by the fire and melted by its warmth. researches and analyses had made to date this So, it is difficult to admit that a unique eruption eruption, often with the hope to prove that these two could have produced such different effects at the same events, eruption of Thera and destruction of the time in two different places distant one from the other. palaces were simultaneous. The researches made since the eighties and the data from Thera and Crete showed that these two events 3.2. The tsunami did not coincide. The ceramic data, discovered in the recent excavations of Akrotiri in Thera, made by Chr. The tsunami which had followed this eruption, huge Doumas, gave a datation for the remains burried wave resulting to the collapse of the volcanic cone into under the volcano’s ashes that is 50 years older (1500 the sea, could potentially carry off or submerge the BC) than the datation generally admitted for the coastal buildings, but it physically neither could destruction of the palaces in Crete (1450 BC). produce the fires that burnt the Minoan buildings nor On the other hand, various geological researches and could it destroy the inland settlements on the whole physico-chemical analyses (Aitken, 1988; Baillie, territory of Crete. 1989; Michael, 1980; Pyles, 1989) made in the past Almost the opening of the caldeira was situated west, 30 years about this eruption proposed a datation near the specialists who studied this tsunami (Meszaros, 1630–1628 BC. 1980) asked that it passed far east from the Cretish This difference between the two dates, the one given coasts. Effectively, traces of this tsunami had been by Akrotiri’s ceramic and the other by the physico- found recently in Turkey at Didim and Fethye chemical analyses, gave the idea that it would be (Minoura et al., 2000) but also on the north coast of necessary to modify the datation’s system or that two Crete at Gouves (Fig. 5). Perhaps this circular wave different events happened, the one responsible for the had reflected itself at a certain moment returning date near 1630 BC, given by the organic materials towards the Cretish coasts. This question is not easy to found in Akrotiri (Michael, 1980), the ice acidity resolve. It is important to determine the exact picks (Pyles, 1989) and the trees growing circles direction and the reflection angle of this wave, with (Baillie, 1989); the second event responsible for the the aim to evaluate, at first what part of Crete would ash-burying of Akrotiri with a ceramic dated from be affected and at second the strength of its impact on 1500 BC (Doumas, 1980, 1983, 1987). the coasts of this island.

Geological factors part in the Minoan society vulnerability process (Crete-Greece)

Fig. 3. Mudbricks firecooked in Malia palace’s south wing (by the author, published in Geomorphology 2000 ; 4 : 253-66).

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Fig. 4. West House E’s part at Malia, presenting the extension of burning traces reported by the archaeologist (by the author, published in Geomorphology 2000 , 4 : 253-66).

The Mediterranean Instability from Yesterday to Today/L’instabilité méditerranéenne d’hier à aujourd’hui

Fig. 5. Map of Aegean Sea and adjacent region showing areas and sites mentioned in texte. Felsic volcanic products of Minoan eruption are found on Aegean Sea coasts and in eastern Mediterranean deep-sea cores. Tsunamigenic sediment layers were discovered in Didim and Fethye (western Turkey) and Gouves (Crete) (after Minoura et al, 2000).

3.3. The earthquakes with earthquakes of small intensity: I to IV degres in the Rossi-Forel scale, according to the records of the 32 Concerning the earthquakes, I had these last years different occasions to present the results of my work National Observatory of Athens. Major earthquakes in various international congresses which permitted happened every 100–500 years, according to the me to publish my researches on the Cretish seismicity different catalogues actually in use by the seismologist (Poursoulis et al., 2000), the seismo-resistant (Comninakis and Papazachos, 1982; Guidoboni, construction techniques used by the Minoans 1986; Platakis, 1950). About these catalogues, I also (Poursoulis, 2000), the destructions traces signalled by published a paper in which, as an historian, I discussed the archaeologists (Poursoulis et al., 2000) and the the mistakes made in the use of the historical sources comportment of the Minoans in front of the seismic and the consequences they had for the knowledge of risk (Poursoulis,.to be published). So I just would historical earthquakes in Crete (Poursoulis, 2002). rapidly present here the different elements. About the seismo-resistant construction techniques For the Cretish seismicity I would said that it is I would said that they are very sophisticated, conform essentially local, moderate and strongly recurrent, with the modern antiseismic tandards (Zacek, 1996)

Geological factors part in the Minoan society vulnerability process (Crete-Greece) and concerned every point of the building from its independent blocks, not traces of repairing situation on a rocky site (Fig. 6), the use of different consecutively to seismic effects; secondly, for the foundation techniques according to the natural destruction dated from 1450 BC, traces of burnings bedrock’s depth (Figs. 7a,b, 8a,b, 9a,b), the three- (Poursoulis, 1999 Poursoulis et al., 2000b). dimensional frameworks in the walls (Fig. 10), to the So if it is not necessary to refer to natural symmetrical plan divided into independent phenomena to explain an authority change in a state, construction blocks (Fig. 11) and so on (Poursoulis, then the earthquakes and the volcano of Thera cannot 2000). These constructions are perfectly able to resist be directly responsible for the Minoan buildings to the ordinary seismicity of Crete as well as to a more destructions; indirectly, by appearing in a difficult violent but rare seismicity. moment, the natural phenomena could play a part in The fact that the Minoans had conceived and the evolution of a society. employed seismo-resistant construction techniques show us that they had the will to face the seismic risk and to resolve this problem by the regular conception 4. What I would determine? of new and better techniques. The prosperity of their I did not propose myself to resolve the question of economy gave them the possibility to conceive these Thera’s eruption datation or that of the tsunami’s techniques and to extend them to all the buildings: direction, two problems which needed the official as well as private (Poursoulis to be published). geophysicists’ competences. Finally, the destructions traces found on the Minoan remains are at first, for the destruction signalled in 1700–1600 BC, traces of transformation 4.1. The volcanism of the constructions internal space organisation, My thinking concerns the possible consequences a whose aim was to employ the new architectural volcanic eruption could indirectly produce on the conception of the symmetric plan divided into evolution of a society, in acting on its climate,

33

Fig. 6. Rocky site on the illside for the foundation of a minoan building, settlement of Vassiliki central Crete (by the author, published in Geomorphology 2000 ; 4 : 253-66).

The Mediterranean Instability from Yesterday to Today/L’instabilité méditerranéenne d’hier à aujourd’hui

aa b Fig. 7. Natural bedrock cutted to establish the walls footing. Fig. 7a. At the Palace of Phaistos south-east of Crete, (by the author, published in Geomorphology 2000 ; 4 : 253-66). Fig. 7b. At the settlement of Vassiliki (by the author, published in Actes IVe Rencontre du groupe APS, 1999).

a

b

longrines

34 a) semelles filantes b) semelles isolées c) radier général

Fig. 8. When bedrock is on surface level the foundations used are of sole footing type. Fig. 8a. Sole foundation type at the palace of Phaistos along the west front wall technic used by the Minoans (by L. Pernier, 1935 published by the author in Actes IVe Rencontre du Groupe APS, 1999). Fig. 8b. Three modern antisismic types of sole foundations proposed by the ingeneers : a - the spin out sole foundation ; b - isolated soles ; c - general bed rock foundation sole. (by M. Zacek, published by the author in Actes IVe Rencontre du groupe APS, 1999).

vegetation, cultivated species and by this way on its By this way, the question of this eruption’s datation whole economy with a momentary weakening which is important. Effectively, the date of 1628 BC could put the society in a vulnerable state. attributed to this eruption by the different physico-

Geological factors part in the Minoan society vulnerability process (Crete-Greece)

b a

Fig. 9. When bedrock is situated at an important depth the Minoans used depth foundation conform with the modern antisismic standards type foundation wells. Fig. 9a. Builded well of foundation used in the north wing of the palace of Knossos (by A. Evans, published by yhe author in Actes IVe Rencontre du groupe APS, 1999). Fig. 9b. Well foundation type in modern antisismic standard (by M. Zacek, 1996, published by the author in Actes IVe Rencontre du groupe APS, 1999). chemical analysis, correspond to a different moment proposed for this eruption, the evolution of the in the from that of 1500 BC, given by Minoan society in terms of expansion and prosperity the ceramic found in Akrotiri, or from that of 1450 did not show any decrease. The number of occupied BC, some archaeologists would always now attribute settlements on the whole territory presented a regular 35 to this event. But we must also know if this impact was increase and likewise for the cultivated spaces. The as strong as generally supposed, because if large material testimonies of the Minoan culture continue quantities of spring ashes had recovered a part or the to be of a great aesthetical and technical quality that whole territory of Crete, with consequences, the show the absence of economical weakening during corruption of the soil, the destruction of the this period. vegetation and so the abandonment of the corrupted spaces by the population for a more or less long time, 4.2. The earthquakes we must find an interruption in the territorial occupation for at least a certain part of the island. Now In the same way, if we suppose the intervention of an the study of the occupation’s evolution in Crete I do earthquake during an economical weakening phase, from the Neolothic to the Geometric period shows associated to a war conflict, we could easily conceive that during the time covered by the different dates that the society will lack the material means as well as

The Mediterranean Instability from Yesterday to Today/L’instabilité méditerranéenne d’hier à aujourd’hui

Fig. 10. Tridimentional frame work in a wall at the palace of Knossos (by A. Evans, 1921, published by the author in Actes IVe Rencontre du groupe APS, 1999).

the time necessary, at first for the reflexion on the society, we must find effective traces of old resistant means of construction, at second for the earthquakes, volcanic ashes and tsunami. repairing or construction of buildings with the These last years, traces of what was identified with resistant techniques newly developed. An earthquake, Thera’s tephra were signalled in Palaikastro, east of violent or without catastrophic effects, will Crete, by the archaeologists responsible for this site 36 nevertheless had aggravating consequences in adding (MacGillivray and Driessen, 1998, p. 241). This is a its effects to the economical crisis. point which reacquired a particular attention because, So it is indirectly that the geological factors could according to their position, extension and quantity, play a part in the society vulnerability process. these tephra traces would represent different historical Effectively, in situation of economical prosperity lack realities. during the seismic event a society would feel Effectively, a natural deposit of spring ashes would difficulties to set itself upright again. be found on an important part of the island territory, including non-occupied spaces, not only in 5. The geological field work archaeological sites. In the same way, at an archaeological site’s scale the whole constructed space To know in what way the eruption of Thera or the must present traces of these tephra. Also, their earthquakes had influenced the Minoans life in situation outside and around the archaeological stopping the economical developement of their remains represent a different historical situation than

Geological factors part in the Minoan society vulnerability process (Crete-Greece)

0 5 10 15 20

délimitation des blocs de constructions ou îlots dynamiques réduits extérieurs clos escaliers

couloirs, et autres espaces de séparation couverts ou semi-ouverts espaces ouverts

Fig. 11. Symetrical plan divided into independant dynamic blocs conformally to the modern antisismic standard. Fig. 11a. Plan of the palace of Malia presenting the division in dynamic independant blocs (by the author, published in Actes IVe Rencontre du groupe APS, 1999). Fig. 11b. Plan of the house Da at Malia constructed directly with the technic of symetric plan divided into dynamic independant blocs (by Demargne, Gelet de Santerre, 1953, published by the author in Actes IVe Rencontre du groupe APS, 1999).

NON OUI

joint "en baïonette" blocs de dimensions comparables NON OUI R + 2 R + 2 R + 2

R + 10 R + 10 37

bloc en forme de L bloc rectangulaires compacts

blocs de formes blocs de dimensions trop différentes comparables Fig. 11c, d. The good and bad ways of construction for a antisismic building’s plan, according to the building’s form (by M. Zacek, 1996, published by the author in Actes IVe Rencontre du groupe APS, 1999).

The Mediterranean Instability from Yesterday to Today/L’instabilité méditerranéenne d’hier à aujourd’hui

that of a position inside them. Effectively, if the tephra If the results of this work are conformed to what we were found inside a building’s remains, under a soil in hope to obtain, then we would extend these researches place, they could have been intentionally bring by the in the future to the whole territory of Crete. We could inhabitants as isolating material. If they are inside the then obtain a knowledge of the local seismicity of the building and upon the soil they could had fall down island and the impact of seismic events on the Minoan after the abandonment and destruction of the settlements of the whole territory. building. In all the cases, their quantities must be very important, like in Akrotiri, to consider them as responsible for a building’s destruction, a soil Bibliography corruption, an abandonment of the settlement and so Aitken M.J., 1988. The Minoan eruption of Thera, Santorini: a for an effect on the economical situation of the society re-assessment of the radiocarbon dates. In: Proceedings of a and its vulnerability. Meeting held at the January 1987: New Aspects of Archaeological Science in Greece, A field work is already programmed with the Occasional Paper no. 3 of the Fitch Laboratory Athenes, pp. effective collaboration of seismologists and geologists 19–24. of the Institute of Geodynamics of the National Baillie M.G.L., 1989. Irish tree-rings and an event in 1628 BC. Observatory of Athens and the University Aristotelis Nature, 4–20. of Thessaloniki. Bennet J., 1985. The structure of the linear B administration at During a geological survey made in Crete in Knossos. Am. J. Archaeol. 89, 231–249. Bennet J., 1990. Knossos in context: comparative perspectives on October 2001, we had marked a site propitious to the the linear B administration of LMII–III Crete. Am. J. research of old earthquakes and volcanic ashes we Archaeol. 94, 193–211. projected to do. It is a geological fault, potentially Comninakis P., Papazachos C., 1982. A Catalogue of Historical active, we project to study in the next 3 years. It Earthquakes in Greece and Surrounding Area 479 BC–1900 presents the advantage to be situated near a group of AD. University of Thessaloniki Geophysical Laboratory o archaeological sites dating from the Bronze Age. Publication n 5. Doumas C., 1980. La stratigraphie d’Akrotiri, Thera and the The geological work will be completed with the Aegean World 2nd International Scientific Congress, research of whritings about the earthquakes happened Santorini, Greece, about 1978. London, pp. 777–782. in the vicinity of Crete. We could then obtain a Doumas C., 1983. Thera: Pompei of the Ancient Aegean, catalogue of actual historical earthquakes, established London. after a collaboration between a historian and a Doumas C., 1987. Akrotiri on Thera and the need for seismologist. interdisciplinary action, Pact 18 III-I 1987: La protection des monuments archéologiques dans les zones à risques sismiques. CUEBC Ravello Italie, 137–141. Duhoux Y., 1976. Aspects du vocabulaire Mycénien. A. Hakkert, 6. Conclusion Amsterdam. At the end of this geological study, we will be able to Duhoux Y., Morpurgo-Davis A., 1985. Linear B: a 1984 survey, Proccedings of the Mycenaean Colloquium of the 8th scientifically appreciate the effects the local seismicity Congress of the International Federation of the Societies of of the area could had produced on the Classical Studies 1984, Cabay, Louvain la Neuve. Minoan buildings of the archaeological sites around 38 Evans A., 1900–1905. Rapports de fouilles de Knossos, Ann. Br. the fault studied. School Athen. We will obtain a new catalogue of historical Guidoboni E., 1986. I terremoti prima del Mille in Italia e earthquakes, established after a severe critic of nell’Area Mediterranea (Ed.) Istituto Nationale di Geofisica, pp. 575–724. historical sources which will permit to signal just the MacGillivray J.A., Driessen J., 1998. Fouilles à Palaikastro 1994– events actually seismic and not the whole geological 1996. Ann. Br. School Athen 93, 221–249. events, as it is the case until now for the published Marinatos S., 1939. The volcanic destruction of Minoan Crete, catalogues; I had shown it in a recent paper Antiquity XIII, 425–439. (Poursoulis, 2002). Meszaros S., 1980. Some words on the minoan tsunami of We will also be able to estimate the impact of natural Santorini, Thera and the Aegean World 2nd International Scientific Congress Santorini, Greece about 1978. London, phenomena on the evolution of the Minoan society, pp. 257–261. the part they had played in the vulnerability process Michael H.N., 1980. Radiocarbon dates from the site of Akrotiri which would permit the Mycenaeans to occupy Crete. Thera 1967–1977, Thera and the Aegean World 2nd

Geological factors part in the Minoan society vulnerability process (Crete-Greece)

International Scientific Congress, Santorini, Greece about Rencontres du Groupe APS (Archéologie-Pathologie 1978. London, pp. 791–795. Sismologie): Archéosismicité et Vulnérabilité du Bâti Minoura K., Imamura F., Kuran U., Nakamura T., Papadopoulos Ancien, Perpignan, Mai 1999, pp. 127–152. G., Takahashi T., Yalciner A., 2000. Discovery of minoan Poursoulis G., 2002. Archéosismicité et connaissance du risque tsunami deposits. Geology 28, 59–62. sismique par les Minoens: de l’usage des catalogues de Palmer L.R., 1969. A new guide to the palace of Knossos. Faber séismes historiques. In: Actes des Ve Rencontres du Groupe and Faber, London. APS: Archéosismicité et Sismicité historique contribution à Pelon O., 1967. La maison E de Mallia, Bulletin de la connaissance et à la définition du risque, Perpignan Avril Corresondance Hellénique. 2000, pp. 11–38. Pelon O., 1970. Malia Maison III Maisons et Quartiers d'habitation. Etudes Crétoises XVI, Paul Geuthner, Paris. Poursoulis G., à paraître. Le comportement des Minoens face aux Pelon O., 1980. Malia Palais V. Études Crétoises XXV, Paul séismes: fatalisme ou détermination ? In: Topoï, Actes de la Geuthner, Paris. Table Ronde du 5 Juin 2001 CNRS Maison de l’Orient Platakis E., 1950. Les séismes de Crète, Kritika Chronika, 1950, Méditerranéen. 463–526. Poursoulis G., Helly B., Dalongeville R., 2000. Destruction des Popham M.R., 1970. The destruction of the palace at Knossos: édifices minoens et sismicité récurrente en Crète, pottery of the late minoan IIIA period, Studies in Géomorphologie 4, 253–266. Mediterranean Archaeology, Vol. XII. Poursoulis G., 1999. La Destruction des Palais Minoens. Thèse Pyles D.M., 1989. Ice-core acidity peaks retended tree growth de Doctorat, Univertsité de Paris I, Paris. and putative eruptions, Archeometry, 31. Poursoulis G., 2000. Des techniques sismo-résistantes dans les Zacek M., 1996. Construire Parasismique (Éd.) Parenthèses, édifices de l’âge du Bronze en Crète. In: Actes des IVe Marseille.

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