BERLIN * ACSA EUROPEAN CONFERENCE 1997 ALLOCATING

LOCATING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BOUNDARY IN THE ANCIENT TOWN PLAN

KEVIN MITCHELL University of Washington

Introduction demonstrate that the concept of nemksis (distribution or The contributions of ancient ~reeceto architecture allocation) and a corresponding conception of the and town planning in the western world are numerous, boundary resulted from and were sustainedby the values but treating these contributions in a manner that reveals held and the norms followed in ancient Athenian society. a value beyond the picturesque can often prove to be a Throughout the epic works attributed to Homer, a formidable task. Unfortunately, misinterpretation number of references are made to the concept of nembsis. propagates the assumption that the achievementsresulted The boundary protected, or preserved, that which had from that ambiguous force known as genius rather than been subject to distribution or allocation, whether it was from a complex system of interrelationships connecting the distribution of household property within the individuals who share a common culture.' According to household (oikos)or the distribution of publicand private Anthony Giddens, "Culture consists of the values the property within the village or town6 The importance of members of a given group hold, the norms they follow, the protection and preservation of property, and, and the material goods they create. Values are abstract therefore, the importance of the boundary, can not be ideals, while norms are definite principles or rules which understated.: The private property of the oikos (the people are expected to observe ... Culture concerns the fields and their yields), not only provided sustenance that way of life of the members of a given society - their habits ensured self-s~lfficiencybut,as a result of the constitutional and customs, together with the material goods they reforms of Solon after 594 BC, land holdings also became produce. "' the basis for political participation. With regard to the contributions relating to the Ancient literature suggests that the concern for treatment of urban space in the Athenian Empire, locating the exact limits of property arose from conflicts Hippodamus of has long been recognized for concerning grazing ground and fields that were bound to developing a systematic approach to the organization of occur in societies relying on pastures for feeding livestock towns based on the gridiron plan. Recent scholarship has and lands for agricdtural production.'The sanctity of the partially refuted this claim by proving that the orthogonal boundary was definitively pronounced in The Laws of street-plan attributed to Hippodamus in ancient literature Plato, which dates from the fourth century B.C., "No man didnot originate in Gree~e.~AlfredBurns, in "Hippodamus shall disturb the boundary stones of his neighbour, and the Planned City," argued that scholars have whether fellow citizen or foreigner, in the conviction misinterpreted 's statement that the Milesian that thiswould be "moving the immovable" in the crudest "invented the rectangular cityplan" and that "the invention sense. Far better that a man should want to try to move that Aristotle ascribes to Hippodamus is a functional the biggest stone that does not mark a boundary, than a masterplan allocating in advance the area of the city for small one separating friend's land from foe's, and various need^."^ This claim has been reinforced by David established by an oath sworn to the gods.""^ protect the Lewis, who wrote, "It now seems that his [Hippodamus] boundary was to preserve the space allocated to the main innovation there [the ] was, not the grid- Athenian citizen." By locating the limits of a citizen's system of streets with which modern scholars have property, the boundary rendered the space within which associated him, but which is certainly older, the concepts he existed legible. According to Martin Heidegger: of nembsis and diaresis, the systematic allocation of different parts of an area for different p~~rposes."~ A space is something that has been made room Accepting the conclusions of Burns and Lewis as a for, something that is cleared and free, namely point of departure, this paper proceeds from the premise within a bounday, Greek peras. A boundary is that the theoretical approach to town planning attributed not that at which something stops but, as the to Hippodamus was a codification of culturally determined Greeks recognized, the boundary is something customs which governed the treatment of the spaces of from which something begins its presencing. That settlement throughout the AthenianEmpire. To illuminate is why the concept is that of horismos, that is, the the connection between thecontributions of Hippodamus horizon, the bounda y. Space is in essence thatfor and the culture that gave rise to them, this paper will which room has been made, that which is let into 1997 ACSA EUROPEAN COhFEKENCE * BERLI\

its bounds. Thatfor which room is made is always In reference to thevariety of activities that took place granted and hence is joined, that is, gathered, by in the , the following passage from Athenaeus virtue of a location, by such thing as the bridge. proves instructive, "Again, as Eybulus has said in The Accordingly, spaces receive their being from Happ-y Woman:"In one and the same place you will find locations and not from "space." " all kinds of things for sale together at Athens; figs, policemen, grapes, turnips, pears, apples, witnesses, In ancient Athens, literary sources reveal that the roses, mcdlars, haggis, honeycomb, chick-peas, lawsuits, boundary was conceived as a means of preservation; beestings, curds, myrtle-berries, ballot boxes, iris, roast preserving that which had been subject to distribution or lamb, waterclocks, laws, indictments. "I6 Although these allocation. The following analogy from The Illiad clearly functions were distributed within the agora, Aristotle illustrates this conception, "But as two men with insisted on a more complete division. In the Politics, he measuring-rods in hand strive about the landmark stones prescribed afunctional separation with strict boundaries: in a common field, and in a narrow space contend each for his equal share."I2 In this passage, Homer presented It is convenient that below this site fir housingl the image of a common field that has been subject to should be laid out an agora of the kindcustomary nem6sis. Distribution implies a limitation and, in this in Thessaly which they call the free agora, that is, case, there is a limited amount of cultivable land, "in a one which bas to be kept clear of all merchandise narrow space," the men "contend"fortheir " equalshare," and into which nofarmer or artisan may intrude or that which has been allocated to them. The men unlesssummoned by the magistrates. . The agora measure from landmark stones to establish boundaries. for merchandise must be different from the free And they "strive" to locate the boundaries properly, for agora, and in another place; it must have a site the boundary is that which preserves their property. convenientfor the collection there of all thegoods Without the yields that the property provided, the men sent from the seaport and from the country ... would be dependent on outside sources and would have those that deal with the controlof the markets and failed to attain the level of self-sufficiency necessary to with what is terrnedpolicing the city, should haue ensure the preservation of their respective households buildings adjacent to an agora or some public which, according to Aristotle, was the "chief object" for pIace of resort, and such a place is the which it existed. neighborhood of the business agora,for we assign the upper agora as the place in which to spend Athens leisure, and this one for necessaly business." Although Athens was not subject to systematic planning, the application of the concept of nem6sis is Just as within the household, goods were subject to evident within the town, both in the major divisions of spatial separation. "For we know, I take it, that the city as space (agora, acroplis, areas for housing) and the a whole has ten thousand times as much of everything as allocation of minor areas within them (e.g., religious we have; and yet you may order any sort of servant to buy precincts, market areas, etc.). The agora at Athens something in the market and to bring it home, and he will developed sporadically and was not subject to a be at no loss; every one of them is bound to know where preconceived plan but it nevertheless formed a cohesive he should go to get the article. Now the only reason for space with well defined and easily locatable boundaries. l3 this is that everything is kept in a fixed place. "lHThis led The following lines are fromhristophanes' TheAcharians. to a practice in Athens of naming the areas for the goods Dikaepolis, the aptly named main character, seized control that were sold there. In Euripides' Medea, a slave speaks and immediately pronounced the norms governing the of having gone to "the draughts." The Scholia agora: accompanying this passage states, "Going to "the draughts," (this expression is used) since they called These are the boundaries of my marketplace;/ places after things in them; here the author calls the places And here may all the Peloponnesian folk,/ frequented by the gamblers "draughts" -just as opson and Megarians and Boeotians, freely trade/Selling to "perfilmenmeans the places where these commodities are me, but Lamachus ?nay not./And these three customarily found. " '" thongs, of Leprous make, I seus market-clerks, Plato, prescribing the law of sale and exchange in the elected by the lot./Within these bounds may no idealpolis of Magnesia, placed strict controls to ensure that informer come,/Orany othersyco-Pbasian rna7~.'~ unlike goods were kept to separate distinctly defined areas.20He stated, "When one person makes an exchange The boundaries of the agora at Athens were clearly with another by buying or selling, the transfer must be acknowledged by perirrhanteria (lustral basins) and made by handing over the article in the appointed part of horoi, or boundary stones, that have been uncovered the market place (and nowhere else)."21If exchange during archeological excavation. Boundary stoneslocated occurred in any place other than that appointed for the sale boundaries which were, like those of the countryside, of the item, then the rules and regulations protecting protected by both the gods and law like. According to commercial activity were no longer applicable. Plato, "If a man obeys the law [relating to boundaries] he Religious activities took place in the many shrines will escape its penalties, but if he holds it in contempt he and temples located throughout Athens. Shrines and is liable to two ~unishments,the first at the hands of the temples formed smaller precincts with clearly defined gods, the secoAd under the 1aw."l5 boundaries, either in the form of boundary stones or enclosing walls. R.E. Wychedey, in the following passage the division of cities into blocks and cut up Pirae~s."~'In from How the Greeks Built Cities, differentiated between the following section, the theories attributed to the temple and the shrine, emphasizing the significance Hippodamus will be explored via their application in the of the boundary for the latter: plan for Pireaus and Miletus.

"Tenzple" and "shrine" are ue y far from being Pireaus synonyms. mehandsomeperipteraltemples u3hich As established in the introduction, scholars have we think of as characteristically Greek were argued that Aristotle's statement that Hippodamus luxuries possessed by only a few outstanding "invented the division of cities into blocks" has been shrines amongst all the hundreds which were subject to misinterpretation and the actual contribution found in any large city. All that was necessa y to was the application of the concept of nem&sis,or the make a shrine was that a piece of ground or a functional allocation of the land and its population. This natural or artificial object should be dedicated to claim is reinforced in the following passage from the a deity. To preserve the place inviolate the limits Politics: had to be defined by simple marks or boundary stones, or more effectiziely by a fence or wall, His [Hippodamus']system was for a city with a making an enclosure. Ifthe cultwas to be regularly population of ten thousand, dizlided into three carried on, an altar was necessary. Altar and classes; for he made one class of artisans, one of bounda y were the essential^...^' farmers, and the third the class thatfoughtfor the state in war and was the armed class. He dizjided The religious precincts and the agora were regarded the land into three parts, one sacred, one public as public space. And, just as the boundaries were clearly and onepri~ate.~~ defined in areas allocated for public use, so were the boundaries between private space and public space in Aristotle also attributed the planning of the area the town. Unlike Pireaus and the later colonies that were known as Piraeus to Hippodamus, and this is supported subject to land division in housing areas according to an by both archaeological and literary evidence. orthogonal grid, Athens was characterized by an irregular Reconstruction of the town plan reveals that the street network resulting from a centuries old organic rectangular grid was the means by which land was growth pattern. Philostratus, in his comparison to a city distributed. It is clear that, while Athens experienced in India, revealed, "I have already described the way in "organic growth," Pireaus was subject to the systematic which the city is walled, but they say that it was divided planning principles attributed to Hippodam~s.~Wer up into narrow streets in the same irregular manner as the Persian Wars, the strategic importance of Pireaus Athens."2"tho~~gh irregular, the walls that defined the increased. It was enclosed and connected to Athens via a space of the street formed clear and distinct boundaries series of long walls to ensure that the main town would and strictly governed both in terms of their encroachment not be severed from the harbor during attack, "At about onto the "public property" of the road, both at ground this time [461 B.C.] the Athenians began to build their level and above. In the Athenian Constitution, Aristotle two long walls down to the sea, one to Phalerum and one wrote that there were ten City Controllers in Athens and to Pirea~s."~~During this rebuilding effort the harbor that they were charged to, "...preventthe construction of town was distributed into precincts and land divided buildings encroaching on and balconies overhanging the according to a gridiron. roads, of overhead conduits with an overflow into the Whereas the spaces within the upper town of Athens road, and of windows opening outward on to the road."2" were allocatedfor different purposes, the lack of a regular It is perhaps this order that prompted Plato to spatial ordering system denied the possibility of land prescribe the following for his utopian project. Although distribution according to a consistently applied method against the use of fortification walls, he stated, "[Ilf men of organization. Incontrast, Pireausrepresented a synthesis are to have a city wall at all, the private houses should be of the functional allocation of space and the use of the constructed right from the foundations so that the whole gridiron. David Lewis, in Public Property in the City, city forms in effect a single wall; that is, all the houses listed a series of inscriptions from recovered horoi that should be easy to defend because they present to the reveal the application of nem&sisand the enforcement of street a regular and unbroken front."25 the boundary. The outer boundaries of Pireaus were Whereas Plato did not prescribe a system for arranging clearly marked, "upto the road the as@has been assigned" private residences, except that they be grouped in a (ZG i2 893 = i 111 l), as were the boundaries for a sacred circular manner around an area containing shrines, area, "upto this road is the assignment of Mounichia "(IG Aristotle gave careful consideration to the way in which i2 894 = i3 1113). Other horoi marked public areas (ZG i2 housing should be organized. For safety, he advocated an 887 = i3 1101) and the trading area of the agora (IGi2 890 organic pattern, arguing that it created obstacles for = i3 1104). According to Lewis, "Two texts (i2 892 + SEG foreign troops garrisoned in the city and made it difficult x 380 = i3 1109, 1110) proclaim apo tesde tes hod0 to for them to flee if attacked. In contrast, he stated, "The pros to' limenospas demosion esti, "from this road on the disposition of private dwellings is considered more harbor side everything is public." It is sufficiently clear pleasant and useful for other activities if it involves that, in the planning of Pireaus, the designation of public straight rows in the newer manner of Hippodamus. "26 He property was of major importance. At a guess, the point goes on to tell the reader that Hippodamus, "...invented of thus designating it in the case of the last area was at least as much a matter of preventing private encroachment would have been disconcerting, if not entirely farcical. as reserving it for state use ... It should be further noted Perhaps it would have met with the same reaction as the that, as far as I can see, the area between the road and the comedy containing Meton's proposal for designing harbor as Pireaus is the only piece of public land in Attica Cloudcuckoobury, which anticipated Filarete by 1,000 not designated by function."" years:"With the straight rod I measure out, that so /The While Pireaus provides an example of the application circle may be squared; and in the centre /A marketplace; of the theories of Hippodamus at Athens, it is perhaps and the streets be leading up to it / Straight to the very useful to briefly examine the plan of another centre; just as from/A star. though circular; straight rays "Hippodamian" town within the Athenian Empire. flash out / In all directions."" Fortunately, a great deal of attention has been focused on Although ancient sources contain traces of general reconstructing plans from those Greek towns said to rules in the form of prescriptions for the organization of have been influenced by the theories of Hippodam~~s.~~space at the urban scale, the ancient Athenians never Subject to almost complete destruction by the Persians in achieved an "ideal" town configuration. There are at least 494 B.C. and subsequently rebuilt according to the theories two reasons tolook beyond, or rather beneath, the formal of Hippodamus, the town of Miletus offers what is perhaps construction of the plan for the origin of the ideas the most comprehensive and cohesive example of their governing the treatment of space in general, and the application. Certainly the most striking feature of the space of the town in particular. The first, as previously plan is the clear division of the town into separate and stated, is a lack of standardization according to a clearly defined zones allocated for trade, civic functions, preconceived model that would allow a series of verifiable religious activities and housing. The reconstnlcted plan rules to emerge. The second, and perhaps most important, also reveals an adherence to an orthogonal grid in the reason to s~~pplementthe reconstructed plan is that it is areas allocated for h~using.~'Thegrid is clearly employed subject to misinterpretation without some understanding as a nzeans for the equal and regular distribution of land of the treatment of physical space at all scales. in these areas. Where necessary, it defers to the natural Inherent in the premise of this investigation is that landscape, the f~rt~cationwall,and the functionslocated the treatment of space is determined by the culture that within the town center. Although the civic and religious a society possesses. As stated in the introduction, this buildings are organized in accordance with the orientation work proceeds from the hypothesis that the theoretical of the grid, these areas take precedence. In all cases, the approach to town planning attributed to Hippodamus boundary has become regularized and defined not only in was a codification of culturally determined customs which relation to individual spaces but to a consistently applied governed the spaces of settlement throughout Athens. ordering system. Nemksis, and the boundary that preserved the allocation, The reconstructed plans of Pireaus and Miletus reveal allowed the distribution to be measured which, at least a refined and considered application of the concept of conceptually, ensured equality and, therefore, order. nemksis. The grid was clearly conceived as a means These were values upon which Athenian culture was which allows a systematic approach to the definition of based. the boundary which, in turn, effectively located and Perhaps nowhere is this stated more clearly than in preserved the spaces that had been allocated for use Plutarch's account of the ruler Solon. During an absence within the town. from Athens, the population was split into factions. And one of these factions was led by Peisistratus, who was Conclusion known to be practised in the art of deception. His skill In Orthogonal Town Planning in Antiquity, was such that, "Even those virtues which nature had Ferdinando Castagnoli concluded that the system of denied him were imitated by him so successfidly that he planning attributed to Hippodamus "should not be won more confidence than those who actually possessed associated with a simple orthogonal system based on them. He was thought to be a cautious and order-loving ancient origins but that which had developed into the man, one that prized equality above all things, and would ~lniformand regular grid pattern known to exist in the take it ill if anyone disturbed the existing order and fifth century. "j-e also wrote that, "It is also natural that attempted a change."3X such urban design did not spring full-blown from his As I have attempted to prove, nernksis and a mind"35 This begs the question upon which this corresponding concern for the boundary were investigation has been founded, "Where did such urban determinants in the treatment of urban space in Athens. design originate?" And these determinants resulted from and were sustained Athens did not develop a paradigmatic position by the culture developed by the ancient Athenians. regarding the construction of urban space and, Whether a cursory reading of a plan from ancient Athens consequently, any attempt to answer the question should immediately reveals an attitude toward the treatment of not begin with the ends of urban processes (e.g.; the space, one should always be prepared to look beneath it; reconstructed plan). In 1949, the English planner W. prepared to formulate questions directed at the means as Holford called for a program of systematic planning that well as the ends. An answer will not be derived from a emphasized the ends of town planning, "...arevival in the single source, but from somewhere between the plan ends of town planning, that is to say in the design itself, itself and the words of those people whose lives were will reconcile us to the administrative means that have intertwined with it. For, as Menander has told us, "Greeks been used to bring these ends about in a complex society are men, not brutes devoid of sense, and due reflection such as ours."j6To the ancient Athenian. this uro~osition accompanies their every action."'" BERLlN Sr ACSA I:UI

NOTES that this is the only way in which equality can be satisfactorily ' In The Human Condition Hannah Arendt made the following achieved. 'Hands off fundamentals' is the slogan everybody claim concerning genius, "The frustration of the human person uses to attack a legislator who tries to bring that kind of reform inherent in a community of producers and even more in a and his policy of land-redistribution and remission of debts commercial society is perhaps best illustrated by the phenom- earns him only curses." Plato. The Laws. tr. Trevor J. Saunders enon ofgenius, from the Renaissance to theend of the nineteenth (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin books Ltd., 1972), p. 684 century, the modem age saw its highest ideal (Creative genius as Withregard to the members of the ancient Greek population that the quintessential expression of human greatness was quite were involved in agriculture, J.K. Davies has written, "...wecan unknownto antiquity or the Middle Ages)." Hannah Arendt. The be virtually certain, by analogy with other pre-industrial societ- Human Condition (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ies, that well over half, perhaps even 90 percent, of the adult 1958), p. 210. population slave, free, man or woman) will have been engaged Anthony Giddens. Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press. 1989 p. in agriculture." J.K. Davies. Democracy and Classical Greece 31. In the same work, Giddens provided definitions for values Cambridge, MA: Harvard Unicersity Press. 1993. p. 10. See and for norms that serve as points of reference for this investi- also Robin Osborne. Classical Lnndscape with Figures (Lon- gation. He defined values as, "Ideas held by human individuals don: George Philip, 1987). or groups about what is desirable, proper, good or bad. Differing ' Plato. The Laws. tr. Trevor J. Saunders, (Harmondsworth, values represent key aspects of variations in human culture. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1972), pp. 842-3. What individuals value is strongly influenced by the specific culture in which they happen to live." Norms are, "Rules of lo A surviving fragment from the playwright Menander warns conduct which specify appropriate behaviour inagivenrange of against the usurpation of a neighbours land. Given the produc- social contexts. A norm either prescribes a given type of tioncapacity of the land, it is possible to advance the premise that behaviour, or forbids it. All human groups follow definite types this practice was not uncommon, hence the warning, "In the of norm, which are always backed by sanctions of one kind or front rankof man's woes is grasping greed. For they who are fain another - varying from informal disapproval to physical punish- to annex their neighbours' holdings frequently are defeated and ment or execution." Anthony Giddens. Sociology (Cambridge: fail, and to their neighbours' possessions contribute their own Polity Press. 1989), pp. 724-33. addition." Menander. tr. Francis G. Allinson. London: William Heinemann. 1964. fragment 559K. A.E.J. Moms, in The History of Urban Form Before the Indus- trial Revolution, claimed that the Harappan cities of India (2154- 'I Martin Heidegger. "Building, Dwelling, Thinking." Poetry, 1864 BC), or their antecedents along the Indus Basin, were the Language, Thought, tr. Albert Hofstadter, (New York, Harper & first civilization to develop a program of systematic town Row, 1971), p. 154. planningemploying thegridiron. Moms argued that the Harappan Homer. The Illiad. tr. A.T. Murray, (London: William civilization achieved a consistency of urban form by adhering to Heinemann, 1971), Book XII, 419-20. a standard orthogonal plan, much like the RomanEmpire and the l3 The boundaries of the agora were also strictly enforced in cases colonization of the "New World" by Spain. A.E.J. Moms. where a new area was designated. A surviving deme decree History of Urban Form Before the Industrial Revolutions (New illustrates that a citizen named Leukios provided a public gift in York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994). the form of funds to construct a new agora. Three men were Alfred Burns. "Hippodamus and the Planned City." Historia, 25 chosen to "define the space of the agora" and charged to ensure (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1976), p. 415. that no one encroached upon the area "within the markers," David Lewis. "Public Property in the City" appearing in The "Gods. Theodelos moved; resolved by the Sounians, with good Greek City from Homer to Alexander. Oswyn Murray and fortune, whereas Leukios is giving to the demesmen (the means) Simon Price, eds. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), p. 250. to make an agora, choose at once three men, who will define the space oftheagora with Leukios at noless than twoplethra inone With regard to household property, the boundary preserved direction, orthanoneplethronin the other direction, so that there property by clearly demarcating limits that ensured order. This shall be plenty of room for the Sounians and anyone else who is clearly stated by Xenophon in Oeconomicus, his treatise on wishes to use the agora, since the present one has become household management. This work articulated two conceptions crowded. To build over it is not permitted, neither for the of the boundary: as a physical construct and as a space of demarch nor for anyone else within the markers. The demarch separation. In relation to the former, Xenophon stated, "If I want is to inscribe this decree on a stone pillar, in collaboration with a type of disorder, I think of the farmer who has stored barley, Leukios, and set it up in the agora." (IG ii2 1180 as translated by wheat and pulse in one bin; and then when he wants a bannock J.K. Davies. Democracy and Classical Greece (Cambridge, or a loaf or a pudding, must pick out the grain instead of finding MA: Harvard University Press. 1993), pp. 225-6. it separate and ready for use." Xenophon. Oeconomicus. tr. E.C. Marchant London: William Heinemann. 1968. Book VIII, p. l4 Aristophanes. The Acharnians. tr. Benjamin B. Rogers. (Lon- 9. Addressing the boundary as a space of separation, Xenophon don: William Heinemann. 1967), 11 pp. 719-27. wrote, "There is nothing, in short, that does not gain in beauty 'j Plato. The Laws. tr. Trevor J. Saunders, (Harmondsworth, when set out in order. For each set looks like a troop of utensils, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1970), p. 843. and the space between each set is beautiful to see, when each set l6 Athenaeus. The Deipnosophisrs, tr. Charles Burton Gulick, is kept clear of it, just as a troop of dancers about the altar is a (London: William Heinemann, 1970), Book XIV, p. 640 b-c. beautiful spectacle in itself, and the free space looks beautiful andunencumbered." Xenophon. Oeconomicus. tr. E.C. Marchant " Aristotle. Politics, tr. H. Rackham, (London: William Heinemann. London: William Heinemann. 1968. Book VIII, p. 20. 1950), Book VII, 11. pp. 2-3. ' In a dialogue from Plato, land was referred to as a "fundamental" Xenophon. Oeconomicus. tr. E.C. Marchant, (London: William and it was revealed that any legislative effort to redistribute land Heinemann, 1968), Book VIII, p. 22. was met with strong opposition. The character representing the l9 Schol. Euripides. Medea. tr. A.S. Way, (London: William Athenian point of view stated, "Suppose a legal code is being Heinemann, 1967), p. 68. In the area that served as the agora in framed and someone adopts the policy of a change in the Athens, boundary stones have been unearthed which clearly ownership of land and a cancellation of debts, because he sees define areas reserved for certain trading activities. 1997 ACSA EUROPEAN CONrEREhCE * BEXLIh

20 For the control placed on goods at .Athens, see Aristotle. Athe- Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1972), Book I, p.107. nian Constitution. tr. H. Rackham, (London:William Heinemann, " David Lewis. "Public Property in the City" appearing in Oswyn 1971), LI.l Murray and Simon Pride (eds). The Greek Cihfrom Horner to Plato. The Lnws. tr. Trevor J. Saunders, (Harmondsworth, Alexander (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 251. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1970), p. 916. 3? See Ferdinando Castaglioni. Ort1~ogonal Town Plrtnning in 22 Anthony Kriesis. Greek Town Building (Athens: The National Antiquig. tr. Victor Caliandro, (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Technical University of Athens, 1965). p 89. The temples of Press, 1971). and J.B. Ward-Perkins, Cities of Athens were concentrated on, or in close proximity to, the and [taly: Planning in Classical Antiquig (New York: George Acropolis Within the boundaries of the Acropolis, space was Braziller, 1974). further allocated into preceints for the various temples. Anthony ?' The use of the grid is not limited to the Piraeus and Miletus, as Krieses also wrote that, "Even the outwardly conceived temple evidenced by the reconstructions of and (both was enclosed by the sacred preceint." (Anthony Kriesis. Greek attributed to Hippodamus, although perhaps erroneously). Town Building (Athens: The National Technical University of Olynthus. founded in 432 B.C and later destroyed in 348, was Athens, 1965), p. 94, n 5. This premise is defended by G.P. based on a rectangular grid that was varied to fit the terrain. A Stephens who has argued that the western part of the Acropolis series of major (between five and seven meters wide) and minor was planned along with the Propylea as a forecourt to the streets (five meters wide) resulted in blocks measuring approxi- Parthenon. He argued that the forecourt defining the preceint mately 35 meters wide and 86 meters wide. While the orthogo- was almost square and partially enclosed with walls. (See G.P. nal grid is a common, its use was not limited to the so called Stephens. "The Periclean Entrance Court to the Acropolis" "Hippodamian" plans but had been used elsewhere since the appearing in Hesperia. V, 1936.) &. latter part of the sixth century B.C.. The use of the grid was @ !' Ph,lostratus. The L$e ofApollo~iiusof Tyana tr. F.C. Conybeare, particularly prevalent in Ioniaand archeologists have uncovered (London: William Heinemann, 1969), Book 11, p. 23. evidence that a grid plan was used to organize the center of the upper city at the Miletian colony of Olbia. 24 Aristotle. Athenian Constitution. tr. H. Rackham, (London: William Heinernann, 1971), 50.2. 'j Ferdinando Castagnoli. Orthogonal Town Planning in Antiq- uim. tr. Victor Caliandro, (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 25 Plato. The Laws. tr. Trevor J. Saunders, (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1970), p. 779. 1971), p. 71. Ibid. 26 Aristotle. Politics. tr. H. Rackham, (London: William Heinemann, !' l972), p. l267b. '6 W. Holford. Civic Design-An bzqlrin into the Scope and~Vot~lt~lre *'Ibid. of Town Planning (London, 1949). " Aristophanes. The Birds. tr. Benjamin B. Rogers, (London: 28 Ibid. William Heinemann, 1924), 11 pp. 1004-9. *' The term "organic growth" is borrowed from A.E.J. Morris. For further discussion and examples of the application the term, see Plutarch. "Solon". Plutarch's Lives. tr. Bernadotte Perrin, (Lon- A.E.J. Morris. Histop of Urban Form Before the Industrial don: William Heinemann, 1993), pp. XXX, I. Revolutions (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994), p. 10, n 41. '' Menander. The Princlpcrl Fragnzents. tr. Francis G. Allinson, (London: William Heinemann, 1964). p. 6 l7K. j0 Thucydides. Histor~ofthePeloponnesiarlWar (Harmondsworth,