Index

Adorno, Theodor, 39–40 Australia Advertising and illegal/harmful content, 124–25, 138 regulation of, 37–39 and images from abroad, 34 privatization in reliance on, 96 and international , 204 Affirmative intervention, 23 Internet Code of Practice in, 271n.31 Afghanistan and Free Asia, 7 distribution of information in, 245 Autonomy, and sovereignty, 26 radio-broadcast intervention in, 22–23, 178, 179 Bahrain, 22 under , 33, 34, 42, 246 Baker, C. Edwin, 107, 110, 190 transition in, 46 Balkin, Jack, 165 and voice, 44 Banerjee, Indrajit, 249 war in, 15, 219, 224 BBC, 85 bombing of , 4, 214–15, 229 and Hong Kong, 7 Aircraft, broadcast, 181, 216, 220–21 and information intervention, 175 Alfa TV, 78 Internet and audience of, 216 al-Sayed, Essam, 249 and ITV, 97 American Bar Association, Central and East model of, 69 European Law Initiative (CEELI) of, and Serbian vacuum, 217 64–65 and , 291n.2 American Library Association, 158, 159 BBC World Service, 21, 200, 204, 205, Anderson, Benedict, 249 214, 217, 218–19 Angola, 7 Beers, Charlotte, 4, 171–72, 176 Anselmo, Rene, 76–78, 266n.48 Belin, Laura, 95 AOL, 135, 142 Bell monopoly breakup, 66 Arbour, Louise, 182 Berezovsky, Boris (Russian media oligarch), Architectural approach, 90–91 105 Arlington, Dave, 181 Berne Convention, 191 ARPANET, 162 Biden, Joseph, 221 Asia Pacific Network, 210 bin Laden, Osama, 6, 19, 236 Assessment, of new technology, 154– Blacklisting, 121 56 Black radio, 22, 201 Ataturk, Kemal, 36, 37 Blanchard, Margaret, 47 302 Index

Bloom, Harold, 67 and international broadcasting, 204 Bogotá Declaration (1976), 74 magazines of, 107 Bosnia-Hercegovina, 172 and multiple languages in broadcasts, 67 broadcasting transmitters seized in, 43 controlled by, 6, 83 distribution of information in, 245 and V-chip, 126–27, 130 as failed state, 194 Canal Plus, 93 information intervention in, 17, 179–88 Catalonia, 34 international effort in, 52–53 Caucus for Producers, Writers, and and stability, 233 Directors, 131 transfer of media-regulation models to, 64 , 99, 240, 241 Boundary technologies, 29 vs. labeling or rating, 137 and Malaysia, 12 and V-chip, 129, 132 Brain drain, 41 Central Asia, Turkish satellite services Britain. See United Kingdom directed at, 37. See also specific British model(s) of media policy, 62, 67 countries Broadcasting. See also International Central and Eastern Europe. See also broadcasting; Radio; Satellite specific countries transmission; Television drama of globalization in, 114 from aircraft, 181, 216, 220–21 privatization in, 92 and Internet (Reno case), 162–65, 166, 201 and public broadcasters, 100 jamming of, 177–78, 202–203, 210, 211, and transfer of media-regulation models, 215, 216, 242 64 and public health concerns, 137 transition categorization of, 46, 193, 194 as regulation model, 60 Central and East European Law Initiative Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG), (CEELI), 64–65 206, 224 Central European Media Enterprises Broadcasting reform, rhetoric vs. substance (CEME), 108–109 of, 39 Change(s), 29. See also Remapping Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 44–45 in media structure, 4, 12–18 Bubble of identity, 19, 229 and public broadcasting bureaucracy, 97 Bulgaria, 100, 194 rhetoric of, 54, 227 in technology, 146 (see also Newness in , 4 technology) Canadian preference policy on, 11 Child online protection law, 103. See also early growth of, 105 Communications Decency Act in India, 62 Child pornography as novel decision-making situation, 89–90 vs. access to pornographic material, 121 as parallel mechanism, 18 on computer files, 243 and scarcity argument, 161 Green Paper on, 120 in Singapore, 90 as illegal, 119, 124 and UK pornography blocking, 79 and monitoring, 18 Cambodia, 204, 210, 213–14, 294n.42 Children, restriction of material harmful to, Campbell, Duncan, 41 79, 119–20, 121, 122, 124, 125–32 Canada, 10–11 and Internet technology, 148–49, 154, free trade rules resisted by, 190 156–57, 163, 280n.40, 281n.52 (see and images from abroad, 34 also Communications Decency Act) Index 303

and moral development, 22, 79, 121, 137 and TRIPs, 191, 192, 289nn.58, 60 Country Music Television, 11 and categories of transition, 46 Cowan, Geoffrey, 206 and Internet, 18, 20 Crime prevention, “squeegee” approach to, Internet cafes closed, 166–67 50 Internet downloading, 216 Crimes, and monitoring, 18 and , 85, 208–209, 210, 211, 293–94n.31 and jamming of foreign transmissions, remapping in, 15 202–203 and satellite technologies, 18 and Radio/TV Marti, 23, 85, 203, 205, and technological innovation, 17–18 206 Western democracies’ condemnation of, Cultural differences, and “harmful” 237 content, 119 CIA, and , 201 Cultural identity. See also National identity Civil society, 48, 54, 92, 115 and protectionism, 246 Clandestine radio, 22, 24, 201 states as maintaining, 4 Clark, Wesley, 244 Cultural imperialism Clinton, Bill, 136, 146, 205 and explanation of legal transformation, CNN, 21, 22, 77, 78, 190, 200, 205, 206 13 free flow of information seen as, 211 and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberation, Cultural norms, and regulatory demands, 201–202, 208 16 and Vietnam on Radio Free Asia, 211 Cultural screening, through orbital slots, 83 Collings, Tim, 126 Cyberspace, 281n.54. See also Internet Colonialism, and trading routes, 71–72 and physical world, 151, 152 Commercial media “zoning” of, 153 and human rights principles, 237 Cyberwar, 236, 244, 245 and international broadcasting (Pattiz), Czech Republic, 6–7 222, 225 as consolidating democracy, 194 Communication on Illegal and Harmful and European Union expansion, 25 Content on the Internet, 119, 122 multilateral shift of, 231, 232 Communications Decency Act (CDA) privatization in, 93, 96 (1996) 125, 126, 136, 148–49, 150, and TV Nova, 108–109 151, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 166 Communications satellite. See Satellite Dayton Accords, 25–26, 185–87, 242 transmission Democracies, consolidating, 194 Communications systems, 4 Democracy Community, and cartel of imagery, 32 assumptions on export of, 46–48 Conference of Ministers of Information of and media conditions, 53–54, 62 Islamic States, 46 and privatization, 109–12 Consolidating authoritarian states, 194 Denver Area Educational Consolidating democracies, 194 Consortium, Inc. v. Constitutive approach to media reform, 49, FCC, 152, 158 50, 51, 52 Deregulation Convergence, 15, 248 and PanAmSat, 77 Copyright protection, 167, 191–92 as privatization, 96–97 304 Index

Derwinski, Edward J., 202 European Parliament’s Committee on des Forges, Alison, 177 Culture, Youth, Education, and Media, Deutsche Telekom, 77 120–21 Deutsche Welle, 175, 200, 204, 216, 218 European Union, 14, 142 Developing countries. See also Transition effect of expansion of, 25 and copyright enforcement policy, 192 and GATT negotiations (1994), 34 and orbital slot allocation, 74–75, 76 and “illegal and harmful” content, 118, Devolution, in United Kingdom, 34 119 Diab, Amr, 221 Television without Frontiers Directive of, Diasporic groups, information technologies 14, 20, 22, 23, 33, 34, 79, 137, 140 consolidate, 18 and V-chip, 126 and MED-TV for Kurds, 80 Eurovision, 81 “Digital Age: European Audiovisual Policy, Eutelsat, 21, 79–80, 81, 215, 217 The,” 100 Everts, Daan, 43 Direct broadcasting services (DBS) Exit, 40, 41, 42, 53, 233 auctioning of orbital slot for, 76 Exit, Voice, and Loyalty (Hirschman), 40, Singapore sees as less controllable, 90 233 UN resolution on, 20, 25 “Exporting the First Amendment” Discovery Channel, 8 (Blanchard), 47 Disney, 106 Expressiveness, in comparison of Internet Dunkerley, William, 111–12 and broadcasting, 164–65, 166, 283n.76 Eastern and Central Europe. See Central and Eastern Europe Failed states, 33, 42, 193, 194 , privatization in, 94 Fairness Doctrine, 68 Efficiency, and privatization, 94 Family relations. See Parent-child Eidelman, Mikhail, 223 relationships Eisenhower, Dwight D., 178 Federal Communications Commission e-mail. See also Internet (FCC), U.S., 16, 68, 76, 131 and anonymity, 167 Filtering of harmful content, 120, 128, 135. CDA as covering, 157 See also Labeling or rating methods Emir of Qatar, 6 by audience, 165 Equitable access, and orbital slots, 83 and editors, 142 Estonia, 100, 194 and Lessig on CDA and Reno case, 156 Eureka Audiovisuel, 78 as library requirement, 128 European Commission, 119, 122 question of government approach to, 130 entering countries’ laws audited by, 64 question of research basis for, 129 and labeling, 130 and software capabilities, 141 European Community, and Portuguese and state role, 137 government support, 99 and terrorism, 243 European Convention on Human Rights, by Yahoo! Inc., 160 33, 133 First Amendment, 47 Article 10 of, 15, 68, 141, 239 advocacy of, 113 European cultural space, 34 exporting of, 59, 109 European Parliament, and V-chip, 136 and individual state standards, 140 Index 305

and Internet, 154–55 Freedom-security balance, 15–16 and new media technology, 149 , 109–10. See also and obscene material, 125 Speech rights and parental role, 157 and explanation of legal transformation, and privatization, 109 13 and self-regulation, 102 in global environment, 3 as trope of restructuring, 116 and government interaction with industry, and V-chip, 127, 138 138–39 FM radio, 216, 218, 248 internationalized set of principles of, 247 and Cambodia, 213–14 models of ambiguous, 68 Force and right to receive, 133–34 for implementation, 242 Free market model in , 67 and technology, 244 Free media, foundation requirement for, 54 Ford, Gerald, 219 “Free and Responsible Press, A” (Hutchins Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) Commission report), 110, 111 (1938), 20 Free trade Foreign investment and ownership, in goods and in information, 86 107–109 and political persuasion, 190 Foreign policy of information space, and privatization, 105–107 171–72, 197–98 vs. protectionism, 234–35 and copyright protection, 191–92 elements of, 188–89 Gardner, James, 62, 63 and information intervention, 177–78, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 189 (GATT), Uruguay Round of, 106, 189 in Bosnia, 179–84 General Framework Agreement for Peace law of, 184–88 (Dayton Accords), 25–26, 185–87, 242 and International Public Information Geopolitics, and modification of media Group, 172–77 structures, 16–17 and regime structure, 236 Georgia, 8, 194 and technical assistance, 192–97 Germany. See also Deutsche Telekom; and trade, 189–91 Deutsche Welle France, principles exported by, 109 and illegal/harmful content, 123 Franck, Thomas, 58–59 postwar occupation of, 185 Fraud, and monitoring, 18 post-WWII legal transplants into, 61 Freedom, technologies of, 28, 29 Global environment, rethinking and Freedom of expression, restrictions on, reformulating speech freedom and 299n.6 regulation in, 3 Freedom House, 238 Global information space, 31 Freedom of press, 109–12 Globalism, and privatization, 92 Freedom or right to receive and impart Globalization, 26–27 information, 116, 141, 203, 210, 237, and cartel, 113–14 246, 248 Globalization of media. See Media vs. restrictions on programming, 86 globalization Freedom or right to receive information, Global media interconnections, and media 238, 246 decisions, 18 306 Index

Goldsmith, Jack, 147–48 violent competition over, 250 Government, and place vs. space, 23–25 Identity, bubble of, 19, 229 , 7 Ideology, 13 Green Paper on Protection of Minors and export of, 191 Human Dignity in Audiovisual and Illegal and harmful content, 118–25 Information Services, 119–20 cultural screening against, 83 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 22, 80 and global market, 140–43 Gulf War, and VOA, 221 and Internet, 117, 118, 120–21, 122 Guzinsky, Vladimir (Russian media labeling and rating methods for, 128–29, oligarch), 105 130, 134–40 and V-chip criticisms, 274–75n.20 Haiti, 230 and new information technologies, 146 Hardy, Thomas, 145 and Communications Decency Act, Harmful content. See Illegal and harmful 148–49 (see also Communications content Decency Act) or programming and V-chip, 117, 125–32 in Kosovo, 43 and diminishing state power, 132–33 in Rwanda and former Yugoslavia, 215 implementation of, 138 Havel, Vaclav, 109 and rights of listeners or viewers, 133– Hero Cup decision, 63 34 Hirschman, Albert O., 40–41, 42, 53, 233 and role of producer, 138 History, Supreme Court’s rewriting of, and self-regulation, 133 160–66 and speech-society relation, 136 Homing pigeons, 27 Illiteracy, 112 Hong Kong, 7 Implementation, methods of, 241–46 Horkheimer, Max, 39–40 Indecency, 123 Human rights, 237. See also at Right Congress’s action against, 125 and commercial media, 237 and newness in technology, 148–53, 154, and globalization, 26 157–58 and international broadcasting, 238 “Independent media,” 53 and voice, 41 India Hungary broadcast reform in discouraged by US, 6 as consolidating democracy, 194 changes in, 13 effect of European Union expansion on, citizenship requirements for ownership in, 25 91 privatization in, 93, 94, 96, 100 and corruption of public morals, 118 transfer of media-regulation models to, 64 entrepreneurs’ search for markets in, 15 Huntington, Samuel, 60–61, 114 information foreign policy of, 197 Hutchins Commission, 110, 111 and Internet or satellite technologies, 18 Hyde, Henry, 4 and market for loyalties, 34–36 and multinational broadcasting firms, Ideas, 89, 116 22 impact of, 113 and Pakistan, 13, 35, 36, 230 limiting movement of, 244 privatization in, 97 marketplace of, 28, 248 radio vs. television in, 216–17 significant battles for, 294n.40 religious concerns in, 66 Index 307

and self-regulation, 104 International Broadcasting Bureau, transfer of legal model to, 62–64 205–206, 207, 224 uplinking requirement by, 12, 20 International communication, theories of, Indonesia, 13 48–49 Industrial policy, 16 International Convention on Civil and for Canadian broadcasting, 11 Political Rights, 141 Influences, taxonomy of, 233–41 International Monetary Fund, 92, 115 Influencing of media in other countries, 19, International norms, 33–34, 237 22–23, 229. See also Intervention International Public Information Group Information (IPIG), 172–77 and governmental power, 4 International regulatory regime, 248 as power, 31 International Union Information foreign policy. See Foreign (ITU), 74, 75, 77, 83, 248, 265–66n.42 policy of information space International trade agreements. See Trade Information intervention, 177–78, 242. See agreements also Intervention Internet, 17 affirmative, 23 borders obliterated by, 28 in Bosnia, 179–84 and China, 18, 20, 166–67, 216 law of, 184–88 as closed or open terrain, 137 as policy element, 189 and Congress, 150 toward Serbia, 175 and democracy, 54 and transformations in international easy entry to, 164 broadcasting, 213–15 e-mail on, 157, 167 Innovation. See Newness in technology expectations of content lacking in, 135 Inspace Corp., 75 as “expressive commodity,” 164–65 Instrumental approach to media reform, 49, and global media law debate, 49–50 49–50, 51, 52 and government control of information Intellectual property rights, 16, 191–92 flow, 176 and TRIPs, 191, 192, 289nn.58, 60 government in development of, 161, 162, Intelsat, 9, 76–78, 266nn.45, 48, 50 163 International broadcasting, 199–203 governments’ attempts to affect, 198 affirmative intervention in, 23 and government supervision and American approach to, 291n.5 regulation, 162 and cold war, 201–202 illegal and harmful content on, 117, 118, and domestic politics, 208 120–21, 122, 142 (see also Illegal and and human rights, 238 harmful content) post–cold war transformations of, 17, 22, and intellectual property protection, 203–207, 225 192 and information intervention, 213–15 International broadcasting through, 201 and new technologies, 215–19 labeling and rating methods for, 128–29 and Radio Free Asia, 208–13 (see also Labeling or rating methods) and September 11 terrorist attacks, and language pluralism, 67 219–25 and law, 58 revived public discussion on, 248 and law-making vs. managing, 143 International Broadcasting Act (1994), 205, and metaphor, 69–70 208, 210 and national identities, 18 308 Index

Internet (cont.) Israeli offensive against Palestinians, as novel decision-making situation, 296n.67 89–90 Arab trans-national television coverage of, Justice O’Connor on, 152–53 249 pornography on, 86 ITU (International Telecommunication promise of, 146 Union), 74, 75, 77, 83, 248, and regulation of content providers, 265–66n.42 243 ITU Radio Conference, 75 and Reno case, 148–51, 152, 154–56, ITU Radio Regulations, 203 163, 165, 280n.40 (see also Reno v. ITV (United Kingdom broadcaster), 97 ACLU) and restructuring, 4 Jaitley, Arun, 64 self-regulation in, 101–102, 103, 104 Jamming of radio broadcasts, 177–78, 202, sovereignty seen threatened by, 27 242 state responses to, 242 by Chinese of VOA, 210, 211 terrorists’ use of, 198 by Cuba, 202–203 time-division impossible with, 150 of hate programming, 215 and transformation of international as new technology, 216 broadcasting, 216, 218–19 by Soviet Union of RFE/RL, 19 and unwanted irrelevance, 165–66 Japan and value of satellite slots, 73 postwar legal transplants into, 61 and V-chip, 136 postwar occupation of, 185 and Voice of America, 219 Jazeera, Al, 6, 22, 80, 200, 221, 249 Internet terrorism, 236 Johnson, Eric, 112 Internet Watch Foundation, 128 Intervention, 19, 22–23 Karadzic, Radovan, 179 and enabling environment, 53–54 Kazakhstan, 8, 20, 96, 194 examples of US interventions, 5–7 Kennedy, Anthony, 152 information intervention, 177–88, 242 (see Kennedy, John F., 202 also Foreign policy of information Khalifa al-Thani, Sheik Hamad bin, 80 space) Khatami (Iranian president), 207 instrumental and constitutive approaches Kingsbury, Benedict, 196 to, 49–52 Kleinman, Bert, 223 and stages of transition, 44–48, 52 Klickovic, Gojko, 183 transfer of legal models, 60–69 Klinkhammer, Fred, 109 Koreas. See ; and satellite television, 217 Kosovo and technological innovation, 17–18 as failed state, 194 and United States, 13 and hate speech, 43 Iraq and information intervention, 175, 179, and technological innovation, 17–18 231 Islamic fundamentalism, and Turkish revisions of media structures in, 17 government, 36 and stability, 233 Kosovo conflict, 8–9 and RTS, 215 and VOA, 221 and Yugoslav satellite channel, 7 Krajisnik, Momcilo, 182, 183 Index 309

Kurdish population Loyalties MED-TV for, 80, 231 market for, 31–40, 43, 51, 52–53, 99, and Turkish information policy, 197 113–14, 154, 231–32 Kuwait, 80 and privatization of media, 98 Loyalty, 40–41, 42 Labeling, neutral, 121 Lusaka Protocol, 7 Labeling or rating methods, 128–29, 130, 134–40, 243. See also Filtering of MacBride Commission Report, 106 harmful content Mahathir, Mohammed, 96 and V-chip criticisms, 274–75n.20 Malaysia, 34, 83, 85, 95–96, 118 Language, 89, 116 Mami, Cheb, 221 impact of, 113 Marcinkiewicz, Krzysztof, 108 and norms, 118 Market for loyalties, 31–40, 43, 51, 52–53, of policy formation, 57 (see also 99, 113–14, 154, 231–32 Metaphor; Model) Marketplace economy, and advertising, 38 political use of, 58–59 Marketplace of ideas, 248 Language pluralism, 67 enlarging of, 28 Lasswell, Harold, 201 Marvin, Carolyn, 166 Latvia, 14, 100, 194 MCI, 76 Lauder, Ronald, 108, 109 MEASAT, 12 Law Media doubt toward vs. dependence on, 29 enabling environment for, 53–54 as following market, 140 “independent,” 53 and force, 242 and sovereignty, 26 of information intervention, 184–88 and success of peace-keeping forces, 17 and national context, 59 Media assistance, 247 and negotiation, 21 and shifting of governance, 44 and overseas offenders, 159 in transition states, 192–97 and radio jamming, 202–203 Media diplomacy, 291n.2 as symbol, 131 Media globalization 3, 18, 227–28 and technology, 58 architectural approach to, 90–91 new technology, 147–48 different national responses to, 245–46 as tool for cartelization of identities, 114 and exit, voice, and stability, 40–44, 53 Law on Audiovisual Communication framework for analyzing national (France), 93 responses to, 228, 231–46 League of Nations’ Convention Concerning and ideas concerning structure, 113 the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause and market for loyalties, 31–40 of Peace, 20, 24 and multinational corporations, 235 Legal metaphors, 69 and regime structure, 236 Legal models, transfer of, 60–69 and stages of transition, 44–48, 52 Lehman, Bruce, 192 standard state response to, 89–90 Lessig, Lawrence, 151, 152, 156, 242 Media law, 65 Levin, Carl, 180 transfer of, 60–69 Liberia, 6 as country specific, 66 Libya, 246 Media policies. See Foreign policy of Lithuania, 14, 100, 194 information space 310 Index

Media reform and “harmful content,” 121 instrumental and constitutive approaches Morley, David, 26 to, 49–52 Center for Media Law and Policy, as shifting concern from content of 65–66 information to structure of ownership, Moscow News publishing house, 223 113 Motion Picture Association of America, technical assistance in, 46–48, 52, 192–97 127, 138, 171 in transition states, 197 MTV, 22 Media structures, changes in, 12–18, 57 Multimedia, in international broadcasting, MED-TV, 21, 80–82, 232 216 MERN (Middle East Radio Network), Multinational corporations, 16 221–24 and human rights principles, 141 Mertus, Julie, 60, 69 and Indian media debate, 62 Metaphor(s), 58, 69, 227 and media globalization, 235 and Internet, 69–70 and privatization, 92 and models, 86–87 Multinational private broadcasting firms, of physical world applied to cyberspace, 22 151, 152 Murdoch, Rupert, 70, 84 of trade routes, 70–73, 84–86 and control of , 76–78 Nathanson, Marc, 216 and MED-TV, 80–82 National identity(ies) and orbital slots as cultural gateways, “bubble” of, 19, 229 83–84 and cartel of imagery, 32 and regulatory law, 78–80 and free trade, 234 and Tongan orbital slots, 74–76 and Internet or satellite technologies, 18 Metzl, Jamie Frederic, 173–76, 178, 219 and market for loyalty, 32–33 Middle East Radio Network (MERN), and advertising, 37, 38 221–24 vs. marketplace of ideas, 248 Milosevic, Slobodan, 7, 23, 34, 217 and MED-TV as Kurdistan in space, 80 Ministry of Information & Broadcasting v. and privatization, 98–99 Cricket Association of Bengal, 63, and satellite “trade routes,” 85 299n.10 and sovereignty, 26 Misreadings, in transference of legal National responses to information-inflow models, 67–68 complexity, 19–23. See also Intervention Mitterand, François, 93 as internal vs. external, 19 Model(s), 57–58, 59–60, 86, 227 as unilateral vs. negotiated, 19–20 and metaphors, 86–87 National security concerns, 236 transfer of legal models, 60–69 vs. marketplace of ideas, 248 Moral development of children. See also Nation-state, and collective identity, Child pornography; Children, restriction 249 of Negotiations concerning information space, material harmful to; Illegal and harmful 19–22, 229, 242 content Nelson, Michael, 201 as exception to free TV flow (Television Netanel, Neil Weinstock, 191–92 without Frontiers Directive), 22, 79, Netherlands, 97, 231, 232 137 NetWise, 135 Index 311

Neutral labeling, 121 PAL, 85 Newness in technology, 17, 145–46, Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation, 166–67, 235 296n.67 assessment of, 154–56 PanAmSat, 76–78 as disintermediating, 146 Parallel mechanisms of information and indecency, 148–53, 154, 157–58 distribution, 18 and jurisdiction, 158–60 Paramount Communications, Inc., 11 many faces of, 148 Parent-child relationships and psyops, 245 and Internet regulation, 156–57, 280n.40 and rewriting of history, 160–66 and V-chip, 129 social world of, 156–58 “Passports” for ideas, 244 and state power, 146–48 Pattiz, Norman, 221–24 News Corporation, 21, 22, 100, 106 Peace broadcasting, 178 New World Information and PICS (Platform for Internet Content Communication Order debate, 60 Selection), 128–29 New Zealand, and objectionable material, Pillarization, 231, 232 274n.16 Place, and space, 23–25 Nixon administration, 98 Plavsic, Biljana, 180–81, 181, 182, 183 Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), Point of origin, and review of content 247 (Malaysia), 12 Norms Poland cultural, 16 as consolidating democracy, 194 international, 33–34, 237 privatization in, 93 and language, 118 public service broadcasting in, 100–101 use of, 241 television liberalization in, 107–108 North American Free Trade Agreement transfer of media-regulation models to, (NAFTA) negotiations (1992), 106 64 North American Radio Broadcasting Policy formation, language of, 57. See also Agreement (NARBA), 203 Metaphor; Model North Korea, 9–10, 13 Policy implications, 246–50 and Radio Free Asia, 210, 211–12, Political persuasion, and Western 295n.42 programming, 190 NTV, 95 Pool, Ithiel de Sola, 28 Pornography. See also Child pornography Obscene material, 125 access to distinguished from child O’Connor, Sandra Day, 152–53 pornography, 121 Office of War Information, 171 on Internet, 86 Omar, Mullah Mohamed, 220, 297n.81 UK resistance against, 78–79 Onek, Joseph, 60 Porter (US Representative), 210, 294n.40 Open Society Institute, 64 Portugal, state aid case in, 99–100 Organization of Security and Cooperation Powell, Colin, 6 in Europe (OSCE), 7, 179, 186, 187, Power realignments, 238 237 Presidential Decision Directive 68, 172–73 President’s Commission on Critical Packer, Kerry, 204 Infrastructure Protection, 146, 298n.5 Pakistan, and India, 13, 35, 36, 230 Press, and democracy, 110–12 312 Index

Privatization, 115 and Cambodia, 213–14 conventional, 93–98 government in growth of, 162–63 and democracy, 109–12 introduction of, 27 and foreign investment or ownership, television as competition for, 216–17 107–109 Radio Australia, 204 and “free trade,” 105–107 Radio Broadcasting to Cuba Act (1983), as increasing viability of state, 97–98 203 and market for loyalties, 114 Radio Democracy (Africa), 17, 207 meanings of, 91–93 Radio Free Afghanistan, 17, 221 and national identity, 98–99 Radio Free Asia (RFA), 208–13, 294n.42 and public service broadcasting, 99–101, and Australia, 7 116 and Cambodia, 213–14, 294n.42 and self-regulation, 101–104 and China, 85, 208–209, 210, 211, and state role, 117 293–94n.31 , 201 and Clinton reorganization, 205–206 and India-Pakistan agreement, 230 and domestic pressures, 51 in international broadcasting, 17, 199, and Internet, 216 200 and nomenclature, 207 Radio Free Asia seen as, 211 in post-cold war change, 17, 85 after September 11 attacks, 219 Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL), Protection of information space, 19–22, 17, 85, 175, 201–202 229. See also Regulation and Clinton reorganization, 205–206 law as, 31 and cold war, 201–202, 208 as rule of place, 24–25 congressional declaration on, 207 Protectionist approach, 190 Persian-language service of, 207 and cultural identity, 246 relocation of, 206 vs. free trade, 234–35 and Safire on Afghanistan, 220 Psyops, 244–45 and Serbia, 8, 217, 218 Public diplomacy, 174–75, 176–77, 200, Soviets’ jamming of, 19 291n.2 Radio Free Iran, 207 Beers as under secretary for, 4 Radio Liberation, 201–202 revolution in, 219, 225 Radio Marti, 23, 85, 203, 205, 206 Public interest obligations on American Radio Maximum, 223 broadcasters, removal of as Radio Shari’ah, 4, 220 privatization, 96–97 Radio technology, optimistic claims for, 145 Public service broadcasting, 116 Radio-Television Libre des Milles Collines in Bosnia, 185 (RTLM), 177–78 in Europe, 99–101 Radio transmission, and national need to reinterpret, 249 boundaries, 31 Radio-TV Serbia (RTS), 79–80, 215 Qatar, and al Jazeera, 22, 80 Rahmat, Mohamed, 12 Rating or labeling methods, 128–29, 130, Raboy, Marc, 11, 190 134–40, 243. See also Filtering of Radio harmful content and cold war, 201–202 and V-chip criticisms, 274–75n.20 FM, 216, 218, 248 Ratings system, television, 131 Index 313

semiotics of, 130, 139 medium of, 239–40 Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC, 161 objects of, 240–41 Reddy, Jeevan, 63 Restructuring, tropes of, 54, 89, 113, 116 Regime structure, 236 RFE/RL. See Radio Free Europe/Radio Regional or multilateral approaches, 3 Liberty Regulation. See also Illegal and harmful Rhetoric of change, 54, 227 content; Media law; Self-regulation Rice, Condoleezza, 19 conditions for, 162 Right or freedom to receive and impart of cyberspace information, 116, 141, 203, 210, and Communications Decency Act, 125, 237–38, 246, 248 136, 148–49, 156, 157 (see also vs. restrictions on programming, 86 Communications Decency Act) Rights, speech, 133, 237. See also Freedom and Internet history, 162 of speech and parental role, 129, 156–57, 280n.40 Rights of listeners or viewers, 133–34, 136 and V-chip, 125–34, 136 (see also V- Riley, Chris, 181 chip) Robins, Kevin, 26 zoning approach to, 153 Rosen, Lawrence, 246 of intermediaries vs. content providers vs. Royaumont Process, 42 users, 243 Royce, Ed, 221 newspapers vs. broadcasting model of, 60 Rozumilowicz, Beata, 195 to protect against violence or social RTS (Radio-TV Serbia), 79–80, 215 tension, 16, 43–44 Rules, and enforcement, 68 of satellites, 78–80 Russia and Koreas, 9–10 international brodcasting efforts in, 205 trans-national, 14 (see also Television Internet downloading in, 216 without Frontiers Directive) law concerning concentration of Regulation of advertising, 37–39 ownership of media in, 105 Regulation debate. See Illegal and harmful media-law transfer to, 65–66 content media as pressure group in (1990–1995), Regulation of speech, in global 53 environment, 3 and post-Soviet republics, 8, 20, 22 Regulatory regime, international, 248 press freedom and assistance in, 111–12 Religiously divisive speech, and regulatory privatization in, 93 demands, 16 of central state television, 94–95, 96 Remapping, 4–5. See also Change transition in, 46, 52 in China, 15 as weak state, 194 of information space, 250 Rwanda of media laws, 27 deployment of international in, of media space, 227 213, 214 of media structures, 57 hate programming in, 215 and exit/voice mix, 41 Rwandan genocide, 177–78, 179, 214 Reno v. ACLU, 148–51, 152, 154–56, 157, 158, 160, 163, 164, 166, 280n.40 Sable Communications of Cal., Inc. v. FCC, Restrictive national responses, 238–39 163 articulated basis for, 239, 299n.6 Safire, William, 220 intensity of, 241 Sakr, Naomi, 80 314 Index

Santo Domingo, 230 media crackdown in, 217 Sassen, Saskia, 85 propaganda campaign against alleged, 218 Satellite regulation, transnational, 9–10 Serbian Radio-TV (RTS), 79–80, 215 Satellite transmission, 27–28, 265n.37 Sex, V-chip fixation on, 132 direct, 20, 25, 76, 90 Shinseki, Eric, 188 and Malaysia, 12 Singapore, 90, 123–24, 231, 232, 246 outlawing of dishes for, 19 Sintra Declaration, 179–80, 187 as parallel mechanism, 18 Skywriting, as government-intervention and spillover, 25 example, 134–35 and trade route metaphor, 71–73, 84–86 Slovakia, 7 and control of satellites, 76–78 Social world of newness in technology, and cultural screening, 83–84 156–58 and MED-TV, 80–82 Société Européene des Satellites (SES), 77 and regulatory law, 78–80 Somalia, 42 and Tongan orbital slots, 74–76, 266n.50 Sony, 106 in transformations of international Souter, David, 151 broadcasting, 4, 217 , fear of “modern” in, 99 Saudi Arabia, 18 South Eastern Europe, Stability Pact for, Scotland, 34 42–43, 238 SECAM, 85 South Korea, 9, 13 Self-regulation, 101–104 Sovereignty, 25–26 of illegal and harmful content, 122, 125 and foreign transmissions, 202–203 in South Koreans’ showing broadcasts international broadcasting as violation of, from North Korea, 10 202–203, 211, 212 and transition, 101, 104–105 and privatization, 98 and V-chip, 133 radio seen as threat to, 27 Semiotics of ratings, 130, 139 Soviet Union Sensitivity, 247 collapse of, 38 September 11 terrorist attacks. See also FRE/RL jammed by, 19 Terrorism and stability, 231 and dangerous speech, 236 Soviet Union, former, 13, 14. See also and foreign policy on media, 171–72, 175, Russia; other successor states 177 media assistance in, 112 and international broadcasting, 199, transfer of legal model to, 61 219–25 Space, and place, 23–25 and media policies, 28 Speech and need for influence abroad, 4 meta-data on content of, 134 and USA Patriot Act, 255n.50 open vs. closed terrain of, 136–37 Serbia “tobaccoization” of, 137 bombing of transmitters in, 229 Speech rights, and private media as consolidating authoritarian state, 194 enterprises, 133, 237. See also Freedom as failed state, 194 of speech foreign services banned in, 8–9 “Spillover,” 25 information intervention in, 23, 175, 178, Spry, Graham, 10, 225 218 “Squeegee” approach to crime prevention, Internet downloading in, 216 50 Index 315

SRT Pale, 179, 180, 181, 182–84 responses to changes in, 27 Stability, 40–44, 53, 231, 232–33 and trade route metaphor, 70 (see also Stability Pact, for South Eastern Europe, Trade route metaphor) 42–43, 238 Telecommunications Act (1996), 66, 127, Stages of transition, 44–48, 52, 232 129, 138, 254n.47 Star-TV, 22 Television State(s) program descriptions on, 134 activities of categorized, 230 radio as competition for, 216–17 consolidating, authoritarian, 194 and V-chip, 126–32 (see also Labeling or control over information space of, 4 rating methods; V-chip) and cultural identity, 4 Television, the Public Sphere, and National failed, 33, 42, 193, 194 Identity (Price), 31 interaction among, 3, 228–31 Television without Frontiers Directive law-based vs. managerial (“soft”), 143 (1989), 14, 20, 23, 33, 34, 79, 140 and new distribution patterns, 249–50 Article 22 of (programs affecting moral and new technology, 147 development of children), 22, 79, 137 and privatization, 117 Terrorism. See also September 11 terrorist in transition, 91, 193, 194 (see also attacks Transition) campaign against, 12–13, 15 unstable/divided, 194 and filtering technology, 243 State power, as redefined, 3 and “illegal and harmful” material, 118, Stevens, John Paul, 150, 155, 157–58, 159, 121 160, 161, 162, 163–66, 283n.76 on Internet, 236 Storyfirst Communications, 223 as justification for greater state authority, Sun Tzu, 201 146 Supreme Court, U.S. vs. marketplace of ideas, 248 on obscene material, 125 and monitoring, 18 and Reno decision, 148–51, 155 (see also and regulatory demands, 16 Reno v. ACLU) states’ responses to, 236 as revisionist historian, 160 and suppression of voice, 41 Surrogate radios, 201–202, 206, 208 Thussu, Daya Kishan, 48–49 “Tobaccoization” of speech, 137 Technical assistance, in media reform, Toholj, Miroslav, 180 46–48, 52, 192–97 Tonga, orbital slots allocated to, 74–76, Technological determinism, as overblown, 266n.50 146–47 Topoljski, Petar, 43 Technologies of boundary, 29 Trade agreements, 16 and Malaysia, 12 and media policies, 189–90 Technologies of freedom, 28, 29 Trade freedom. See Free trade Technology(ies), 167 Trade routes metaphor, 70–73, 84–86 and force, 244 and control of satellites, 76–78 and law, 58 and MED-TV, 80–82 new, 17, 145–46, 235 (see also Newness and orbital slots as cultural gateways, in technology) 83–84 potential of, 167 and regulatory law, 78–80 and removal of restrictions, 14–15 and Tongan orbital slots, 74–76 316 Index

Transition pornographic broadcasts resisted by, and privatization, 97 78–79 processes of, 231 shortwave curtailed by, 218 and self-regulation, 101, 104–105 stages of, 44–48, 52, 232 and Angola, 7 and technical assistance, 193–97 compliance officers in, 237 and transfer of models, 69 and control of images, 83–84 Transition states or societies and direct broadcast satellites, 25 and media assistance, 193, 194 on direct television broadcasting, 20 and programming of national origin, 91 Temporary Media Commissioner for Transnational broadcasting regulation, Kosovo of, 242 14 United States Transnational satellite regulation, 9–10 foreign media intervention by, 5–7 Transparency, need for, 247 and globalism, 27 TRIPs (Agreement on Trade-Related and Iran, 13 Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), United States Agency for International 191, 192, 289nn.58, 60 Development (USAID), 64, 112, 115, Tropes of restructuring, 54, 89, 113, 116 173, 193, 195, 218 Turkey United States Information Agency (USIA), “Europe” as deterrent to silencing station 171, 174, 205 in, 7 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, information foreign policy of, 197 Article 19 of, 33, 203, 210, 237 and market for loyalty, 36–37, 231, 232 Uplinking, 79 vs. MED-TV, 21, 81, 82, 232 control of, 90 privatization in, 95, 96, 97 Uplinking requirement Turner Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC, 161 by India, 12, 20 Tusa, John, 204–205 by Malaysia, 85 TV Marti, 23, 206 Uruguay Round of GATT negotiations, TV Nova, 108–109 106, 189 USAID (United States Agency for Udrigovo Agreement, 181, 182 International Development), 64, 112, , 8, 20, 100, 194 115, 173, 193, 195, 218 Unendra, P., 35 USA Patriot Act, 255n.50 Unilateral efforts to control information User empowerment, 129, 136, 137 space, 22–23, 229 US foreign policy of media space. See United Arab Emirates, 80 Foreign policy of information space United Kingdom (Britain) USIA (United States Information Agency), and British model(s) of media policy, 62, 171, 174, 205 67 Uzbekistan, 8, 194 Czech Romas’ image of, 41 and illegal/harmful content, 118 Valenti, Jack, 131 pop star conviction, 123 Values, competition over, 250, 294n.40 and international broadcasting, 204–205 V-chip, 117, 125–32, 155 ITV formed in, 97 criticism of ratings for, 274–75n.20 and labeling, 130 and diminishing state power, 132–33 MED-TV licensed in, 81–82 implementation of, 138 Index 317

and rights of listeners or viewers, 133–34 Volokh, Eugene, 156 and role of producer, 138 Vucic, Aleksandar, 8, 218 and self-regulation, 133 and speech-society relation, 136 War against terrorism, 4, 6. See also Viacom, 11 September 11 terrorist attacks; Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL), 35 Terrorism; Vietnam Westendorp, Carlos, 180, 183 and Australian broadcasting, 204 Western Europe, 14. See also at European; on Radio Free Asia, 211, 212–13 specific countries Radio Free Asia directed to, 85, 210, Whitelisting, 121, 135, 141 295n.42 World Administrative Radio Conference and Australia as base, 7 Agreement, 77 Violence World Administrative Radio Conferences Green Paper on, 120 (WARCs), 74 and Kosovo journalism regulation, 43 World Bank, 92, 115 and regulatory demands, 16 World Press Freedom Committee, 51 V-chip fixation on, 132 WorldSpace, 217 Voice, 40, 41–44, 53, 233 World Trade Organization (WTO), 85, 91, Voice of America, 200, 201, 206–207, 189, 247 209–210 World War II, media space seized in, 23 and Bosnia-Hercegovina, 181 World wide web. See Internet and Cambodian government, 213, 214 Yahoo! Inc., 160 Chinese attack on, 211 Yeltsin, Boris, 95 and CNN, 205 Yugoslavia, former, 34, 215. See also expansion of into television, 216 specific nations full-service style of, 202 and Stability Pact for South Eastern as information foreign policy element, 188 Europe, 43 and Internet, 216 Yugoslavia, NATO campaign against, 218 as intervention, 45 and Liberia, 6 Zelezny, Vladimir, 108, 109 and MERN, 224 Zoning approach, to cyberspace regulation, military aircraft used in broadcasting of, 153 220–21 and objectivity, 219–20, 292n.5 and Mullah Omar interview, 220, 297n.81 Pattiz on, 221–22 under receiving states’ auspices, 23 under reorganization, 17, 205–206, 291n.5 and Serbia, 8, 175, 217, 218 shortwave services cut back and Internet expanded by, 219 as shortwave transnational service, 85 and Vietnam, 295n.42