Activity Profiling in Surfing Diplomarbeit

Activity Profiling in Surfing

Diplomarbeit

zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines

Magisters der Naturwissenschaften

an der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz

vorgelegt von

Martin Eisner

am Institut für Sportwissenschaft

Begutachter: Univ.- Prof. Mag. Dr.rer.nat. Markus

Tilp

Graz, 2016

Eidesstattliche Erklärung:

Ich erkläre ehrenwörtlich, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbstständig und ohne fremde Hilfe verfasst, andere als die angegebenen Stellen nicht benutzt und die den Quellen wörtlich oder inhaltlich entnommenen Stellen als solche kenntlich gemacht habe. Die Arbeit wurde bisher in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form keiner anderen inländischen oder ausländischen Prüfungsbehörde vorgelegt und auch noch nicht veröffentlicht. Die vorliegende Fassung entspricht der eingereichten elektronischen Version.

Datum: Unterschrift:

Acknowledgement:

I want to thank my entire family, my father, my brother, my late grandfather and especially my mother, for enabling me to go to university, for always believing in me and for supporting me along the way.

I also want to thank Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr. Markus Tilp for supervising this thesis and Mag. Dr. Klaus Rom as well as MMag. David Höden for helping me when I did not know whom to ask for help, for brainstorming with me, and for putting me back on track when I got lost.

Thanks to all of my friends around the world and to all the amazing people I met during my time at the University of Western Sydney, the Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and the Karl Franzens- University. My time spent at each Uni would not have been the same without you guys.

3 Table of Contents:

Eidesstattliche Erklärung: ...... 2

Acknowledgement: ...... 3

Table of Contents: ...... 4

Introduction to this Paper and Thesis Outline:...... 6

Theoretical Part - I; Basic Knowledge and Relevant Extra Information on Surfing: ...... 8 I.1.) The History of Surfing (With Special Regards to Gran Canaria): ...... 8 I.1.1.) Surfing in Ancient Times: ...... 8 I.1.2.) The Rebirth of a Sport: ...... 9 I.1.3.) The History of Surfing in Gran Canaria: ...... 10 I.2.) Equipment: ...... 13 I.2.1.) Introduction: ...... 13 I.2.2.) Surfboard Design: ...... 14 I.2.3.) Types of Surfboards: ...... 20 I.2.4.) Accessories: ...... 23 I.3.) Surfing; Definition and Explanation of the Activity: ...... 25 I.3.1.) Introduction and Definition: ...... 25 I.3.2.) Surfing Basics, Beginner and Intermediate Surfing: ...... 26 I.3.3.) Advanced Surfing: ...... 27 I.3.4.) Types of Surfbreaks: ...... 29 I.4.) Surfing in School: ...... 32 I.4.1.) Introduction: ...... 32 I.4.2.) Health: ...... 33 I.4.3.) Motor Competences: ...... 34 I.4.4.) Surf Week Meets Language Week: ...... 36 I.4.5.) Conclusion: ...... 37

Theoretical Part II; Literature Review on Performance Analysis in Surfing: ...... 39 II.1.) Introduction to Performance Analysis in Surfing: ...... 39 II.2.) Contest Versus Recreational Surfing: ...... 40 II.3.) Heart Rate Monitoring: ...... 41 II.4.) Performance Analysis: ...... 42

4 II.4.1.) Introduction:...... 42 II.4.2.) Performance Analysis in Surfing - Red Bull Surf Science (Red Bull, 2014): ... 44 II.5.) Performance Analysis in Surfing Due to Time- Motion- Analysis: ...... 47 II.5.1.) Introduction:...... 47 II.5.2.) Activity Profile of World- Class Professional Surfers During Competition: A Case Study (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006): ...... 48 II.5.3.) Heart Rates and Estimated Energy Expenditure During Recreational Surfing (Meir et al., 1991): ...... 52 II.5.4.) Competitive Surfing: A Physiological Problem of Athletes and Determinants of Performance (Farley, 2011): ...... 56

Experimental Part - III: Activity Profiling During 1 Hour of Recreational Surfing: ...... 58 III.1.) Introduction: ...... 58 III.2.) Aims of the Study: ...... 59 III.3.) Hypotheses: ...... 60 III.4.) Equipment: ...... 60 III.5.) Method: ...... 63 III.6.) Subject: ...... 64 III.7.) Classification of Movements: ...... 64 III.8.) Categorization of Each Session: ...... 65 III.9.) Training Diary: ...... 66 III.10.) Video Analysis: ...... 67 III.11.) Data Analysis: ...... 67 III.12.) Results: ...... 68 III.12.1.) Duration of Activities: ...... 68 III.12.2.) Average Heart Rates During 1 h of Recreational Surfing: ...... 72 III.12.3.) Definition of Exercise Zones: ...... 75 III.12.4.) Overall Summary and Conclusion: ...... 83

IV.) Bibliography: ...... 86

V.) Index of Pictures: ...... 91

VI.) Index of Charts:...... 97

5 Introduction to this Paper and Thesis Outline:

Surfing is a popular sport on the beaches of all continents, practiced by individuals within all age groups and sexes. The International Surfing Association (ISA), which is surfing’s representative in the Olympic committee, consists of a total of 98 membership countries ranging from countries deeply rooted in surfing history, such as Hawaii, Australia or South Africa, to completely landlocked nations such as Austria. The fact that surfing even reaches out to countries without any access to natural surf- able waves speaks for itself and shows how far the sport of surfing has come and evolved since its early beginnings in ancient Peru and pre- colonial Hawaii. The motivations of the first surfers, early Polynesians and Peruvians, to enter the water surely have been very different to those of today’s wave riders. While on the islands of Hawaii surfing had once been practiced for religious reasons, for ancient Peruvians it was more of a necessity to enter the water, with their daily nourishment depending on their skills to navigate their native shorelines. However, even though surfing may not be as interwoven into the survival and daily routine of any of today’s societies, there still exist millions of different motivations and of approaches to the sport. While for some surfers it still is something more than a sport, a form of art or even something resembling a spiritual practice, for others it is just this, namely, as former World Champion Fred Hemming had once so precisely put it, “nothing but a clean and healthy sport”. Besides providing the reader with an insight on the global, as well as local Canarian, history of surfing, the first chapter of this paper addresses basic knowledge and essential information which should enable the reader to gain a better understanding of the activity itself and the following chapters. “Theoretical Part II; Literature Review on Performance Analysis in Surfing” was inserted in this paper to show the reader which studies had previously been conducted in this area. It intends to provide an overview on the topic of time- motion analysis in surfing as well as on the discipline of “performance analysis”. The first study on time- motion analysis in surfing was conducted as far back as 1991 by Meir et al.. However, since then only two more studies, Mendez- Villanueva at al. (2006) and Farley (2011), have been conducted in this area. Compared to other sports this is a diminutive amount of research done in an essential field of study which, after all, would allow coaches and athletes to take a close look at the very nature of the sport.

6 Thanks to a study conducted by the “Red Bull High Performance Center” it was also possible to take a more specific look into the field of performance analysis and at the state of the art technology available to monitor and analyse performance in the discipline of surfing specifically. The main aim of this paper, however, is to give an insight into the activity profile of a surfer during one hour of recreational surfing. “Experimental Part; III” is therefore dedicated to the study conducted on “Activity Profiling during 1h of Recreational Surfing”. Rather than trying to explain what surfing is to people, or what their motivation is to practice the sport, this paper tries to answer the question of “what” it is a surfer is actually doing once he enters the water. This paper is intended to shed light on the physiological demands put on a surfer during one hour of recreational surfing and to answer the question of whether or not there is a difference in a surfer’s physiological requirements depending on the type of break that he is surfing.

Picture 1 (Nike 6.0, Kenworthy/ Wallace Mc Kay, Maids on a wave): Visual proof of how much surfing has changed since the first Polynesians attempted to ride waves in about 2000 B.C..

7 Theoretical Part - I; Basic Knowledge and Relevant Extra Information on Surfing:

I.1.) The History of Surfing (With Special Regards to Gran Canaria):

I.1.1.) Surfing in Ancient Times:

It is impossible to pin point the actual birth date of surfing. Scholars, however, do believe that surfing is one of the oldest sports known to mankind. Next to swimming, gymnastics, wrestling and archery, it definitely outdates all team sports and therefore belongs to the very basis of today’s sporting culture. “Recreational wave riding was probably part of the general marine adaptation pioneered by the first people to enter the open Pacific. That would date the beginnings of the sport back to almost 2000 B.C., when the ancestors of the Polynesians and other Pacific Islanders started moving eastward from southeast Asia to explore and colonize this vast oceanic region” (Finney, Houston, 1991, p 21). While Hawaii is mostly praised to be the birthplace of surfing, Felipe Pomar of Lima gave conclusive evidence to his claim that ancient Peruvians had been practicing the sport of wave riding far longer than any evidence found on the Islands of Hawaii could show for. Pomar argues that Peruvian fishermen had been using so called “Caballitos”, small canoes used by fishermen in order to navigate in the surf, as far back as three thousand years B.C.. The full name of these fishing canoes, Caballitos de Totora, best describe the canoes shape and design, which can basically be translated as “weed horses”. While the fisherman primarily used their canoes in order to fulfill their everyday labour, Matt Warhshaw states that “[...] perhaps even just after the first caballitos were launched, some five thousand years ago- the fluttering thrill of riding a wave became its own reward” (Warshaw, 2010, p 21). Surfing in ancient Hawaii on the other hand was touched by religion and mysticism. It was practically fused to competition, gambling and even sexual intercourse. Sir James Cook was the European to make the first recorded visit to the islands of Hawaii in 1778. After seeing indigenous people in the surf, the surgeon of Cook's expedition noted the following in the expedition's logbook; “I could not help concluding that this man felt the most supreme pleasure while he was driven on so

8 fast and smoothly by the sea” (Warshaw, 2010, p 31). Other than this, following visitors to the islands mostly gave surfing a miss. This even got as far as surfing being banned from Hawaii's beaches when the Calvinist Missionaries gained more and more influence. For a good 150 years surfing went into decline due to religious oppression.

Picture 2 (Kennedy): Fisherman riding, or surfing, a traditional Caballito de Totora back to shore.

I.1.2.) The Rebirth of a Sport:

Taking the socio-cultural changes into account that occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century, the rebirth of surfing at this time makes complete sense. Artists, poets as well as painters, had started to change the perception of the sea in the public eye. “What had been seen as a roiling vastness filled with sea monsters and splintered boats was now viewed as a place of beauty, self-discovery, sensuality, godliness, even comfort” (Warshaw, 2010, p 31). The annexation of Hawaii and the coming up of a wealth burgeoning middle class, which had the money to go on beach side vacations every year, paved the way for the introduction of surfing in the rest of the world and its resurrection in Hawaii. With this background an extraordinary man named Duke Paoa Kahanamoku, the “Ambassador of Aloha”, embarked on a world- tour. Based in Hawaii he was the man credited with introducing the sport of surfing to the rest of the world. Duke was a three-time world record holder and five times Olympic medalist in freestyle swimming. He toured the world to give swimming demonstrations and, as an extra, also startled amazed onlookers in Australia, New Zealand and California with his surfing skills. A statue of him right at the beachfront immortalized the Duke’s first

9 exhibition of surfing at Freshwater Beach in Sydney in 1915. From this point on the development of surfing was mainly focused on three locations, Hawaii, Australia and California. The year 1960 marked the beginning of a regular surf craze. After beach blanket movies like “Gidget” had been released and at a time when “The Beach Boys” led the charts with their interpretation of “surf music”, surfing finally went mainstream, out of the underdog-scene and straight into the limelight.

Picture 3 (Strauss & Götze, 2012, p 16): Legendary Olympic Medalist, surfer and all around waterman “Duke Paoa Kahanamoku”, the father of modern day surfing and ambassador of “Aloha”.

I.1.3.) The History of Surfing in Gran Canaria:

Compared to the long and rich history of surfing in other parts of the world, the history of surfing in the Canary Islands has just started very recently. Nevertheless, a very rich and deeply rooted local surf culture can be found in the islands today. According to the “Storm Rider Surf Guide” the first surfers in the Canaries probably were US- servicemen who caught waves at La Cicer, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria's city beach in 1970. Local lore and folklore, however, has it that long before this, travellers and sailors, who used the Canaries as a stop over point for the long Atlantic crossing from Europe to America, had already taken to the water with their boards. Even Agatha Christie, the famous writer and intellectual mother of “Miss Marple”, is supposed to have stopped and surfed in Gran Canaria when she was

10 on her way back home from the Hawaiian Islands. However, as hardly any written information on the history of surfing in the Canary Islands exists, “there are numerous unsubstantiated claims as to exactly who was the first surfer in the Canaries and this goes back to the pioneering journeys of Peter Troy in the '60s” (Sutherland, 2008, p 328). The following lines are therefore mostly comprised of information collected in various conversations and an interview with one of Gran Canaria’s first surfers, Miguel Ortega. The “Stormrider Surfguide Europe” states that “[...] in 1974, Jose Luis Navarro, Pedro Quintana and Miguel Ortega organised the first surfing championships in Gran Canaria. (Sutherland, 2008, p 328). As a surfer of the first generation Ortega, now owner of “Orca surfshop” in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, was kind enough to give his recollection of how surfing came to the island of Gran Canaria. A local surf scene started to establish when the people associated with the legendary Las Palmas night club “El Saxo” bought two or three long boards of traveling surfers. Ortega recalls, “We were kids and we basically lived on the beach. There were these guys catching waves on their surfboards and for us it was simply amazing. […]... so we would just wait there in the shorebreak you know, wait for them to lose their boards (the leash was not invented back then), then we would catch their boards and try to catch a couple of waves ourselves until they caught us and took the board away from us, that is how it all started”. Back in the nineteen seventies, when a local surf scene started to establish, the surf beach of Las Palmas, “La Cicer”, looked very different from what it looks like nowadays. “This area of the city has changed from rundown and neglect to one of regeneration and commercial interest” (Sutherland, 2008, p 343). Ortega recalls a very different picture when he recounts the first days of surfing at the city beach. “It was an industrial zone, a dirty and contaminated zone. Sometimes you would go down to the beach and lie down next to a dead animal”. A fish factory next to a cable factory and various other industrial sights were mainly responsible for the contamination of the water. “They got this new turbine in the cable factory. I think it was from Germany or somewhere. Anyways, when the offshore wind blew, and you were surfing the peak of “El Piti”, you were barely able to breathe as the south wind blew right through the turbine and all the shit got blown right into our faces”. Ortega also recalls an incident where he and a lot of his surf- friends got boils all over their torsos, front and back, and had to be treated with heavy medication in order to get rid

11 of them again. “We were in the water every day, and it basically was a cesspit, very dirty and contaminated from the factories and the whole city. Actually it´s no wonder that we all got one or the other infection at some point”. When asked for an initial moment that started the whole surf- movement in Gran Canaria, Ortega recalls the following: “There was no initial moment, it all grew very slowly. It was not just about surfing. Surfing was part of a cultural movement, you know”. With the death of the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco in 1975 a new era began, not only on the Spanish peninsula but also on the Canary Islands. “Back then everything and everyone was so strict. They called us “los locos Hippies de la playa (the crazy Hippies from the beach)”. As in many other places in the world the Hippie movement was interwoven into the surfing movement at this time. Also music played an important role. “For us, back then, contests were not the same as they are nowadays. For us it was more like a party, good drinks, good food and good music. Music was actually very important, especially for the surfers in the water. When I was in the water and could not hear the music I would signal the beach that they had to turn up the volume before I would even catch a wave”, states Miguel Ortega in retrospective. Starting from “La Cicer” the whole island was explored and waves were discovered on every coast of the island. According to Ortega the first crew of surfers who explored the island consisted of “chicos de Guanarteme” (kids from the neighborhood of Guanarteme) and “chicos de la Isleta y de Confital” (kids from the zone of “La Isleta” and “El Confital). Together they would ride waves for the first time all around Gran Canaria. Many waves were named during this adventures period of exploration. “You know why Mosca Point is called Mosca Point?”, asked Ortega at one point during our interview. “Simply because there always were millions of mosquitoes around that place. That is why we called it Mosca Point”. Los Enanos (The dwarfs) was named that way because two of our friends were very little. Every time when we went to surf bigger waves in “Boquines” or “El Paso”, we would drop them off on the beach beforehand so that they can catch smaller waves. We called that beach after them, Los Enanos”. Today the island of Gran Canaria has a thriving surf scene. Numerous surf schools are living proof that the interest in learning the sport is as strong on the island as it is everywhere else in the world. Besides, a strong surf tourism a big local scene has established itself in the island, especially around the area of “La Cicer”. The

12 history of talented local surfers goes back as far as to “Juan Ignacio Barreto who was radical enough to surf against the world's best” (Sutherland, 2008, p 328). Popular names today include surfers like Julian Cuellho, ex- WQS competitor and five times up and running Canary Champion, talented free-surfer Javi Medina and young promising talents such as Luis Diaz.

Picture 4: La Cicer (Eisner, 2014).

I.2.) Equipment:

I.2.1.) Introduction:

Ancient Hawaiian surfboards were large (16ft), heavy and extremely difficult to manoeuvre. They had been carved out of trees and there were rites and chants included into their production. As surfing was a spiritual practice, making a surfboard was not a normal craftsman’s work, but a spiritual process. Today however, surfboards are made by “shapers”, specialised into the design and production of high performance sport's equipment. Religion and spiritual rites had to give way to science and modern tools. A real revolution took place with the invention of the lighter balsa wood surfboards in 1940. Today numerous forms of surfboards exist and of course the same applies for the materials applied to produce them. The most commonly used production process includes polyurethane foam, polyester resin and a fibreglass cloth. The invention of the so called “legroap” or “leash” in 1971 by Pat O'Neill can be seen as another milestone in surfboard equipment technology.

Depending on level, requirements, taste and personal style there are tons of different types of craft, which a surfer can choose from. Nick Carroll, journalist and brother of 2x world champion Tom Carroll, describes the process of learning how to surf and especially evolving in your surfing as “... a fuzzy, slightly out of focus picture whose features becomes steadily clearer over the time. The devil will be in the detail: getting your board right, getting a quiver right and keeping it long enough to enjoy” (Carroll, 2006, p 3). As choosing the right boards for one´s surfing quiver is an integral part of surfing. An overview of the most common types of surfboards will be provided throughout the next chapter.

I.2.2.) Surfboard Design:

The most commonly used production process in a surfboard’s design starts with a polyurethane foam core in which a wooden stringer is incorporated. The manufacturing of the foam blank is traditionally done by hand, using a saw, a planer, a sander etc.. Nowadays, especially in big shaping companies, a lot of the work is done by so called CNC (Computerized Numerical Control) machines. However, even if a company is applying a CNC machine every board still needs to be finished by hand. Once the foam blank is cut out, planed and sanded to the desired dimensions, the next step is to “glass” the board. As the foam blank is very light and fragile it has to be “wrapped” in a fibreglass cloth. The glassing gives the board stability as well as flex. Traditionally the bottom of the board gets glassed with one layer of fibreglass, while the deck, the area the surfer is standing on, gets two layers. Resin is used as a hardener for the fibreglass covering and gets mixed with a catalyst. In the chemical process of mixing the resin with the catalyst, accuracy is of utmost importance. When the glassing is done, the last step in the process is to sand the board and to give it a nice finishing “hot coat”. The finished board should then rest for about 4- 6 weeks to give the resin the opportunity to really soak through the board and give it a greater stability. Surfscience describes the term “Surfboard design” as;

“The art of hand shaping a surfboard from a foam blank or piece of wood and making it into a vehicle for riding waves. The finished surfboard design is radically different from the crude materials it started as before a shaper begins to form the board. Since surfboards are ridden at beaches all over the world a designer must create a board that will work well in specific conditions” (Surf Science 2016, online).

As already stated above, finding the right surfboard for oneself is key and hopefully enhances one´s ability in the surf and therefore, maximizes the joy of riding a wave. Legendary surfboard shaper/ designer Bob Mac Tavish is often attributed with having played a key role in the transition from surfing’s “longboard era” to the so called “shortboard revolution”. He describes the process of building a surf-craft as a very complex and challenging one.

“When you are designing a surfboard you think how can I help this board rotate on the axis or all three. It works just like an aircraft. But aircraft work in a constant static air fluid mass- we work in a constantly changing rotating plane of water- so interesting! And that’s why it´s such a fascinating science! Its application is complex, but break it down into principles and you can understand it” (Mc Cagh. 2013, p 3).

In order to ultimately understand which board works best in which type of break or wave one first has to develop a basic idea of surfboard design. Hawaiian based shaper Dick Brewer states “there is really a lot of experimentation to be done”. “We’ve only basically gotten started on the modern surfboard” (Mc Cagh, 2013, p 4). Even though this might be true, no matter which board they all break down to a couple of very fundamental design elements. The most important thing to understand is that a surfboard is constantly interacting with the pressure of the water that surrounds it. Every part of the board is partaking in this interaction.

Picture 5 (Strauss & Götze, 2012, p 30): Surfboard terminology.

Outline: Together with foil and rocker, this feature creates the biggest design effect. It is also responsible for controlling a board’s volume. Carroll describes it as the “most obvious feature” in surfboard design (Carroll, 2006, p 16).

Concave: A board’s concave “creates lift and drive as it redirects water toward the tail as it runs underneath the board” (Carroll, 2006, p16). Its effect increases when it is put to work together with a set of fins. Basically one can say the more pressure you put on the concave, the more the lift effect increases.

Picture 6 (Tactics): Various possible forms of a surfboard’s bottom contour.

16 Rocker: A board’s rocker is divided into “entry” and “exit”- rocker. It describes the curve of the board responsible for letting water get under your board and releasing it. It is therefore responsible for the creation of release drag and control. Carroll describes it as “the bottom curve from nose to tail” (Carroll, 2006, p 16). Due to a stronger rocker design a surfer might be able to put his board vertically on a good quality wave face. However, at the same time he will lose some of the board’s speed, due to its excessive curve. Basically one could argue that the less rocker a board has got, the better it will glide and the faster it will be. On a very steep and fast wave however, it might be a better option to substitute some of the board’s speed for a stronger curve in the board, in order to match the wave’s angle, speed and power.

Picture 7 (Tactics): A surfboard’s rocker has great impact on the board’s planning characteristics.

Vee: “It creates a see-saw like tipping point on which a board can roll from rail to rail, making turns feel simpler and easier” (Carroll, 2006, p 16). The name of the “Vee” or “Vee bottom” derives from its very significant form, similar to that of the letter “V”. It basically is an extension of the rocker line throughout the centre of the board.

Rails: According to Nick Carrol, rails “connect the dots; outline, concave, vee, foil, rocker, everything comes together at the rail line. A well-shaped rail focuses on the good things about a board design. A bad rail makes a mess of it all (Carroll, 2006, p 16). A very profound difference can be found between so called “soft” and “hard” rails. Starting at either side of the nose of a board, soft rails will become “harder” the further they run towards the tail end of the board. Together with the set of fins applied the “hard” rails are responsible for the steering and navigation of the board. The “harder” a rail the more it will “cut” through the water, the “softer” the more it will

17 “roll”. The “harder” the rail the better the board will work in steep and hollow surf. “Softer” or “boxier” rails feel comfortable in slower rolling waves.

Picture 8(Tactics): Rails are an integral part of a surfboard’s character.

Tail: “The most common forms are square, squash, pin, round and swallowtail” (Strauss, 2012, p 133). Whilst Strauss argues that square and squash tails are the most frequently ridden tail shapes, the form of the tail mainly depends on the type of board you are on and the type of condition you are riding it in. As the tail describes the part of the board, which will be fully submerged in the water during a turn, it is one of the main design elements responsible for the type of curve performed by the surfer. Basically one can argue that the “squarer” the tail shape, the more angular a surfer’s turn will be. The rounder the tail the smoother or more drawn out the turn will be performed.

Picture 9 (Sanded, 2015): The most common forms of surfboard tail shapes. A board’s tail influences hold and release as well as a board’s speed on a wave.

Foil: “Foil is the overall rate of change in thickness through your board” (Carroll, 2006, p 16). The tendency of a board’s foil defines its “sweet spot”. While a forward foil makes it easier to catch a wave and gives the board a good plaining ability, a backwards foil pulls the sweet spot back and makes for tighter arches.

18 Fins: Fins connect a surfer’s board to the wave. They basically keep it from spinning out or simply sliding away. While there are some forms of surf-craft, which are deliberately used without any fins (the Alaia for example), all classic or standard surfboards use them. The fins often are the part of a surfboard which gets overlooked easily. However, it is being argued that a fin can make up as much as 30% of a board´s performance. In comparison one could argue that fins are to a surfboard what tires are to a car. Therefore there are numerous different options of fins best chosen depending on the type of craft and the break one is about to surf. “Fins provide drive, drag, feel and control in turns and lines” (Carroll, 2006, p 16). A fin´s characteristics are defined by its template which consists of height, rake and base, coupled with its foil and its flex. Nowadays it is common practice, especially for the travelling surfer, to use a “fin- system” on surfboards. The main argument in using such a box simply is that the surfer can easily remove the fins from a board when travelling or exchange them for a more suitable set.

Picture 10 (Tactics): Fins are available in all forms and sizes.

Board Dimensions and Technical Data: Surfboards have always been classified due to three very common dimensions, a board’s length, its width and its thickness. All these dimensions are being measured at the longest, widest and thickest part of the board. Due to the board’s rocker line, its outline, concave etc. it is very hard to get a good idea of the actual floatability of the board. It is for this reason that the last couple of years have seen the appliance of a fourth, very crucial dimension, a surfboard´s overall volume. As 2 boards with the exact same dimensions can vary a lot in volume due to differences in outline etc., this

19 4th component helps a surfer to get a more accurate idea of the board he is currently using.

Picture 11 (wikispaces): Surfboard dimensions are mostly constituted by 4 variables. A Board’s length, its width, its thickness and its overall volume

I.2.3.) Types of Surfboards:

Picture 12 (Strauss & Götze, 2012, p 30): Surfboards exist in all sizes and shapes, here is a graphic overview of the most common types of boards.

Softboard: The “Soft top board” or simply “Softboard” is the novice's board of choice. Due to its characteristics it is perfect to facilitate an easy and smooth first contact with riding waves. It usually has a very flat rocker and therefore glides well and easy. Its thickness and width give it a lot of volume and good floatability. The foil distribution

20 makes it very easy to catch waves on this board and gives it a lot of stability. One of the most important characteristics of this kind of board is, as the name already suggests, its softness. This enables a safe induction phase until the novice surfer has a better understanding of his own board and what the ocean can do with it.

Pictures13 & 14 (Eisner, 2015): Novice surfers during their induction phase. A “soft top board” minimises the risk of injury and gives the athlete the opportunity of concentrating on the task at hand.

Longboard: As the name already suggests, this kind of board is the longest that exists. It has a minimal length of nine feet, a rounded nose and is very stable in the water. Due to their very flat rocker and great distribution of volume, longboards are easy to paddle. Therefore longboarders are usually the first ones to catch waves, thanks to the extra velocity and floatability of their craft. The downside however, is that due to its size it is also harder to handle and to paddle it back out into the “take off zone”, especially if waves are breaking in front of the surfer.

Picture 15 (Sidirisma, 2014): Ruben Fuentes and Carlos Clavero show two classic longboard manoeuvres, a hang five and a cutback. Due to its enormous size and volume longboarders are able to even walk up to the nose of their board without loosing the wave.

21 Mini- Malibu / Funboard: These boards range from 6'6 up to 8'0 and try to bridge the gap between the longboard and boards reserved for very experienced surfers, such as the shortboard. They provide the surfer with great floatability, due to a width between 20 and 22 inches and a suitable thickness combined with a wider nose. It basically fuses a longboards paddling power and stability with the maneuverability of a shortboard. While Mini-Malibus and softtops are good boards to start with, the funboard or evolution board is directed towards the surfers who have already mastered the basics. One could say that Mini-Malibus and funboards even more so are trying to gap the bridge between a beginner’s board and boards reserved for surfers with a very high level of experience such as the shortboard.

Picture 16 (BIC): A classic Mini- Malibu shape unites the advantages of a longboard with those of a shortboard and therefore enables the beginner to intermediate surfer to do his best surfing.

Fish: The fish is a short version of a surfboard. Its length varies from about 5'2 to 6'2. It does, however, bring with it a much greater width and wider nose than the original shortboard does. It is mostly used to ride small, powerless waves. Its design makes it easier to catch a wave without sacrificing too much of the boards manoeuvrability and agility.

Picture 17 & 18 (surfscience): Clearly show the differences between what is considered to be a standard fish and a standard shortboard. The most notable differences, besides the very obvious overall thickness and width, are definitely the more prominent rocker of the shortboard and the wider nose of the fish. Picture 18 shows, that while a typical fish nose has its pointiness from a shortboard, its width and volume have much more similarity to that of a longboard.

22 Shortboard: The shortboard is the most “high- performance” kind of a surfboard that exists. Built and designed to enable the surfer to always stay as close to the most critical part of a wave, the breaking part, as somewhat possible. These boards generally range from 5'6 to 6`6 and have a width between 16'' and 20”. Shortboards are ridden with three, four or even five fins. A pointed nose, a steep rocker and a relative narrowness and thinness throughout the whole template are some of the most obvious characteristics of a shortboard.

Gun: Guns are surfboards designed solely to catch the biggest waves possible. Sizes range from 6'6 to 10 feet plus. Besides their paddling power they also include a rocker line which allows the surfer to take off on really steep and fast giant wave faces.

Photo 19 (surfline): Shane Dorian at the Eddie Aikau Invitational Contest in Haleiwa, Hawaii. For the contest to be held wave faces need to have a minimum of 20 feet or 6.1 meters. Only very big guns enable the surfers to catch such waves.

I.2.4.) Accessories:

The “leash” or “legrope” is essential as it helps the surfer not to lose his board as this might sometimes have fatal consequences, for both, surfer and equipment. The leash basically is a bungee chord, which stretches a little if necessary, and attaches the board to the surfer's foot with a Velcro system.

Picture 20 (FCS): Leashes come in all kinds of colours, its length however depends on the length of the surfboard it is attached to. At every time should the length of the leash exceed the length of the board used in order not to hit the surfer during a wipe-out.

“Wax” is used to make the originally plain and slippery deck of a surfboard stick to a surfer's feet. As its surface is not rough but smooth it does not penetrate the surfers skin, but still gives him enough grip to perform the most radical turns possible. A “Tail Pad”, mounted above the board's fins, serves the same purpose.

Picture 21 (Sexwax) & 22 (Prolite) : While tailpads are mostly bought depending on the pads design, wax must be chosen according to water temperature in order not to get washed off. Temperature ranges are always indicated on the packaging.

In order to protect a surfer's body a “wetsuit” can be worn. Wetsuits come in all possible sizes, models and price classes. Not only does a wetsuit keep the surfer warm but it also protects the skin from the sun and slightly floats the body. In case of impacts on a reef the wetsuit also protects the skin from getting cut. A wetsuit’s main function however, is to keep the surfer warm in cold water. The choice of a wetsuit mainly depends on how it fits and the temperature of the environment it will be used in. It is supposed to fit like a second skin in order not to limit the surfer's movement.

Picture 23 (Patagonia): There are various wetsuit models provided by numerous brands. In order to find the correct fit it is obligatory to first try the suit, as it should feel like a second skin to the surfer. The thickness and wetsuit model depends on the temperature the suit is worn in. Models range from short to long suits, from 2mm up until 7mm, hood included. Further accessories are booties and gloves.

I.3.) Surfing; Definition and Explanation of the Activity:

I.3.1.) Introduction and Definition:

The Oxford Dictionary of English defines surfing as “The sport or pastime of riding a wave towards the shore while standing or lying on a surfboard” (Oxford Dictionary of English, 2003) . The International Surfing Association, short ISA, which is recognized by the Olympic committee, defines surfing the following way:

- Any sport in which the primary force that moves the participant’s surfing equipment is a wave either of natural or artificial source. - An activity on the waves on any type of equipment used for surfing. - An activity in calm waters on any type of equipment used for surfing. (International Surfing Association, 2015)

Even though these definitions might be correct, for this paper a more specific and less open definition is needed. In his paper on the physiological profile of surfing athletes from 2011, Oliver Farley went into greater detail and defined surfing as “[…] the term given for riding various types of surf boards along the unbroken section or wall of a wave before it breaks. Surfing is performed in an upright position with the rider standing erect on his feet” (Farley, 2011, p 19).

25 I.3.2.) Surfing Basics, Beginner and Intermediate Surfing:

In order to actually ride an unbroken or “green” wave a lot of experience, technique, knowledge and physical fitness are required. Therefore novice surfers usually start with big so called “soft top boards” which are designed to make the first steps as easy as possible. Learners usually start with riding the foam or crest of the wave towards the shore. During the first couple of sessions they usually do not get in contact with actual unbroken waves. This means that the wave ridden has already broken further out and now only consists of the already broken, therefore less energetic, white water. This part of the wave is far less powerful and lacks the steepness and speed of an actual wave. It is perfect to get a first understanding of what surfing is about, gliding on water without any locomotive help, except for what the wave has to offer. Before being able to catch an actual green wave a surfer therefore first has to master a couple of steps. According to the teaching concept of the International Surfing Association a novice surfer should be lectured on how to handle his board, the dangers he might be facing when getting in the water and how to avoid contact with other surfers before entering the water for the first time (see, ISA- script, 2009). What follows are a number of exercises in prone position which should give the surfer a better understanding of his board and the incoming waves. In this learning stage the mastering of the take-off and a relatively stable board position are crucial for the subsequent surfing performance. Up to this point all exercises have been performed in the white water where the novice surfer was still able to safely stand on his feet while waiting for a wave to come. In order to catch an actual unbroken wave, the surfer first has to enter the “line up” or “take off zone”. This zone is equivalent with the place in which the waves start to break. It usually is a surfer´s intention to sit right at the “peak” of the wave, as it is the best place to make one´s entrance into a wave and to get the longest ride. According to Frank et al. paddling into the line-up “requires aerobic power, anaerobic power, intermittent endurance and strength and power of the upper body” (Frank et al., 2009, p 32). During this time the surfer lies on his board in prone position, the arched chest allows the athlete to turn his head sideways in order to see the waves coming and to time his approach. While paddling out, waves are most likely to break

26 in front of or onto the surfer. To navigate them a surfer can apply one of various diving techniques by either pushing his board under water, behind the wave, or by rolling of his board and trying to pull it under water with him. Once in the line-up a surfer has to choose a wave suitable to ride. He then has to do a quick paddling sprint in order to match the waves´ velocity and time the correct moment for the take-off. The take-off takes place as soon as the board is carried by the wave itself, without any locomotive action of the surfer. Once on his feet it is the surfer’s intention to stay on the unbroken face of the wave as long as possible and to ride it towards the shore. A unique aspect of surfing, however, is that whilst in the surf everything is in movement and in flux at all times. While in other sports an athlete finds himself confronted with moving objects as well, in surfing literally everything is moving at all times. Exactly this is what makes the sport so demanding and requires a 100 per cent of the surfer's concentration and focus. In a recent interview Olympic gold medallist Shaun White described surfing as “the most difficult sport in the world” and also gives us an explanation why: “It’s very complex, and if you’re an outsider you’re just thinking, “Don’t I just paddle for a wave and get up? “It’s the only sport where you’re conditioned to keep changing. It’s not like the half pipe or the vert ramp is going anywhere. Once you add those two elements of you moving, and the water moving, that complexity is really difficult to get used to” (stabmagazine, 2015).

I.3.3.) Advanced Surfing:

The very basis of surfing is to just stand on one´s board and to be pushed down by the wave. Once this first step is mastered, the next level is to perform a manoeuvre on a wave. As already cited above, for most surfers the most difficult part is not the execution of a manoeuvre itself, but to choose the right manoeuvre for certain parts of a wave. As a wave undergoes constant change and no wave is similar to its successor or its predecessor. As Shaun White had put it before, vertical ramps or half pipes don’t move, but a wave does. Therefore a surfer does not only have to think about the execution of a manoeuvre itself, but first of all has to find the right place to do it on. Unlike a skater a surfer cannot just go out and do a kick-flip wherever he wishes to do so. If a surfer sees himself confronted with a flat shoulder of a wave he might have to cut back to get back to the more energetic part of the wave. On the

27 other hand if the wall in front of him is very steep he might see the option of going to the top, getting tubed or simply racing the section in order not to get mowed down. To provide the reader with an idea of what is considered to be good and radical surfing the wsl's (World Surf League) judging criteria on how to score a wave ridden will be cited here:

“Judges analyse the following elements when scoring waves (not for Longboard or BWT Events):  Commitment and degree of difficulty  Innovative and progressive maneuvers  Combination of major maneuvers  Variety of maneuvers  Speed, power and flow  A panel of five judges scores each wave on a scale of one to ten. For every scoring ride, the highest and lowest scores (of the five judges) are discounted and the surfer receives the average of the remaining three scores. There is no limit on the number of waves that will be scored, but the two best scoring waves (each out of a possible 10) are added together to become a surfer's heat total (out of a possible 20)” (World Surf League, 2010).

Mendez- Villanueva et al. stated that, “A surfer must perform committed radical maneuvers in the most critical sections of a wave with style, power and speed to maximise scoring. Innovative and progressive surfing will be taken into account when rewarding points for committed surfing. The surfer who executes these criteria with the highest degree of difficulty and control on the better waves shall be rewarded with the higher scores” (Mendez- Villanueva et al.,2006, p 477).

In other words, the athlete who surfs the hardest and takes the most risks wins. Having caught a wave the execution of highly technical manoeuvres requires a set of various skills. Mendez Villanueva et al, categorize them as, balance, force development, flexibility, reaction time and coordination of the lower body (see, Mendez Villanueva et al., 2006).

Picture 24 (Farley, 2011, p. 64): Based on findings from Mendez- Villanueva et al (2005) Farley presented this chart in his study on “Competitive Surfing: A Physiological Profile of Athletes and Determinants of Performance” on the factors that actually constitute a surfers final performance.

I.3.4.) Types of Surfbreaks:

There exist various types of surfbreaks, the actual number dependent on the definition applied. In order to give the reader of this paper a better understanding a basic overview on how surfbreaks work will be provided. However, it is not intended to go into greater detail and focus will only be put on the three main types of breaks, beach breaks, reef breaks and point breaks.

29 Beach Break: According to Tony Butt a beach break can be defined as “a wave- breaking platform whose material can be moved around by the waves themselves on a regular basis” (Butt, 2009, p 12). In other words, the sand banks, which are responsible for how the wave breaks, stand in direct contact with the waves rolling in. Just like the bank causes the wave to break, the water pushing in directly influences the form of the bank. Butt further concludes that the material, or sediment, involved is up to 30 cm in diameter. Sediment exceeding this size moves as well, but with much less frequency, and is therefore of no relevance in this classification (see Butt, 2009, p. 20). Due to its ever-changing nature the wave breaking on a beach break can change in form shape and size very quickly. Furthermore is there a great variety in the form and size of various beaches and therefore the waves breaking on them. Sandbars which create good surf able waves consist of a series of lumps and dips and are much more likely to be found on long stretches of open coastline, rather than in smaller beaches. While the dips would let water run through, the lumps would cause a wave to break.

Pictures 25& 26 (Butt, 2009, p. 20): The graphic and picture above illustrate a classic beach break set up. While the lumps (sandbars) cause a wave to break the dips in between let water run through, this way channels and rips are formed.

Reef Break: The greatest difference between a beach and a reef break lies within its very nature and its responsiveness to changes. “Beaches have the ability to mutate in response to wave- conditions, whereas reefs don’t. With reefs, on a day- to- day basis at least, the connection between the waves and the seafloor is simple and one- way

30 (Butt, 2009, p 12). As the shape of a reef does not change, the waves approaching will all break in a certain and very similar way, given the direction and size of the swell is the same. Reefs come in all different sizes, forms and materials. They range from very deep open water reefs to very shallow and hollow slabs. Materials involved mainly are, stone platforms, living or dead coral, volcanic rock, etc.. Clearly a wipe out on a reef can therefore be of much greater consequence than a wipe out on a sand bottomed beach break.

Point Break: Point Breaks now are not a new category in this classification of beaches, but rather a special sub category. Not all beach or reef breaks are point breaks, but every point break is either a reef or a beach break. The term simply describes a wave always breaking from the same point into the same direction. There only is the opportunity of going one way every time a wave approaches. Most surfers think of a point break when they think of perfect waves as they usually offer the longest rides. Furthermore do point breaks usually have a channel, which enables the surfer to get into the line up easily, supported by the current dragging him out. Beach breaks on the other hand may sometimes have very strong rips on them, dragging the surfer either way, or simply causing the wave to close out, making the paddle out an exhausting and strenuous nightmare for the surfer.

As surfers tend to have their home break, the beach they surf the most, they will spend most of their time surfing a certain type of wave breaker. One aim of this study is to identify whether or not the physiological demands placed on a surfer differ due to the type of break he surfs. The working hypothesis is that a surfer’s fitness will develop differently depending on the type of break he surfs most of the time. On a beach break a surfer will have to perform completely different during a surfing session than he would have to do if he was surfing a point break. It is assumed that these differences have a great influence on the surfer's style and technique as well as the development of his physiological fitness.

Picture 27 (Kreuzer, 2015): A classic point break set up in Ericera, Portugal. By analysing the already washed in white water and the incoming wave one can easily see that a surfer can only go in one direction on this wave. The name of this type of wave breaker derives from the fact that the wave always breaks from one point into one direction. As a wave’s breaking direction is always classified from the surfer’s point of view the wave shown above is a right hand point break.

I.4.) Surfing in School:

I.4.1.) Introduction:

As Austria is a completely land locked country without any access to neither the Mediterranean Sea nor the Atlantic Ocean, wave riding or surfing will never be part of an official national school curriculum. It seems that even in countries with direct ocean access and good quality surf breaks, surfing classes as part of a national school curriculum are not the norm. In the United States of America for example Hawaii, the birthplace of modern day surfing, was the first, and so far only state, to make surfing an official high school sport. In 2013 Hawaii’s Governor Neil Abercrombie argued that surfing, as well as almost every kind of marine activity, is an integral part of Hawaii’s heritage and culture and will therefore be incorporated into its school curriculum (cf. The Guardian 2011, online). Carissa Moore, three times world surfing champion and one of Hawaii’s finest surfers, sees great opportunities for young children arising, thanks to this project.

32 According to an interview conducted by “The Guardian”, Moore sees surfing not only as a sport, but an activity which incorporates valuable life lessons. “Surfing and riding a wave is so much like life. You fall down over and over again, but you keep picking yourself back up until you ride one all the way to the beach. I know that's kind of cheesy, but I think surfing is definitely a really good outlet for a lot of teens and young kids. It's a way to channel a lot of energy into something positive. It's just really awesome" (cf. The Guardian, 2011, online). Besides the assumption that surfing might be beneficial for children and young adults in terms of psychological aspects, it definitely is beneficial to their well- being and health.

I.4.2.) Health:

From a training based point of view surfing demands a vast range of coordinative competences and skills of an athlete. A unique and already discussed aspect of surfing performance is its dependence on what the wave is doing. While almost any other sport is performed on static and motionless subsoil, surfing is done on a moving wave. Furthermore, will no wave ridden ever resemble the previous or subsequent wave, and will probably not even break in a linear or overly predictable way in itself. Key to a successful surfing performance therefore is a wave rider’s ability to react quickly and intuitively in any kind of situation the ocean confronts him with. The state Government of Victoria, Australia, describes the health benefits of surfing the following way. “Surfing provides many health benefits including:  cardiovascular fitness – from paddling  shoulder and back strength – these muscles will strengthen from the paddling  leg and core strength – once you’re standing up on the board, strong legs and a strong core will keep you up” (Betterhealth Victoria 2016, online).  Furthermore do they conclude that surfing is “a great way to spend time outdoors and to enjoy the natural environment” and that it is a “good outlet for stress and tension” (Betterhealth Victoria, 2016, online).

33 I.4.3.) Motor Competences:

As already stated earlier in this paper, according to Frank et al. surfing “requires aerobic power, anaerobic power, intermittent endurance and strength and power oft the upper body“ (Frank et al., 2009, p. 32). Mendez- Villanueva et al. listed the motor competences needed for a successful surfing performance the following way: “balance, force development, flexibility, reaction time and coordination of the lower body” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006). The following lines will be dedicated to discussing the most important motor competences and skills pupils need in order to successfully participate in a surfing week. The discussion will put a focus on practical application and on how the exercises can easily be incorporated in Austrian physical education classes.

Endurance and Water Competence: For every surfer, novice and professional alike, endurance is a key element of his performance. Even though a novice surfer’s first sessions usually start in shallow water and close to shore, upper body aerobic fitness is an important factor right from the start. Not only will a good endurance allow the student to catch more waves, but it will also make the “take off” movement easier for the surfer. Swimming, especially freestyle, can be seen as the perfect preparation for the development of surfing related endurance. The freestyle arm stroke is very similar to the paddling technique surfers apply to get out into the line up or to catch a wave. The training of the much needed core stability every freestyle swimmer needs is also very beneficial, if not essential, to the paddling surfer. Besides the direct and positive effect which freestyle swimming has on a surfer’s paddling technique and performance, it also has a positive effect on the novice surfer’s psyche. It can be argued that the better the athlete swims, the more confident will he feel in the element water. Confidence gained via swim training in the pool will therefore have a direct influence on confidence while surfing or when being submerged into water at all. Another positive side effect of surf- training based pool sessions is that the goal of going on a surf trip might boost pupil’s motivation to learn how to swim properly.

34 Strength and Power: In order to perform an efficient and effective arm stroke in freestyle swimming or whilst paddling, pupils must have a certain amount of upper body strength. Besides this does paddling in prone position require good core stability as well as reasonable back strength. However, once the paddling stops and a wave is caught, it is time for the novice surfer to stand up. In order to do so he has to perform a take off, which is initiated by the performance of a push up and followed by a fluid and quick jump on the surfer’s feet. Pupils who are unable to perform a single push up will struggle to ever perform a fluid take off in the surf. Circle training targeting the development of upper body strength and the ability to perform quick outputs of maximal power are a good preparation for a school surfing trip. Circle trainings and parcours are easy to prepare and the material required can usually be found within any gym. It is very likely that such a circle- training is already part of every teacher’s repertoire anyway.

Balance: Farley describes the balance required to successfully ride a wave as a form of “dynamic balance“ which he further sub- categorizes as “reactive“ and “pro- active balance“ (Farley, 2011, p 34). In their paper “Fitmachen fürs Wellenreiten- im Sportunterricht”, Giese and Hoischen underline the importance of balance based training preparation for subsequent surf trips. Furthermore, do they state that balance parcours in particular can be a diverse and interesting way for pupils to develop their sense of equilibrium and balance. (cf., Giese et al., 2012, p. 6).

Mobility: Even though Gleim et al. state that “there is no significantly based prescription for flexibility training and no conclusive statements can be made about the relationship of flexibility to athletic injury“ there seems to exist a consensus within the surfing community, and respective coaches world wide, which encourages stretching. It seems that especially the prevention of surfing based injuries is what most coaches are concerned about. However, Giese and Hoischen argue that mobility and flexibility are also essential in order to perform a dynamic and fluid take off. They furthermore state that

35 especially Yoga has established itself within the ranks of elite and recreational surfers alike as a form of compensation and preparation training for surfing. This might be an interesting backstory when introducing pupils to the topic of stretching or even the art of Yoga.

Reaction Time: A quick reaction or response time is crucial in every sport. In surfing it is needed to adapt to the quick changes of the ocean environment when riding an unbroken wave and before this in order to facilitate a good and fluid take off movement. Thus, quick reaction time is crucial and needs to be performed through arms as well as through a surfer’s legs.

I.4.4.) Surf Week Meets Language Week:

Trips like a “Sommersportwoche” or a “Sprachreise” are quite common in Austrian schools and done on a regular basis, especially during the last four years of a “Mittelschule/ Gymnasium”. On a “Sommersportwoche” pupils usually experience a week full of outdoor activities during which they learn or train sports like windsurfing, kajaking, tennis, golf etc.. Taking this into account it definitely is not an illusion to think about the possibility of a surf week in form of a “Sommersportwoche”. However, instead of planning an exclusive surf- or sports- week a fusion between a “Sprachwoche” and a “Surf- Woche” might be an option to consider as well. Such a week would after all serve both, the training of the mind as well as the training of the body. Most of the countries visited on a “Sprachwoche” do have coastlines, which produces world- class surf able waves. It can be argued that basically the whole Atlantic coastline of Europe is surf able. Countries such as England, Ireland, Scotland, France, Spain or Portugal would therefore be perfect destinations for such a trip. As Austrian schools do already visit these countries, surfing could easily be implemented into the trip. The argument behind this idea simply is that instead of just going to a country to learn a language, a healthy medium, the sport of surfing, could be incorporated into the trip to enable pupils to interact with natives outside of the language school as well.

36 Besides the opportunity of experiencing a new sport in a new environment, the participation in surf classes in a local school would be the perfect opportunity for pupils to practice their language skills. Language classes can only go so far in trying to get the real world into the classroom. By taking surf classes lead by local instructors, the language class would actually be brought into the real world. Instead of learning about a foreign language pupils could be taught about surfing in a foreign language. A grammar- based approach to language learning would therefore be substituted by a communication- based approach. Besides the already discussed benefits for students concerning both, the development of their physique as well as the training and development of numerous cognitive aspects associated with learning a foreign language or a new sport, the topic of surfing can be used to facilitate a wide range of “Fächerübergreifender Unterricht” as well. In advance of such a trip numerous surfing related topics can be used in a great number of different school subjects. Taking into account that the excitement such a trip would bring with it could cause an extra boost of motivation in many pupils, more than just two subjects could benefit from it. Giese and Hoischen give possible examples for “Fächerübergreifenden Unterricht” based on the possibility of going on a “Surf- Woche” to a foreign country. A fused “Surf und Sprachwoche” would of course cater for even more options:

“Talking Surfish”: “Englisch” “Eco- System Sea”: “Biologie” “History and culture of…”: “Geschichte & Pb.” “How to deal with frustration/ individual limits”: “Sozialkunde” (cf. Giese et al., 2012, p 8)

I.4.5.) Conclusion:

Clearly surfing will never be available for Austrian students without travelling to foreign countries. However, maybe this is just the reason that makes surfing so interesting for a project such as a “Surf und Sprachwoche”. Surfing obviously is, like former world champion Fred Hemming put it, “a clean and healthy sport” and therefore, for its own sake, already deserves to be taught to pupils. The fusion of a surf and language week however, would enable teachers to draw inspiration from all

37 the other aspects a surf trip has to offer. Different cultures, languages and mentalities are only some of the things pupils would be able to experience along the way, not to talk about the seemingly endless opportunities for “Fächerübergreifenden Unterricht”. To sum up, while a surf- week in itself would already be a great experience for Austrian pupils, I would argue that the learning opportunities vastly increase if it is combined with the topic of learning a foreign language. Besides, the possibility of using and applying the foreign language in a natural and real- life environment, the topic of surfing and its many facets can be put to good use in more than just one subject.

38 Theoretical Part II; Literature Review on Performance Analysis in Surfing:

II.1.) Introduction to Performance Analysis in Surfing:

Surfing enjoys a huge popularity on both, a competitive and a recreational level, on the beaches of all continents. However, very limited information about the activity patterns of a surfer during a session exists. Up to this point only three previous studies have investigated “time- motion analysis in surfing”. Two studies monitored surfers during competition (Mendez- Villanueva at al., 2006) and (Farley, 2011) while one study had its focus on recreational surfing (Meir et al., 1991). According to Mendez- Villanueva et al., “Generally speaking, surfers do not follow specific training or conditioning programs. In order to maintain their fitness level, surfers spend between two and seven hours surfing each day for more than 5 days per week”. However, for different reasons (e.g., poor surf conditions, living some distance from the ocean, or because of an injury), the possibility of surfing may not always be available. Although surfing technique is highly specific and out-of-water simulation seems to be virtually impossible, alternative physical training that mimics the sport-specific demands of surfing may help surfers to maintain the optimum fitness level during these periods when ability to surf is impeded. Furthermore, “additional out-of-water activities can be used as a complement to improve specific physiological weaknesses” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 477). In order to plan an efficient additional or substitutional out-of-water training schedule for surfers, it is essential to first of all determine which activities surfers perform during a session, and how long each of these activities last. Furthermore, it would be interesting to determine and classify the activity performed according to the power output of the surfer.

39 II.2.) Contest Versus Recreational Surfing:

Since an understanding of the basic concept of a surfing contest is essential for the understanding of this study and the possible differences between the analysis of surfing during competition and recreational surfing, a brief discussion will follow. Surfing contests are based on elimination heats. While “the normal contest format consists of 20- to 40-minute heats in which 2, 3, or 4 surfers are given scores by a group of judges” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 477), a recreational surfer might find himself in the water competing for waves with any number of surfers. Surfing is a highly egoistic sport, always only one wave can be ridden by one surfer. While a “code” exists which determines which surfer has the right to take a wave, the reality very often looks different. A lot of times, especially at localized surf breaks, a pecking order exists and the age, experience, heritage and the level of a surfer, will be linked to the number of waves he will get. While in a contest a surfers’ performance is judged based on the execution and quality of a variety of manoeuvres performed on the face of a wave according to the judging criteria, a recreational surfer might have different ideas and a different approach of what it means to ride a wave well. While it can be assumed that a competitive surfer goes into each heat with the highest level of motivation possible, combined with focus and a will to better his opponents, the motivations found within a recreational surfer certainly differ a lot between each person found in the water. A contest takes place at a certain time and at a certain place, supposedly to the best conditions given during a certain time frame. A recreational surfer on the other hand can choose the spot and the time for his surf session to his own liking. However, as recreational surfers have to see surfing as a pastime and not as a job, factors like work, family life and stress surely do have a high influence on one´s surfing performance.

40 II.3.) Heart Rate Monitoring:

In 2003 Achten and Jeukendrup stated that “over the last twenty years, heart rate monitors (HRMs) have become a widely used training aid for a variety of sports. The development of HRMs has also evolved rapidly during the last two decades” (Achten et al., 2003, p 517). Up until the eighteenth century measuring a patient's heart beat had depended on putting an ear on his chest. The invention of the stethoscope by Rene Laennec can therefore be seen as a major breakthrough in medical terms. It was however, still impossible to measure a patient´s heart beat accurately or to measure an athlete´s heart beat while working out. In the twentieth century the development of heart frequency monitors (HF-monitors) has now gone from machines which could only be used in laboratory settings (ECG) to monitors the size of a watch. An individual’s heart rate is mainly used to determine the intensity of a training session or competition and to determine adaptation or maladaptation. “To obtain optimal training effects and to avoid overtraining, it is necessary to monitor the intensity of training. […] Power output may be the most direct indicator, but heart rate is easier to monitor and measure” (Jeukendrup et al., 1998, p 91). Heart rate therefore is, without a doubt, one of the most important parameters when it comes to planning training session or designing long-term training plans. Furthermore, “compared with other indications of exercise intensity, HR is easy to monitor, is relatively cheap and can be used in most situations” (Achten et al., 2003, p 517). In surfing this way of determining an athlete´s fitness status or activity has so far been conducted by the studies previously discussed (Meir et al., 1991; Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2005; Farley, 2011). Laukannen and Virtanen describe the benefits of using a HF-monitor the following way: “Heart rate is a useful indicator of physiological adaptation and intensity of effort. Therefore, heart rate monitoring is an important component of cardiovascular fitness assessment and training programmes” (Laukanen et al., 1998, p 3). Besides the benefits of using an athlete´s HR as a determination of performance, Achten et al. also state that HF measurement has its limitations. According to them “the relationship between HR and other physiological parameters (such as oxygen uptake [VO2] or blood lactate concentration) is often determined in

41 an exercise laboratory. Some factors have been determined that can potentially influence these relationships” (Achten et al., 2003, p 518). However, back in 1998 Laukanen et al. already stated that “For 15 years, Polar heart rate monitors have been recognized as the most accurate tools for heart rate monitoring and registering in the field. Extensive research and development work has also resulted in high- quality devices for the analysis of heart rate data” (Laukanen et al., 1998, p 3). Papers, which had previously conducted studies in the area of activity profiling in surfing, had used various models to measure the heart rate of their participants. In 1991 Meir et al. used the “Sports Tester PE 3000S (swimming model)” by Polar. According to the author difficulties had been experienced as the “electromagnetic properties cause transmitted signals to be severely attenuated and diverted from the receiver” due to the transmitters usage in saltwater (Meir et al., 1991, p 72). In 2011 Oliver Farley took advantage of the technical development and ensured to equip the participants of his study with a “GPS” unit. The athlete´s heart rate was measured with the help of a “Polar T31” chest strap and then recorded by the GPS unit. Farley therefore had the advantage of not only being able to measure the heart rate of his subjects but also to set it in correlation to speed, distance and position of them at any certain time.

II.4.) Performance Analysis:

II.4.1.) Introduction:

Training is a planned process, therefore strategic planning, control, correction and adaption are a fundamental part of it. The parameters for planning an athlete´s training are constituted by training science and the athlete’s goals on the one hand, and the individual knowledge of an athlete’s constitution and psychological and physiological capacities on the other. According to Winter et al. “The physiology of exercise can be defined as the study of how the body responds and adapts to exercise and […] explains rather than simply describes performance” (Winter et al., 2007, p 7).

It is noteworthy that exercise physiology testing or performance analysis is not

42 only of importance for the training of world-class athletes. They can and should be adapted to serve a wider audience as it is well recognised that exercise can be prophylactic as well as therapeutic. Therefore Winter et al. stated that physiology testing might be a key element when it comes to solving occurring health issues like inactivity and obesity of children, as well as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. To sum up, exercise and physiology testing therefore serves either one of two purposes. - “Health screening and diagnosis of disease; - Fitness testing for sport/exercise” (Winter et al., 2007, p 18).

“The “Society of Performance”, founded in 1992 with its first gathering in England, marked the first effort to develop the discipline of performance analysis in sport” (Hökelmann et al., 2009, p 10). As technology for performance analysis and testing becomes more accessible and more reliable for both, high performance as well as recreational sports, this field has rapidly expanded in the last years.

Reasons for Assessment: In 1997 Bird and Davidson composed a list of seven points, which together define reasons for undertaking physiology testing. 1.) Provide an initial evaluation of strengths and weaknesses of the participant in the context of the sport or activity in which they participate. This information can be used to inform the design and implementation of a training programme. 2.) Evaluate the effectiveness of a training programme to see if performance or rehabilitation is improving and intended physiological adaptations are occurring. 3.) Evaluate the health status of an athlete or exerciser. This might be part of a joint programme with clinical staff. 4.) Provide an ergogenic aid. Often, in the setting of short- term goals for the improvement of fitness for example, the prospect of being tested often acts as a motivational influence. 5.) Assist in selection or identify readiness to resume training or competition. 6.) Develop knowledge and understanding of a sport or activity for the benefit of coaches, future athletes and scientists. 7.) Answer research questions.

Testing Criteria: Winter at el. state that “to be effective, assessments should be specific and valid and that resulting measures should be reproducible and sensitive to changes in performance” (Winter et al., 2007, p 9). Besides specifity, which comprises various factors, which should be considered in the design of test protocols, validity is a key element of the testing criteria. Validity describes, “the extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure” (Winter et al., 2007, p 9). Reproducibility concerns itself with whether or not a test can be reproduced any number of times with the same outcome. Only reproducibility guarantees that various tests of various athletes can be compared to each other. Sensitivity however, “is the extent to which physiological measures reflect improvements in performance” (Meir et al., 2007, p 10). In other words sensitivity is about whether or not a test actually reflects the mechanisms it is to evaluate.

II.4.2.) Performance Analysis in Surfing - Red Bull Surf Science (Red Bull, 2014):

In November 2014 the Red Bull High Performance Team published an article called “Red Bull Surf Science”. According to the article “the goal of the Red Bull Surf Science project is not to revolutionize the way we approach surfing, or even try to elevate it to the next level. Instead, the objective is to further advance the technology that is being developed, and test it in the harshest conditions possible” (Red Bull 2014). The next lines will therefor be dedicated to giving the reader an overview of the state of the art technology available to monitor and analyse a surfer’s performance. As already mentioned earlier the deployment of technology in other sports has already reached unbelievable heights and therefore opened up new options for athletes to enhance their performance. What the “Red Bull Surf Science” project did was to gather already existing and well functioning technology and apply it to surfing. Brandon Larsson from the Red Bull High Performance team put it this way “The tribal knowledge, the experiential knowledge, the gut feelings, the collaboration

44 between surfers and coaches will always come first. But having this data allows you to monitor progress, and correct any necessary changes” (Red Bull, 2014). The technology applied during the project went from Video watches to eye tracking and as far as applying EEG (Electroencephalography ) measurement in the surf.

Video Watch: The aim of the Video watch is clear. While the coach films the athlete from the beach he can send desired footage to the athletes wrist watch via wifi. "The quicker the feedback, the quicker the body remembers what it did, and the athlete can make those changes quickly" (red Bull, 2014). Instead of going over video footage at the end of a training session the athlete can now watch the footage instantly and start error analysis and correction immediately. Coach Stone further adds that “that could be the quickest of the technologies that we could implement” (Red Bull, 2014).

The Air Dog: The “Air Dog” is a fully autonomous drone that films and follows a surfer as long as its battery runs. The benefits of such a gadget are clear. The athlete gets a completely new perspective of what it is that he is doing and no one is needed to operate the camera. The only thing the surfer has to do is wear a sensor around his neck, the rest is done by the drone itself. “This technology is no longer around the corner; it’s here” (Red Bull, 2014).

“Notch”- Motion Capture Sensor: As already mentioned during the discussion of previous studies, paddling is the activity a surfer performs most during a session. According to the Red Bull High Performance team it is, even though crucial, the most overlooked activity when it comes to training. As already mentioned by Mendez- Villanueva at al., fatigue induced by arm paddling might have an influence on the posture and leg muscles when standing on a surfboard. In other words, “the neuromuscular responses of one previously non-exercised muscle group after intense exercise leading to fatigue performed with another muscle group” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 48). Coupled with GPS units the “Notch” motion sensor is able to track the athletes speed and frequency of each stroke. Subsequently the athletes paddling efficiency can be

45 analysed.

Trace- Surf Session Tracker: A small circular shaped GPS unit “Trace” does not interfere with the athletes performance whilst riding a wave, but then enables him to trace back his training session turn for turn. Similar to the “Search GPS” watch recently developed by Ripcurl, this little gadget records a surfer’s speed, the distance he covered, his wave count and the number of maneuvers performed.

“PPS”- Pressure Sensing Boots: The objective of this gadget clearly is to gain an insight on how a surfer controls his board in order to optimize power output and speed. The pressure sensors incorporated into neoprene booties record data that would enable coaches to analyse a surfer’s “technique for control, power and speed through the Tact Array system” (Red Bull, 2014).

“SMI”- Eye Tracking Glasses: While this form of testing an athlete’s focus during performance is common in other sports, it is completely unheard of in surfing. Equipped with eye tracking goggles Red Bull’s athletes emerged themselves in the water and collected data of exactly what they were focusing on when riding a wave.

Wearable Sensing Dry “EEG”: The next step of monitoring a surfer’s focus is to monitor how he makes his decisions. As the surfing environment is an ever-changing one quick and intuitive decisions are what the athlete lives of. Some difficulties were encountered while testing. The athlete did not only have to wear a headband with the sensors incorporated, but also had to carry a laptop in a waterproof backpack while surfing.

Conclusion: While all of the equipment tested delivered data, the question remains whether or not all of the gadgets are ready to be applied on a daily basis. As video analysis has already come a long way, and is already an important part of surf training, it is arguable that technology like the “Airdog” or the “Video” watch will find appliance quickly. As the benefits of a self recording drone and instant feedback for the athlete

46 are clear, it is only a question of economic aspects before it will be available for a wider public. As similar technology already is available on the market, the same goes for the “Notch- Motion Sensor Tracker” and the “Trace- Surf Session Tracker”. The usage of GPS units in order to monitor training sessions is already widely spread in triathlon or cycling. Even when emerged in the water triathlon watches seem to deliver reliable data. In surfing the benefits are clear and this study (“Time motion analysis during one hour of recreational surfing”) would have greatly benefited from such a gadget as well. In form of various triathlon watches or the “Search GPS” watch by Ripcurl this technology already is available and ready to be applied by the every day surfer. While Pressure sensing boots are great to get an insight in a surfer’s power output, it seems as if other technologies like the “SMI- Eye Tracking Goggles”, and the “Wearable Sensing Dry EEG” are not quite ready to be put to good use in the ocean environment yet. If the athlete has to surf with a backpack carrying a laptop, it most definitely hinders his natural movement and performance. However, if these technologies get more refined and develop further they will, without a doubt, have a great impact on surfing and surf training.

II.5.) Performance Analysis in Surfing Due to Time- Motion- Analysis:

II.5.1.) Introduction:

Today surfing is a million dollar industry, the highest prize money paid for a surfer so far were 300 000$, which Owen Wright won at the “Quicksilver Pro New York” in 2011. While there still exist tails of the stereotypical surfing party animal, today's top surfers are nothing but professionals and world class athletes. They follow training schedules, watch their diet, work with physiotherapists and mental coaches. Still it seems that, in comparison to many other sports, not much research has been done in the area of surfing from a scientific or academic point of view. While the development of the material gradually evolves, it seems as if almost no research exists in the area of training science or physiology of surfing. Surf coach Chris Stone explains the discrepancy, “before, it would seem silly to apply science to surfing if

47 you didn’t have a coach, if you didn’t train. But now that the playing field is getting more and more level, where do you find that extra improvement?" (Red Bull, 2014). The next lines will therefore be used in order to provide the reader with a general overview on what kind of research has been done in this field of study so far.

II.5.2.) Activity Profile of World- Class Professional Surfers During Competition: A Case Study (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006):

Introduction:

“The objective of this study was to examine the activity profile of world-class professional surfers during a competition heat. It was assumed that average values do not represent all the patterns of physical activity in surfing competitions. Therefore, the working hypothesis was that because of the unpredictable nature of the surfing environment, the length and frequency of the different activities performed during a competition heat would be highly variable. Identification of high physical demand periods could provide more relevant data to help us understand the specific requirements of surfing competition and might assist in the development of surfing-specific fitness training programs and testing protocols” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 477).

Experimental Approach: The design of the study is descriptive and involved the examination and investigation of several competitive heats held during an international surfing contest. In order to characterise changes in the surfer's activity patterns, time- motion analysis was used.

Probands: All probands were male professional surfers ranked in the WQS, the World Qualifying Series, which is the second highest level of surfing competition in the world. The probands can therefore be described as elite level athletes.

48 Analysis of the Heats: All heats were analysed during The Salomon Masters International Surfing Tournament 2003, which was one of the seven WQS 2003 tour events rated a maximum six-star category. Four surfers competed in one heat and the two best moved on to the next round. Each heat lasted 25 minutes and only one proband was recorded for the entire duration of the heat. The competition lasted for seven days and forty two heats were recorded. During the experiment wave size ranged from 1 to two meters, the winds were predominantly light offshore. After the heats the videotapes were replayed in order to register the activity pattern of each individual surfer using an analysis system. The classification of various movements during a heat was divided into four categories: a.) Paddling: “Forward board propulsion using alternate arm paddling action”. b.) Stationary: “situations where surfers were sitting or lying on their board with no locomotive activity”. c.) Wave riding: “time from the last arm stroke to the moment the subject's feet lost contact with the board”. d.) Others: “all situations not previously defined” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 478). Not only was the time (average and total) of each category calculated, but also the occurrence of each activity and the percentage of the total time spent on each activity.

Analysis: Intra-tester test- retest reliability was used to establish reproducibility of the results from the motion analysis. In other words, two heats were investigated twice by the same researcher. Furthermore was the TEM (Technical Error of Measurements) used, which quantifies the random error of a test score as a result of a technological or a biological error. According to Mendez- Villanueva et al., “Precision of the estimates of TEM are shown as 95% likely limits (confidence limits), which represent the limits within which the true value is 95% likely to occur” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 478).

49 Time- Motion Analysis: 51,4% of the total time, an average of course from a range of 25- 70%, the 42 surfers spent paddling, another 42,5% (23- 72%) they remained stationary. Wave riding accounted for 3,8% (2- 7%) while other activities accounted for 2.2% (0,1- 6%). A change between the various categories of movement occurred every 28 seconds. The main time intervals for paddling bouts lie between 1- 20 seconds. Most of the paddling bouts (~ 60%) performed during the heats were done within this time frame. Paddling bouts for more than 90 seconds did not even reach a total of 10%. Approximately 50% of the surfers´ recovery periods lasted between 1 and 20 seconds. Together with recovery periods from 21- 90 seconds (37,8%) this constitutes a total of 88,7% of the total rest periods measured. Looking at the time spent between consecutive wave rides, the study shows that most of the time (66%) was spent paddling. The greatest amount of time was devoted to paddling back into the take- off zone after a wave had been ridden.

Discussion: As already reported in a previous study by Meir et al., surfers spend about ~50% of their total time paddling and ~40% stationary. Even though there is a slight difference between the results of both studies, 51% opposed to 44% when it comes to paddling, 42,5% or 35% respectively were spent stationary, it can be asserted that surfers spend the greatest amount of their time paddling or stationary. The difference in the results between the studies may relate to various factors. First of all, the difference may be found in the nature of competitive and recreational surfing. While in competitive surfing you only find a maximum of four athletes in the water competing against each other, recreational surfing may incorporate crowded line-ups. Furthermore, might tactical decisions have an influence on the amount of waves ridden. In the contest format of the Salomon contest only the two highest scoring waves counted. However, also the different types of breakers and the varying surfing conditions on each spot will definitely have an influence on the results. In order to design surf specific training programs Mendez- Villanueva et al. examined the work time profile of a surfer and came up with a work-to-rest ratio of 1 to 1.25 seconds. This means that a surfer rested 1,25 seconds for every second of

50 work he did. “The mean duration of work (arm paddling) and rest periods (stationary) in the heats studies was 30,1 to 37,7 seconds, respectively”. (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 480). However, the authors also state, “as a result of the unpredictable nature of the surfing environment, prolonged periods of high-intensity, intermittent exercise might also be required at any time during a surfing session. Therefore, average arm paddling exercise and rest periods values are not likely to represent all of the patterns of these activities in surfing. Identification of long- arm paddling exercise intervals and short rest periods could provide more relevant data to understand the specific requirements of high-intensity, upper- body, intermittent exercise during surfing” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 480).

In combination with other research done in this field, for example the two articles on upper-body aerobic fitness or the anaerobic and aerobic fitness profiling of surfers, which will be discussed later on in this paper, “the present results identifying long-arm paddling exercise and short rest intervals provide conditioners and coaches with valuable information on the specific demands of surfing competition that may be used for the design of physical conditioning programs according to sport-specific demands” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 480). According to the Mendez- Villanueva et al., several previous studies have shown that “the neuromuscular responses of one previously non-exercised muscle group after intense exercise leading to fatigue performed with another muscle group” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 48). Due to this exercise induced fatigue in the upper body area might have a negative influence on the following wave riding performance. Getting a high score in a surfing heat includes radical manoeuvres in the most critical parts of a wave and a lot of speed, and it therefore demands superior fine motor skills of a surfer. Fatigue induced by arm paddling, might therefore also have an influence on the posture and leg muscles when standing on a surfboard. Moreover will an uncontrolled finish, wipe out or crash have negative influence on the subsequent performance. It is essential to keep in mind that due to the unpredictable nature of the surfing environment a surfer cannot choose when to paddle and when to ride a wave. It is crucial to prepare a surfer to sustain episodes of intense intermittent arm paddling exercise in order to reduce the risk of fatigue induced disruption and negative interferences in the leg muscles. Even though wave riding is the surfer's final goal it only accounts for 3,8% of the total time spent in water. Meir et al. reported a total of 5% during one hour of

51 recreational surfing. However, as already stated above, the difference in the outcome of these studies had a number of various reasons, including the difference in the approach in competitive and recreational surfing, type of breaker etc.. When it comes to “other activities” such as duck diving or recovering, the figures show a significant difference between the two studies. While Meir et al. reported 16%, Mendez- Villanueva et al. only reported a total of 2,2 % in this category. As the same method of categorization had been applied in both studies, the discrepancy is likely to come from the difference in breaker and the surfer’s skill levels. Another aspect, which needs to be addressed, is that one study analysed elite level surfers, and the other recreational hobby surfers, it is most likely that the difference in skill level is the main criteria in this area. There were several limitations to both studies. Mendez- Villanueva et al. reported that the nature of motion analysis already includes a limitation, as it always only “provide[s] information on a specific population on a specific event” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 481). In other words, the authors only conducted the study at one venue, during the time of one contest, with only one level of surfers competing. The findings of the study can therefore not be seen as universal, as they will differ from break to break and according to the competitors’ level of surfing (juniors, amateur).

II.5.3.) Heart Rates and Estimated Energy Expenditure During Recreational Surfing (Meir et al., 1991):

Introduction: In this study the “heart rates and subsequent estimated energy expenditure during approximately one hour of recreational surfing were examined” (Meir et al., 1991, p 70). The main difference between the study of Mendez- Villanueva et al. and the one by Meir et al. is that the first analysed heats during an elite-level surfing contest, the latter focused on recreational surfing. According to Meir et al. the reasons for choosing recreational surfers as subjects were that “the sport is primarily a recreational activity, with a small percentage of participants primarily concerned with competition: however, no attempt has been made to evaluate the benefits of surfing as

52 a general fitness activity” (Meir et al., 1991, p 70). As this study was the first of its kind, the main aim was to provide some insight information in the specific energy requirements of surfboard riding.

Method: The subjects were “six healthy male recreational surfers, who had previously competed at state level... The average age (+- SD) and weight (+- SD) of the subjects was 21,2 (+- 2,78) years and 68,9 (+- 5, 67) kg, respectively” (Meir et al., 1991, p 71). Each subject was weighed wearing shorts and recorded to the nearest 0,1kg, and the same goes for the determination of the subjects’ heights. Skinfolds, however, were measured at four sites using Harpenden Skinfold Calipers, they were recorded to the nearest 0,2mm. The sights measured were, triceps, subscapular, supra-iliac and medial calf. In addition the blood pressure and heart rate were determined prior to each laboratory testing procedure.

Laboratory Testing: The peak oxygen consumption (VO2 max) was tested on a Repco Swim Bench applying a graded exercise test. The subjects performed alternate arm paddling similar to the stroke execute while lying in prone position on a surfboard. The test was started with 25W and increased by a further 25W each minute until cessation of the test due to either, the subject´s inability to maintain the workload, volitional termination or a decline of the peak VO2. During testing, the heart rate was measured as well, and all data was collected in fifteen-second intervals.

Field Testing: While surfing the heart rates were measured using a Polar Sports Tester PE 3000 receiver and PE 3000S Transmitter. However, difficulties associated with the models usage in salt-water led to necessary modifications in the mounting of the tester. Due to this the tester was programmed to record the subject's heart rate in 15 second intervals. Each subject was videoed for approximately one hour and the camera was “positioned in a location considered advantageous for the particular surfing

53 conditions” (Meir et al., 1991, p 72). As surfing is an outdoor sport conditions such as, swell size, currents, wind, number of people in the water, obviously varied for each subject. The categorization of surfing activity was similar to the one described in the previous article by Mendez- Villanueva et al. Mendez- Villanueva et al. had deemed the categorization previously made by Meir et al. useful, and therefore, decided to apply it for their later study about the “Activity Profile of World- Class Professional Surfers”. According to the authors, “differences in mean heart rates while recreational surfing were examined statistically through the use of ANOVA (Kerlinger 973). Mean oxygen uptake for the total time surfing was calculated using the results of the linear regression equation utilising the swim bench heart rates and oxygen uptake values” (Meir et al., 1991, p 73).

Results: “The group's mean peak heart rate values for the swim bench test and the peak heart rate attained while surfing were 180 (+- 6,0) beats.min.-1 and 171 (+- 7,5) beats.min.-1 respectively. Mean heart rate for the time recorded was 135 (+- 6,9) beats.min-1 with mean values for paddling and stationary of 143 (+- 10,5) beats.min-1 and 127 (+- 6,9) beats.min-1 respectively” (Meir et al., 1991, p. 73). While surfing the group´s mean peak heart rate came up to 95% of the mean peak HR attained in the laboratory. However, the mean heart rate attained for “paddling” was 80% (+- 4,8), for “stationary” 71% (+- 5,5) and the total time recorded 75% (+- 4,2), of the group’s mean HR max. attained in the laboratory setting. When expressed as percentage of the total time recorded the surfers spent 35% “stationary”, 44% “paddling” and 5% “riding waves”. Beside this the authors also mentioned that “there was a significant (ANOVA) difference between the group mean heart rate values recorded for all activities (F (2,5)= 14,5, p < 0,001). A post-hoc test (Scheffe F- test) revealed a higher mean heart rate for paddling versus stationary.

54 Discussion: Heart rate is established by a multitude of factors. Meir et al. identified surf- specific factors and listed them in the following categories, “Environmental” (water temperature, wave- size, frequency, etc.), “Psychological” (wave size and type, number of waves caught, etc.) and “Physiological” (paddling distance to take off area, fitness and age level etc.). As these factors might affect the surfer's heart rate, they also have an influence on his energy expenditure, and therefore have to be taken into consideration. It goes without saying that the figures presented here are not typical responses expected by other participants of this sport or in other conditions. Furthermore, did this study collect heart rates in 15-second intervals. Heart rates can obviously fluctuate over such an interval, or the participants may have even completed varying combinations of paddling in this time frame. For these reasons the figures presented should again be seen as approximations only. A comparison with the heart rates attained in the laboratory setting shows that all participants of the study reached periods of very high intensity (mean peaks of 95% of the HR max. attained in the lab). The authors considered it to be interesting that “while the group recorded a relatively high mean heart rate (75% of the groups mean peak lab value) for the total time surfing, they also recorded relatively low corresponding VO2 values (46% of the group's mean peak lab value) for the same period” (Meir et al., 1991, p 73). The periods of high intensity work led Meir et al. to the assumption that paddling may have a glycolytic component in terms of energy utilisation. The difference between oxygen consumption and the mean heart rate may be seen as an indicator for this assumption, have to be taken with care though as heart rate may be elevated due to any of the factors listed above. Similar to the paper published by Mendez- Villanueva et al. the shortest time paddling was recorded when subjects tried to improve their position. The greatest time paddling was spent when paddling back out to the take- off area after a subsequent wave ride. Meir et al. and Mendez- Villanueva at al. agree that the total time spent paddling may vary greatly due to surfing conditions. Meir et al. state that the estimated mean energy expenditure during an approximately 60 min recreational surfing session is comparable to those of other sports, such as canoeing at 6,4 km/h, cycling at 20,8 km/h, tennis, and swimming freestyle. “The groups mean energy expenditure was approximately 2077 kj (496.3

55 kcal) with a range of approximately 1650- 2615 kj”. (Meir et al., 1991, p 74)

To sum up, Meir et al. reported that the “intensity of recreational surfing, as determined from heart rate and estimated oxygen consumption, is comparable with a variety of other recreational activities which are considered suitable for developing and maintaining general physical fitness” (Meir et al., 1991, p 74). However, they do add that the environmental factors ultimately dictate the percentage of the total time spent paddling, stationary, wave riding and miscellaneous. Furthermore they dictate the degree of intensity with which these categories are full- filled.

II.5.4.) Competitive Surfing: A Physiological Problem of Athletes and Determinants of Performance (Farley, 2011):

Introduction: The summary and comparison of these two papers was provided to give the reader an insight into what had previously been published in this area. In addition to this, a further study done by Oliver Farley in 2011 also needs to be mentioned. Farley conducted a study similar to the one of Mendez- Villanueva et al. It also had its focus on competitive surfing and involved twelve probands who had all been ranked under the top 30 national surfer's of New Zealand. Besides applying “time- motion analysis”, Farley's study also provided new insights by not only using a chest belt in order to determine the athlete's heart beat, but also applied a “Global positioning System” unit, short GPS, to monitor the participants speed and position. While this is a brilliant idea Farley stated that he encountered technical problems during the first contest he monitored due to the loss of satellite connection.

Experimental Approach: Farley conducted a descriptive field study with the goal of monitoring and determining the physiological demands during a surfing competition. Therefore the heart rate of 12 nationally ranked surfers was monitored. During their heats the athlete’s were equipped with a GPS unit as well and were monitored for subsequent time- motion analysis.

Probands: The subjects for Farley’s study were twelve male surfers of about 23.6 years of age, ± 5.7. They were assessed to weight, 73 ± 10.3 kg and body height, 179.2 ± 6.8 cm. “All subjects were from the current top 30 ranked surfers in New Zealand and competing in the sanctioned New Zealand Surf Association competition” (Farley, 2011, p. 38).

Equipment: “Subjects wore a Global Positioning System (GPS) recording device (SPI10 Sports Performance Indicator, GPSports Systems Ltd, Australia) and a Polar T31 (Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland) heart rate monitor transmitter belt fastened around the sternum” (Farley, 2011, p.38). A Sony, DCR-SR67, film camera with a 60 times optical zoom was used for the documentation of the time- motion film material.

Analysis: The classification of movements used to analyse the data was based on the classification already applied by Meir et al. in 1991. However, Farley amplified Meir et al.’s classification, which had already been discussed earlier in this paper, by the category “paddling for wave”. Farley recorded a mean duration of activity for “paddling” of 54%. Remaining “stationary” accounted for 28%. In this study Farley recorded the highest number for “wave riding” so far with a mean percentage of 8%. “Miscellanous activities” and “paddling for wave” accounted for 5% and 4% respectively. “By combining the current and the two previous studies (Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2006) together, it appears that surfers spend ~50% of their total time paddling, ~35% of their total time stationary, ~6% wave riding and ~8% performing miscellaneous activities” (Farley, 2011, p 58).

Experimental Part - III: Activity Profiling During 1 Hour of Recreational Surfing:

III.1.) Introduction:

The present study on “Activity Profiling during 1 h of Recreational Surfing” had been conducted on the island of Gran Canaria. While for the actual testing of the data only 4 weeks were needed, the time needed for preparation, testing and the final recording took place over a period of 6 months. The data used in the analysis had been recorded between the 08th of April and the 2nd of May.

The entire recording used in this study was done on spots of the north shore of Gran Canaria. While this coast is a swell magnet many of the spots are described to be “dangerous or have difficult access” (Sutherland, 2008, p. 328). The west coast of the island mainly consists of high sea cliffs, which make any entrance in the surf impossible. High quality surf spots can be found on the east coast as well as on the south coast. However, none of them compare with the consistency of the north shore of the island. The expectations to this study/ Diploma Thesis are, firstly and foremost, to collect reliable surf related data, which will provide essential inside information on the basic nature of the sport of surfing when it comes to an athlete’s physiological demands. In 2011, Oliver Farley suggested, “to understand more about the sport of surfing, fundamental research into competitive surfing is needed” (Farley, 2011, p. 15). Even though this statement is certainly true, Farley only sees the matter of surfing from a competitive point of view. As a much higher percentage of the world’s surfing population participates in the sport on a recreational rather than on a competitive level I would argue that research done in this area is at least of the same, if not greater, importance.

It therefore, has to be noted that this thesis as well as the study, are both

58 aiming to shed light on the demands of the ambitious recreational surfer. Even though its findings might as well be of interest from a competitive viewpoint, its main focus lies on the ambitious, non- professional, every day surfer. Previously conducted studies on this topic will be used to compare the results.

Picture 28 (Sutherland, 2008, p. 343): This map shows a bird eye view of all commonly known spots on the north shore of Gran Canaria. It starts in the east with the capitol’s (Las Palmas) famous city beach La Cicer (Nr. 17) and ends in the west with the slab reefs of Galdar (Nr. 1-4).

III.2.) Aims of the Study:

The main aim of the study is to identify the physiological demands of a surfer under various circumstances and to provide insight into the energy requirements of a recreational surfer. As the surfing environment is an ever-changing one, the study aims to classify the various stress situations a surfer finds himself in. For this purpose the analysis of the data will be divided into different categories, according to the kind of movement the surfer fulfils. The classification of movements during each surfing session is based on the studies previously conducted by Mendez- Villanueva et al. (2006) and Meir et al. (1991), but with two additional categories, “duck diving” and “recovering”. Furthermore, does the study intend to shed light on the difference of the type of break surfed and whether or not beach breaks or point breaks place different physiological demands on the surfer.

III.3.) Hypotheses:

The working hypothesis for this study is manyfold and will be addressed point for point in the following lines.

Firstly, I assume that surfing is a mainly aerobic activity combined with short, intense, intermittent strains. In this case I would further conclude that while endurance is crucial when it comes to surfing performance, on land training should rather put a focus on the development of strength and agility and maximal power output. The reason being that the training of a substantial surfing endurance lies in the nature of surfing itself. Recent studies have shown that the great majority of a surfing session, in competition as well as recreational, is spent on an energetic level most suited to establishing an athletes endurance level (Meir et. al, 1991 and Mendez- Villanueva, 2006). By saying this, one has to reflect that the main focus of surfing lies on the actual surfing performance, which actually requires the ability of quick reaction and quick maximal outputs of power in an athlete´s arms as well as his legs.

A second hypothesis is that a surfer's fitness will develop differently depending on the type of break he mostly surfs. On a beach break a, for example, a surfer will have to perform completely different during a surfing session than he would have to do if he was surfing a point break. Of course these differences are forced upon the surfer by the unchangeable and mostly unpredictable ocean environment and have a great influence on the surfer's style and technique as well as the development of his physiological fitness.

III.4.) Equipment:

The equipment used to document the study and to collect the required data were a heart rate monitor, a heart rate sensor strap and a camera. As research suggested difficulties in finding a suitable heart rate monitor, which allows the athlete

60 to take it in the water with him, an intensive test run was done prior to the beginning of the study.

Procedures: Prior to entering the water for the first surf session of each day, the subject was equipped with the heart rate monitor (Polar S 810), the heart rate sensor (T 31 C), and the camera (Go Pro HD Hero). Data collection was synchronized and started with the moment the subject entered the water. When the athlete returned to the beach, data collection was manually stopped.

Heart Rate Monitor: As no company guaranteed that their heart rate monitor would deliver reliable data when submerged into water, the only chance was to test various models in a relatively stable and easy to test in environment. For this purpose an indoor swimming pool was chosen. Out of six different models only one monitor was able to provide accurate data, the Polar S810.

Picture 29 (Eisner, 2015): Out of six different watches, which had been tested previously to this study, only one, the Polar S810 (left in this picture), was able to deliver reliable data.

Different placements and positions of the monitor were an issue as well. Even though the positioning of the watch on the surfer’s wrist seemed to work during the test, it was later decided to place the heart rate monitor under the wetsuit on the top of the left chest, next to the athletes shoulder. The reason for this being that Polar suggested that subsequent arm strokes with the monitor might interrupt the signal.

61 Even if it may work in swimming, the surfer’s board might become a barrier for the signal, causing the monitor to loose it during a session. The heart rate monitor was set to record the athlete’s heart rate every five seconds.

At the time the study was conducted, Polar was just about to launch a new series of heart rate monitors, the V800, which is supposed to record HF even when submerged in water. For future reference this might be of interest.

Heart Rate Sensor:

While the athlete did laps in the pool on his surfboard, various chest strap positions were tried. The most comfortable position for the chest strap turned out to be the common placement around the chest, sensor to the front. Other studies suggested that wearing the sensor on the back would deliver reliable data as well and that it would be more comfortable for the athlete to wear. During the testing and the subsequent study, however, it seemed that wearing the sensor to the front would limit signal interruptions and, if worn with a wetsuit, would in no way hinder or influence the surfer’s performance. However, if testing is done in warmer water destinations where no wetsuit is required one might have to come up with something that would hold the strap in place.

Pictures 30 & 31 (Eisner, 2015): The final chest strap position turned out to be the conventional one. Strap around the chest, sensor to the front. During the first test runs the heart rate monitor was mounted on the athlete’s wrist. For the study, however, it was positioned on the athlete’s left chest, just under his wetsuit, in order to hinder signal interruptions.

62 Camera:

The camera, a “Go Pro Hero”, was mounted on the nose of the surfboards. The original Go Pro accessories mount as well as housing had been used. As always only the first hour of every day’s surf was recorded, the camera’s battery was sufficient. The camera is very small and its weight never interfered with any of the athlete’s movements. The mounting of the camera on the nose of the board made a very close real time analysis possible without influencing the surfer’s vision or the movement of his board.

The camera was never lost or damaged during the surf sessions. However, some data was lost during the study due to a problem with the memory- card.

Picture 32 & 33 (Eisner, 2014): The pictures above are examples for the footage recorded with the “Go Pro HD- Hero” camera. Even though the camera positioning allowed for a complete analysis of a surfer’s movements it did not hinder his performance. The picture show the surfer performing a floater and a top turn whilst recording data for the study at the right hand point break Derecha del Roque in the north of the island of Gran Canaria.

III.5.) Method:

The design of the study is a descriptive field study, which mainly involves the investigation of a surfer's heart rate profile during a recreational surf session.

63 The sessions recorded, depended on wave, wind and weather forecast as well as wave quality and tidal changes. In other words it was always intended to find the best possible waves each day. Only the first hour of surfing every day had been recorded. The study was conducted over a period of 4 weeks, testing not included.

Due to technical difficulties and insufficient funds it was only possible to collect data from one athlete.

III.6.) Subject:

The subject was assessed to height and body mass (178 cm, 87kg). The athlete’s heart frequency at rest was tested every morning during the length of the whole study.

III.7.) Classification of Movements:

Each session had bee recorded from the moment the surfer entered the water. At spots with difficult access the session was recorded from the moment the surfer first attempted to enter the water. Movements were classified according to the classification already applied by Mendez- Villanueva et al. in 2006. However, one additional category, “duck diving”, was added to the already existing classification.

The classification of movements was made as followes: a.) paddling: “Forward board propulsion using alternate arm paddling action”. b.) stationary: “situations where surfers were sitting or lying on their boards with no locomotive activity”. c.) wave riding: “Time from the last arm stroke to the moment the subject's feet lost contact with the board”.

64 d.) others: “all situations not [...] defined”.

(Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p 478) e.) duck diving: action of diving under a breaking wave in order to get out into the take off zone, hold position, or avoid a collision.

III.8.) Categorization of Each Session:

Besides the actual recording process, each surf session was categorized as well. In order to ensure a reliable analysis data about each recorded session was kept in a session diary. For the analysis days with similar conditions were chosen.

a.) Wave- Size:

Data was collected from an online surf- forecast webpage (“magicseaweed”) as well as from the surfer's subjective impression of the actual wave size during the session. While the first was noted in feet, the surfer’s impression was noted according to:

 waist high  shoulder high  head high  over head  double over head (twice the size of the surfer)  triple over head etc. b.) Wind Strength and Direction:

The wind conditions as well had been collected from an online source (Magic Seaweed) and the surfer's subjective estimation.

c.) Currents:

Currents and rips were estimated and rated out of a 5-point system according to their strength. 1 standing for no current up to 5 representing a very strong current. Without a doubt this rating system also relies on the surfer's subjective impression. d.) Type of Breaker:

The type of the breaker was determined according to the classification made by the “Stormrider Surf Guide Europe”. Point breaks and beach breaks were the types of interest, sub categories, such as Rivermouth breaks etc., had been left out. e.) People in the Water:

The number of people who shared a session with the athlete was always noted as a crowded line up can have a negative effect on the surfer’s wave count. f.) Board Used During a Session

Data about which board had been ridden by the subject was noted as well. As board’s with more volume tend to be easier to paddle the volume of a board might have an influence on a surfer’s heart rate.

III.9.) Training Diary:

In order to ensure a reliable analysis a training diary was kept by the surfer. Data of all the surfer's athletic activities had therefore been collected. This will be of help in the analysis as it might explain certain developments and changes in the surfer's heart rate profile during the study.

66 III.10.) Video Analysis:

As already mentioned above only the first hour of every day’s surf had been recorded. The camera (Go Pro Hd Hero) had been mounted on each of the subject’s surfboards. As already mentioned the camera was always mounted in a way that mad a close analysis of the athlete’s movements possible without interfering with the actual performance.

During the study thirty surf sessions, involving the test runs, had been recorded. As it was intended to compare sessions with similar conditions to each other, on a beach break as well as on a point break, fourteen of these thirty sessions turned out to be suitable for further analysis. The session selection was done using the session categorizations described above, as well as the athlete’s training diary.

III.11.) Data Analysis:

The data of the athlete’s heart rate was edited only to include the hour of surfing also recorded on video. The raw data, video footage as well as heart rates, was then exported into Excel 2010 for further editing. The footage was analysed according to the previous categorization of movements and then set into connection with the athlete’s mean heart rate during this period of time.

Besides the use of descriptive statistics the data shown in “Chart VII” and “Chart IX” was also examined with the use of interferential statistics. The mean values of the different categories were compared between point break and beach break sessions. The possible difference was tested using a two tailed paired TTest to monitor whether or not the data obtained shows statistical significance.

67 III.12.) Results:

III.12.1.) Duration of Activities:

Chart I: Average Duration of Activity During 1h of Recreational Surfing

As can be seen in the chart above, “paddling” accounted in average for 50% of the total time of one hour of surfing. While this number is considerably higher than the one presented by a Meir et al. (1991), who reported a total of 44% for the same category, it is similar to the numbers presented by Mendez- Villanueva et al. (2006) and Farley (2011), who reported 51% and 54%, respectively. In the present study, “stationary” accounted for 32% and therefore, as with “paddling”, is closest to the study conducted by Oliver Farley. Farley reported 28% while Mendez- Villanueva et al. and Meir et al. reported 42% and 44%, respectively. It is notably that Farley’s study reported the highest number in “paddling”, as well as the lowest number in the category “stationary”. The figure presented for “wave riding” in the present study was 4%. Farley, Mendez- Villanueva et al. and Meir et al. reported 4%, 3.8% and 5%, respectively. “Others” or miscellaneous activities accounted for 7% and is therefore again closest to the study conducted by Farley who reported 8%. While Meir et al.’s number, 16%, was considerably higher Mendez- Villanueva et al.’s findings were considerably

68 lower with a total of 2.5%. As no other time- motion study has ever had “recovering” or “duck diving” as categories, the numbers presented here are not comparable. “Recovering” as well as “Duck Diving” accounted for 3% of the total time.

Discussion: “Paddling” is an often overlooked part of an athlete’s surfing performance. After comparison with previous studies, it can be said that this category accounts for about 50% of a surfer’s activities during a session. Therefore it can easily be concluded that an athlete’s paddling performance is an integral part of his overall surfing performance. Mendez- Villanueva et al. (2006) argued that “it is possible that fatigue induced at a site remote from the legs (i.e., during arm paddling) might be associated with some negative effects on postural control and performance during wave riding” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p. 480). A good and economic paddling technique, as well as the surfer’s ability to sustain strains of intense paddling bursts, might therefore improve his subsequent wave riding ability.

However, even when focusing on improving an athlete’s paddling technique and aerobic endurance, it should always be kept in mind that the sole goal of paddling is to get the surfer on a wave. As it is the activity mostly used during a session, it must not be overlooked, but should always be trained with the objective of improving the athlete’s wave count and surfing performance.

Together with “duck diving”, “wave riding” shows the second lowest overall duration of activity out of all six categories. Only Meir et al. reported a slightly higher number of 5%. While an athlete’s aerobic capacities therefore improve themselves by simply surfing, the actual time to improve an athlete’s wave riding performance is kept diminutively small. I would therefore argue that:

 In water surfing training should always keep an eye on keeping an athlete’s wave count on an acceptable level or on improving it.  Out of water surf training should mainly concern itself with:  Finding artificial ways of imitating and substituting wave riding on land. Skateboarding, longboarding and other board-based sports might be a good idea for this. Artificially shaped ramps might enable the athlete to simulate the

69 feeling of riding a wave and enable him to try a maneuver over and over again.  The focus of physical on land training should rather put a focus on improving an athlete’s max power, strength and athleticism rather than his endurance, as it will develop itself by simply surfing. Farley agrees as he concludes that “training should emphasize maximal power force production for greater propulsion in water” an adds that “anaerobic endurance to withstand long durations of constant paddling” needs to be targeted as well (Farley, 2011, p. 95). Mendez- Villanueva et al. share this concern as they conclude that “additional physical training should ultimately be designed to help surfers extend the amount and quality of on-water training by delaying the appearance of fatigue that might diminish an athlete’s technical standard or cognitive function throughout a surfing session” (Mendez- Villanueva et al., 2006, p. 481).

III.12.1.1.) Beach Break vs. Point Break:

Chart II: Average Duration of Activity Beach Break vs. Point Break

The comparison between the average duration of activities on a beach and a point break showed no significant difference. The greatest discrepancy was recorded in “paddling”. While on a point break 52% were recorded for “paddling”, it only accounted for 48% on a beach break. “Stationary” was recorded with a total duration

70 of 33% on a beach break and an almost similar 32% on a point break. “Wave riding” and “recovering” accounted for 3% and 4% on a beach break and 4% and 3% on a point break. Another marginal difference was recorded in “duck diving” with 4% on a beach break and 3% on a point break. “Others” or miscellaneous activities accounted for 8% on a beach break and 6% on a point break.

Chart III: Average Duration of Activity Beach Break vs. Point Break during 1h of Recreational Surfing.

This chart clearly shows that there was only a marginal, and therefore statistically insignificant, deviation between the duration of activities on a beach and a point break. The greatest discrepancies were recorded in the categories “paddling” and “others”, with a difference of 147,63 sec. and 69,27 sec., respectively. According to the numbers, slightly more time is spent “paddling” and “wave riding” on a point break than on a beach break. The numbers recorded are 1873,77 sec. (or 31,23 min) and 133,38 sec. (2,22 min.), respectively. In comparison 1726,14 sec. (28,77 min.) were spent “paddling” and 102,71 sec. (1,71) min “wave riding” on a beach break. The numbers representing “stationary”, “recovering”, “duck diving” and “others”, however were all higher surfing a beach break than a point break.

71 Discussion: As no other study has ever done a time- motion based comparison between two different types of breakers the findings presented here can not be compared with data from previous studies. One of the hypotheses presented at the beginning of this paper was that “a surfer’s fitness will develop differently depending on the type of break he mostly surfs”. At least from a time- motion based perspective on the athlete’s activity profile this hypothesis can be said to be wrong. No significant difference was reported in the average duration of activities between the two types of breaks. However, the question whether or not there might be a difference concerning the energetic demands put on a surfer still remains to be seen.

III.12.2.) Average Heart Rates During 1 h of Recreational Surfing:

Chart IV: Average Heart Rate during 1 hour of Recreational Surfing

The athlete’s average heart rates during 1 h of recreational surfing were 124 bpm. for „paddling“ and a 116 bpm. for „stationary“. A mean heart rate of 129 bpm. was recorded for „wave riding“ while a 136 bpm. accounted for „recovering“. “Duck diving” was performed with an average heart rate of 131 bpm., while “others” accounted for 123 bpm.. With a recorded total mean heart rate of 126 bpm. during one hour of recreational surfing, the present study showed the lowest number compared to

72 previous studies. Farley (2011) and Mendez- Villanueva et al. (2005) recorded significantly higher numbers of 140 bpm. and 146 bpm., respectively. However, it has to be noted that both studies had been conducted in a significantly different environment, a surfing contest. While the present study analysed one hour of surfing both, Mendez- Villanueva et al. and Farley, only analysed heats of 20 min. and 25min. in duration, respectively. Meir et al. (1991) presented findings on recreational surfing as well and came up with a mean heart rate of 135 bpm..

Discussion: The highest mean heart rate in the present study was reported for “recovering”, the second highest for “duck diving” and the third for “wave riding”. The average heart rate reported for “paddling” only accounted for the fourth highest number out of the 6 different categories analysed. A possible explanation for this result is found within the logical order of the activity protocol in wave riding. Clearly, before being able to surf a wave a surfer first has to catch it. To do so the surfer’s positioning in the line up as well as a quick highly energetic paddling bout is crucial. According to a study conducted by Lowdon et al. in 1983 about 20 highly energetic and powerful strokes are required of the surfer to position himself and to gain the velocity needed to catch the wave. Once the wave carries the surfer he changes from prone position into surfing position. As already stated earlier, highly energetic power outputs and quick reaction times are key in the surfing process. When the athlete has finished riding the wave, this either means that he wiped out, or that he surfed out of the wave. In the case of a wipe out, basically an unforseen crash which can easily increase the athlete’s stress level, the surfer gets pushed under water by the wave, the possibility of colliding with his surfboard or the ocean bed included. It can be assumed that the stress situation the surfer finds himself in has a direct influence on his heart rate as well. Before being able to paddle back out into the line up the surfer then has to get back his board and “recover” into prone position. Due to this it is of no wonder that the highest mean heart rate recorded lies within the category “recovering”, which is preceded by a quick but intense paddling burst, the actual wave riding performance

73 and a wipe out, which ultimately forces the athlete to “recover”.

“Duck diving” accounted for the second highest recorded mean heart rate in the present study. It is probable that the reason for this lies in the fact that a duck dive, just like a wave ride, is always preceded by a quick and intense paddling bout. When paddling back out into the line up, a surfer fulfils a prolonged activity, which requires outputs of aerobic power. “Duck diving” requires the surfer to push his board under water and to follow it with his whole body. The ongoing aerobic activity is therefore interrupted by an activity of higher intensity, accompanied by an interruption of the surfer’s regular breathing pattern. It can be argued that the athlete’s HR increases during this activity. Furthermore is it probable that a surfer does not just perform one single duck dive when paddling back out into the line up. The intensity increases significantly with any further wave rolling in.

The average heart rate presented for “wave riding” in this study accounted for the third highest average. While the preceding quick but highly intense paddling burst leading up to a wave ride already increases a surfer’s heart rate, the actual “wave riding” requires focus and a high amount of concentration from the surfer. Mixed with highly energetic maximal power outputs from legs and arms the athlete’s heart rate will therefore increase even more.

“Others” and “stationary” accounted for the fifth and sixth highest average, respectively. While “others” or miscellaneous activities mostly include locomotive action of low intensity on behalf of the athlete (walking, turning his board etc.), “stationary” only includes activities with no locomotive action at all. It is therefore of no surprise that the lowest heart rate was recorded in these two categories.

74 III.12.3.) Definition of Exercise Zones:

HR at Rest:

The athlete’s average heart rate was recorded every day for the whole length of the study. Immediately after the athlete woke in the morning he put on the heart rate sensor, before fulfilling any kind of movement, and took a measurement. The athlete’s average heart rate at rest accounted for 40,93 beats per min.

HR Max.: To calculate the athlete’s max. heart rate two formulas had been applied. The previously conducted study by Oliver Farley on the physiological demands of surfers during competition (2011) had used the subject’s age to calculate their respective HR max. However, in order to obtain more reliable data, the more complex formulas developed by Sally Edwards (1992) and Winfried Spanais (2001) found appliance in the present study.

Sally Edwards: Male: HR max. = 214- 0,5 x Age (in years) – 0,11 x Weight (in kg) Male: HR max. = 214- 0,5 x 26 – 0,11 x 86 = 191,54 beats per min.

Winfired Spanaus: Male: HR max. = 223 – 0,9 x Age (in years) Male: HR max = 223- 0,9 x 26 = 199,60 beats per min.

The athlete’s highest recorded heart rate during the present study was 175 beats per min.. It was therefore decided to use Edward’s calculation, due to a smaller deviation between the highest obtained heart rate and the athlete’s calculated HR max. Heart rate zones and categories of intensity were determined with the formula established by Karvonen in 1954. Karvonen’s formula takes into account that every athlete has an individual heart rate at rest, as well an individual max. heart rate. While an athlete’s max. heart rate is mostly dependent on his age, his heart rate at rest is training specific and therefore dependent on his physiological capacities.

75 “Target Heart Rate = Heart Rate at rest + (HR max – HR at rest) x % of Intensity” (Karvonen,1954, p 310).

THR = 40,93 + (191,54- 40,93) x 0,30 = 86,11 beats per min.

Chart V: This chart shows the exercise intensity according to the athlete’s calculated max. heart rate (Schnabel et al., 2011, p. 223).

% of HR max. Intensity Personal HR/ bpm. Exercise Zones 0- 30% Almost no intensity > 86 Warm up 30- 50% Very light 86 - 116 Moderate Activity 50- 70 % Light 116 - 146 Aerobic 70- 80% Medium 146 - 161 Aerobic/ Anaerobic 80- 90 % Hard 161 - 176 Anaerobic 90- 100% Very Hard 176 - 191 Sub- max.

Discussion:

In order to give a reliable statement on an athlete’s exercise zones and energetic requirements, knowledge on the state of his blood lactate is a necessity. Without a reliable blood lactate test only assumptions can be made on a surfer’s anaerobic threshold for example. The classification in this chart concerning “Exercise Zones” was therefore only an estimation, based on the assumption that an athlete’s anaerobic threshold lies at around 4mmol blood lactate. This number was seen to be equivalent with an energetic zone of 70%- 80% of the subjects calculated HR max.. Up to this point only a small number of studies have concerned themselves with a surfer’s peak VO2 uptake. However, the studies conducted by Farley (2012), Meir et al. (1991) and Mendez- Villanueva et al. (2005), took place in a laboratory setting, mostly using a modified swim bench ergometer. It was attempted to measure an athlete’s energy expenditure via his pulmonary system. However, no study has ever attempted to measure a surfer’s blood lactate, or to define his anaerobic threshold, using a testing protocol, which can be applied within a surfer’s natural environment.

76 III.12.3.1.) Exercise Zones During 1 h of Recreational Surfing:

Chart VI: Exercise Zones during 1 hour of Recreational Surfing

Even though an average number of 7,285 seconds had been spent between 161 bpm and 176 bpm. it was too small to fall into consideration. Therefore 0% of the time recorded was spent in the categories previously defined as “hard” or “very hard”. About 7% had been spent between 70%- 80% of the athlete’s calculated HR max (“medium intensity”). The highest percentage was recorded in the zone classified as “light intensity” (50%-70% of HR max.) with a total of 54%. These findings show great similarities to Farley’s study (2011), who reported that athletes spent 60% of their total time in an exercise zone between 56% and 70% of their HR max.. As previously stated Farley calculated the athletes HR max. using the age predicted maximal heart rate principle. The second highest total, 36%, was assigned to “very light intensity” (30%- 50% of HR max.). A total of 3% had been spent in a zone classified as “almost no intensity”, which ranged from 0%-30%, and basically included all heart rates below 86,11 bpm..

77 Discussion: In 2011 Farley came to the conclusion that, “there is limited data with which to establish definite parameters for a heart rate profile of surfing” (Farley, 2011, p. 32). Even though similarities could be drawn between the results presented by each study, the unpredictable nature of the environment, as well as the difference in the surf sessions formats, makes a comparison very difficult. However, looking at the numbers at hand it can be concluded that this study’s first hypothesis is correct. Even though discrepancies in the exact distribution of exercise zones have been noted between the various studies, a common trait can be found. Surfing can therefore be said to be “a mainly aerobic activity combined with short intense intermittent strains”.

In the present study more than half of the time, 54%, had been spent in an exercise zone defined as “light intensity”, which ranged from 116,24 bpm. to 146,36 bpm.. This equals a range from 50%- 70% of the athlete’s calculated HR max.. Weineck describes this as the perfect energetic zone to develop an athlete’s aerobic endurance capacities (see Weineck, 2014, p. 230). About 80% of a surfing session therefore seem to be spent in an energetic zone which mostly benefits the development of aerobic capacities. While a good endurance is a key element of every athlete’s performance, one has to remember that, in competition as well as in recreational surfing, the focus lies on the actual wave riding performance. The key elements during riding a wave, however, are the ability of quick reaction, and quick maximal outputs of power in the athlete’s legs as well as in his arms (see Mendez- Villanueva at al., 2006). In 1983 Lowdon presented findings which showed that up to 20 powerful and highly energetic strokes are required of the surfer in order to position himself and to gain the speed necessary to catch a wave. According to Farley these facts proof that anaerobic power is a key factor in the sport of surfing (see Farley, 2011, p. 65).

78 III.12.3.2) Heart Rates Beach Break vs. Point Break:

Chart VII: Average HR Beach Break vs. Point Break

Descriptive statistics show a small deviation between the average heart rates obtained surfing a beach break and those surfing a point break. The smallest was recorded in the category “stationary” with only 8,38 sec. out of one hour of recreational surfing. The biggest deviation was recorded in the category “wave riding” with 11,3 seconds. As point breaks tend to have longer running waves than beach breaks, this seems to be a logical confirmation. However, in every category recorded, the mean heart rate during one hour of surfing was higher surfing a point break than a beach break. The average deviation accounted for 9,5 seconds.

Discussion: A two tailed T-test of the same variance had been conducted and showed that statistically significant results have been obtained in the present study. Due to a p< 0,01 it can be said that the deviation between the average HR obtained on a point break to those obtained on a beach break are statistically significant different within all of the six categories. It can therefore be concluded that the deviations obtained are

79 not due to chance and that the studies second hypothesis can therefore be said to be true. Even though the results obtained did not emphasize the difference between the two types of breaks as strongly as had been thought prior to the study, there is evidence which suggests that “a surfer’s fitness will develop differently depending on the type of break he mostly surfs”. The ranking of the heart rate distribution between a point break and a beach break is the same as the overall ranking between the different categories. In both cases was the highest average heart rate recorded in the category “recovering”. This was followed by the categories “duck diving” and “wave riding”. Even though the HR distribution might be the same between the two types of breaks, according to the numbers obtained, significantly higher heart rates had been recorded surfing a point break than surfing a beach break.

III.12.3.3.) Exercise Zones Beach Break vs. Point Break:

Chart VIII: Exercise Zones Beach Break vs. Point Break

80 The greatest recorded deviation lay between 30% and 50% (“very light intensity – Moderate Activity”) of the athlete’s calculated HR max. and accounted for 16%. No deviation on the other hand could be observed between 0%-30% of intensity with an equal of 3% for both types of breaks. 57% of the total time was spent in the exercise zone defined as “light intensity” (50%- 70%) while surfing on a point break. Surfing on a beach break, 51% were recorded in the same category, resulting in a minimal deviation of 6% between the two types of breaks. In the category “medium intensity”, which ranges from 70%- 80% of the athlete’s HR max., a total of 12% and 2% were recorded surfing a point break and a beach break, respectively. This resulted in a deviation of 10% between the two types of breaks within this category.

Chart IX: Max. and Min. HR Beach Break vs. Point Break

The maximum heart rate recorded in this study was a 175 bpm. and therefore similar to the only previous study on time motion analysis in recreational surfing. Meir et al. (1991) recorded a 171 bpm. as the highest heart rate during their study. Both studies on time motion analysis in competitive surfing obtained a higher HR max., the highest number was presented by Farley (2011) and the second highest by Mendez- Villanueva (2005) with a 190 bpm.. In the present study the lowest heart rate was recorded while paddling and accounted for 58 bpm.. This heart rate was recorded immediately after a prolonged rest period.

81 The statistical analysis via a two tailed TTest of the same variance showed that the data obtained for max. HR on a beach break as well as on a point break showed statistical significance due to a result of p = 0,00549997. In other words, the deviation between the max HR obtained on a beach break and the max HR obtained on a point break are not due to chance but showed statistically significant results. It can therefore be concluded that the max exercise intensity a surfer has to face is greater on a point break than on a beach break within all six categories. The data obtained for the min. HR concerning the max exercise intensity on a beach break vs. a point break however, showed no statistical significance. Even though, from a descriptive point of view, the min HR in five out of six categories on a point break were higher than those monitored on a beach break, a TTest conducted showed that, due to a p = 0,1547127, no statistically significant results had been obtained.

Discussion: Every max. heart rate recorded during this study was accomplished on a point break. The mean deviation between the HR max. on both types of breaks accounted for 13,23 bpm.. While the highest average HR, as already discussed earlier in this paper, was recorded “recovering”, the overall peak HR. was recorded “duck diving” and accounted for 175bpm.. However, as already discussed, in this case as well, the natural order of the surfing process can be seen as the reason for this result. At this point it has to be mentioned that in the present study the heart rate monitor was set to monitor the athlete’s heart rate every 5 seconds. Higher heart rates might have therefore been achieved in between the recording. When analysing the data, for every activity only the average heart rate was noted. It is therefore possible that the athlete might have had a higher peak heart rate than shown in this chart. The mean deviation between the min heart rates obtained on a point break and a beach break accounted for 17,03 bpm. As with the max. heart rates, the min. heart rate’s recorded were all lower on a beach break than on a point break throughout all categories.

82 III.12.4.) Overall Summary and Conclusion:

Due to the results obtained above it can be argued that the main aim of the study had been achieved. The physiological demands put on a surfer had clearly been identified under a range of circumstances and an inside into the energetic requirements put on a recreational surfer had been given. Furthermore had this study shown that, even though it seems as if there exists no great variance in the time- motion based average duration of movements between a beach break and a point break, the exercise intensity put on a surfer is a different one.

The present study’s working hypothesis could, thanks to findings presented within this study, both shown to be correct. Firstly can surfing be said to be an aerobic activity combined with short intense intermittent strains. Throughout all studies which had been conducted on time- motion analysis a common trait had been found and comparison showed that this hypothesis is correct. No previous study had ever concerned itself with the different types of surf breaks and whether or not the energetic requirements forced upon an athlete would cause a different development of the surfer’s physiological capacities. No comparison with data obtained from previous studies could therefore be made concerning this hypothesis. However, looking at the data at hand it can be argued that the exercise intensity forced upon an athlete depending on the break he surfs is higher when surfing a point break than surfing a beach break. It is notable that the time- motion based categorization of the athlete’s activity profile showed no great difference between the two types of breaks. Even though the length and average duration of each activity during one hour of surfing seem to be the same on both types of surf breaks a point break places a higher energetic intensity on the surfer according to findings in the present study.

Discrepancies: While the numbers presented in this and the previously conducted studies by Farley (2011), Mendez- Villanueva et al. (2006) and Meir et al. (1991), are not quite similar they are still comparable. However, at this point it has to be noted that the studies previously conducted by Mendez- Villanueva et al. and Meir et al. had only used 4 categories to classify a surfer’s movements. “Paddling”, “wave riding”,

83 “stationary” and “others”. For his study Farley added a fifth category, “paddling for wave”. The present study however, gave Farley’s additional category a miss and rather added, “duck diving” and “recovering” to its list of categories. The fact that Mendez- Villanueva et al. and Meir et al. had only used 4 categories, Farley 5 and the present study a total of 6 categories, to analyse their respective data definitely questions the comparability of some of the categories. The same, or quite similar, definitions had been used for the categories “paddling”, “stationary”, “wave riding” and “others” or “miscellaneous activities”. Farley had added the category “paddling for wave”, which, at this stage is of no importance as it was incorporated in the total category of “paddling”. In this case it can therefore be seen as a subcategory only. However, as no previous study has worked with either the category “duck diving” or “recovering” the data, a total of 6%, must probably be found distributed within the other categories. A total of 16% for “miscellaneous” or “other” activities reported by Meir et al. can possibly be seen as a result.

According to Farley there is a significant difference in whether or not a study is conducted in a competitive or a recreational environment. Farley concludes “physiological and psychological demands would have been less due to no pressure on performance nor competition for the waves and number of waves they caught “ (Farley, 2011, p. 60). Even though truth can be found in Farley’s statement another, more open look at the difference between recreational and competitive surfing is needed in order to fully understand the discrepancy. As already stated earlier in this paper a certain hierarchy exists within every line up in this world, directly linked to a surfer’s opportunity to catch waves. While competitive pressure, in the way Farley explains it, might not be an aspect to consider in a study on recreational surfing, there definitely is fierce competition for waves and the pressure that lies within it. While a competition heat is a relatively clinical and sterile environment every line up around the world is different and changes with every single surfer entering or exiting the water. While heats are governed by a rule- book and observed by judges, line ups during a recreational surf session are governed only by rules commonly known to all surfers. The observation and regulation of recreational surf sessions therefore is a very subjective one and most of the time executed by local surfer’s or the best surfer in the water.

84 While it might therefore be possible to compare results obtained from competitive surfing heats with similar competition formats, it is difficult to compare studies on recreational surfing with one another, and even more so with studies conducted in a competitive environment. The ever changing and unpredictable nature of the surfing environment, constituted by various factors like wave height, currents, wind etc., is another aspect, which needs to be kept in mind.

Even though statistically significant results have been obtained it has to be kept in mind that each surfing session is constituted by a great number of unpredictable variables. However, by keeping a “training” – as well as a “session diary” it was intended to keep the influence of these variables as small as possible and, as already mentioned before, out of 30 possible sessions, 14 had bee chosen due to similar and comparable conditions.

85 IV.) Bibliography:

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87  Hoppes, N. (2014). “This is what happens when scientists go surfing”. Red Bull. [online]. http://www.redbull.com/us/en/surfing/stories/1331686821979/this-is-what- happens-when-scientist-go-surfing [2015, December 9].

 Hökelmann, A., Witte, K., O’ Donoghue, P. (2009). Current Trends in Performance Analysis, Aachen: Shaker Verlag.

 International Surfing Association [online]. https://www.isasurf.org/isa- info/faq/ [2015, October 17].

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88  Mendez- Villanueva, A., Perez- Landaluce, J., Bishop, D., & Fernandez- Garcia, B. (2005). Upper body aerobic fitness comparison between two groups of competitive surfboard riders. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 8(1), 43- 51.

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89  Townsend, L. (2015). “Surfing is the most Difficult sport in the world”. Stab Magazine [online]. http://stabmag.com/surfing-is-the-hardest-sport-in-the- world-john-john-florence-shaun-white/#ER1ydbbshIvU4tvw.97 [2015, December 12].

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 Winter, E.M., Jones, A.M., Davison, R.C.R., Bromley, P.D., Mercer, T.H. (2007). Sport and Exercise PHYSIOLOGY TESTING GUIDELINES Volume Two. London: Routledge.

90 V.) Index of Pictures:

 Picture 1 (Nike 6.0, Kenworthy/ Wallace Mc Kay, Maids on a wave): Visual proof of how much surfing has changed since the first Polynesians attempted to ride waves in about 200 B.C.. Walker, I. (2011, July 11). “Womentum: Rethinking the Women’s movement”. The Inertia. [online]. http://www.theinertia.com/surf/women- movement-ancient-hawaiian-surf-lore/ [2016, January 2].

 Picture 2 (Kennedy): Fisherman riding, or surfing, a traditional Caballito de Totora back to shore. Kennedy, P. “Longjourneys Video & Photography”. paulkennedy.photoshelter.com. [online]. http://paulkennedy.photoshelter.com/image/I00000a4aamj7Qzg [2015, December 27].

 Picture 3 (Strauss & Götze, 2012, p 16): Legendary Olympic Medalist, surfer and all around waterman “Duke Paoa Kahanamoku”, the father of modern day surfing and “Aloha”. Strauss, S., Götze, R. (2012). Wave Culture- FASZINATION SURFEN Das Handbuch der Wellenreiter. 4th ed. Druckerei Totem Group: Poland

 Picture 4 (Eisner, 2013): La Cicer. Eisner, M. (2013, private)

 Picture 5 (Strauss & Götze 2012, p 30): Surfboard terminology. Strauss, S., Götze, R. (2012). Wave Culture- FASZINATION SURFEN Das Handbuch der Wellenreiter. 4th ed. Druckerei Totem Group: Poland.

 Picture 6 (Tactics): Various possible forms of a surfboard’s bottom contour. Tactics.com [online]. http://www.tactics.com/info/surfboard-specs-defined [2015, December 15].

91  Picture 7 (Tactics): A surfboard’s rocker has great impact on the board’s planning characteristics. Tactics.com [online]. http://www.tactics.com/info/surfboard-specs-defined [2015, December 15].

 Picture 8 (Tactics): Rails are an integral part of a surfboard’s character. Tactics.com [online]. http://www.tactics.com/info/surfboard-specs-defined [2015, December 15].

 Picture 9 (Sanded, 2015): The most common forms of surfboard tail shapes. A board’s tail influences hold and release as well as a board’s speed on a wave. Sanded.com.au [online]. http://forum.sanded.com.au/tails_and_fins_16.html [2016, January 2].

 Picture 10 (Tactics): Fins are available in all forms and sizes. Tactics.com [online]. http://www.tactics.com/info/surfboard-specs-defined [2015, December 15].  Picture 11 (wikispaces): Surfboard dimensions are mostly constituted by 4 variables. A Board’s length, its width, its thickness and its overall volume. Wikispaces.com [online]. https://surfboardinstrucionmanual.wikispaces.com/Understanding+the+Surfbo ard+Parts [2015, December 15].

 Picture 12 (Strauss & Götze 2012, p 29) : Surfboards exist in all sizes and shapes, here is a graphic overview on the most common types of boards. Strauss, S., Götze, R. (2012). Wave Culture- FASZINATION SURFEN Das Handbuch der Wellenreiter. 4th ed. Druckerei Totem Group: Poland.

 Pictures13 & 14 (Eisner, 2015): Novice surfers during their induction faces. A “soft top board” minimises the risk of injury and gives the athlete the opportunity of concentrating on the task at hand without having to worry to much about getting hurt. Eisner, M. (2015, private).

 Picture 15 (Sidirisma L., 2014): Ruben Fuentes and Carlos Clavero show 2 classic longboard maneuvers, a hang five and a cutback. Due to its enorm size and volume longboarders are able to even walk up to the nose of their board without wiping out. Sidirisma, L. (2014, private).

 Picture 16 (BIC): A classic Mini- Malibu shape unites the advantages of a longboard with those of a shortboard and therefore enables the beginner to intermediate surfer to do his best surfing. wellentime.com [online]. http://www.wellentime.com/surfurlaubspanien/surfbrett-verleih-bilbao- spanien/mini-malibu-bic-73/ [2016, January 2].

 Picture 17 & 18 (surfscience): Clearly show the differences between what is considered to be a standard fish and a standard shortboard. The most notable differences, besides the very obvious overall thickness and width, definitely are the more prominent rocker of the shortboard and the wider nose of the fish. Picture 18 shows that while a typical fish nose has its pointiness from a shortboard its witdh and volume have much more similarity to a longboard. surfscience.com [online]. http://www.surfscience.com/topics/types-of- surfboard/fish/science-of-fish-surfboards/ [2016, January 2]

 Photo 19 (surfline): Shane Dorian at the Eddie Aikau Invitational Contest in Haleiwa. For the contest to be held wave faces need to have a minimum of 20 feet or 6,1 meters. Only very big guns enable the surfers to catch such waves. 360 guide [online]. http://360guide.info/surfing/surfboard- types.html#axzz3w6si4cPv [2016, January 2]

 Picture 20 (FCS): leashes come in all kinds of colours, its length however depends on the length of the surfboard it is attached to. At every time shoulf the length of the leashe exceed the length of the board used in order not to hit the surfer during a wipe out.

93 Surffcs.com [online]. http://www.surffcs.com/shop/sup-leashes/fcs-premium- big-wave-leash [2015, December 15]

 Picture 21 (Sexwax) & 22 (Prolite) : While tailpads are mostly bought depending on the pads design, wax must be chosen according to water temperature in order not to get washed off. Temperature ranges are always indicated on the packaging. Sexwax.com [online]. http://www.sexwax.com/item/qh/ [2015, December 15]

Prolite.com[online].https://www.prolite.com/category/CatID/94/category/SUR F/subcategory/BUILD-A-CUSTOM-TRACTION-PAD/#.VogQ6rTa-1s [2015, December 15]

 Picture 23 (Patagonia): There are various wetsuit models provided by numerous brands. In order to find the correct fit it is obligatory to first try suit, as it should feel like a second skin to the surfer. The thickness and wetsuit model depends on the temperature the suit is worn in. Models range from short to long suits, from 2mm up until 7mm, hood included. Further accessories would then be booties and gloves. Patagonia [online]. http://www.patagonia.com/us/surfing [2015, January 2].

 Picture 24 (Farley, 2011, p. 64): Based on findings from Mendez- Villanueva et al (2005) Farley presented this chart in his study on “Competitive Surfing: A Physiological Profile of Athletes and Determinants of Performance” on the factors that actually constitute a surfers final performance. Farley, O. (2011). Competitive Surfing: A Physiological Profile of Athletes and Determinants of Performance. Auckland: University of Technology.

 Pictures 25& 26 (Butt, 2009, p. 20): The graphic and picture above illustrate a classic beach break set up. While the lumps (sandbars) cause a wave to break the dips in between let water run through, this way channels and rips are formed. Butt, T. (2009). The Surfer’s Guide to Waves, Coasts and Climates. China:

94 Alison Hodge.

 Picture 27 (Kreuzer, 2015): A classic point break set up in Ericera, Portugal. By analysing the already washed in white water and the incoming wave one can easily see that a surfer can only go in one direction on this wave. The name of this type of wave breaker derives from the fact that the wave always breaks from one point into one direction. As a wave’s breaking direction is always classified from the surfer’s point of view the wave shown above is a right hand point break. Kreuzer, K. (2015, privat).

 Picture 28 (Sutherland, 2008, p. 343): This map shows a bird eye view of all commonly known spots on the north shore of Gran Canaria. It starts in the east with the capitol’s (Las Palmas) famous city beach La Cicer (Nr. 17) and ends in the west with the slab reefs of Galdar (Nr. 1-4). Sutherland, B. (2008). The Stormrider Surf Guide EUROPE. Low Pressure Ltd.

 Picture 29 (Eisner, 2015): Out of six different watches which had been tested previously to this study only one, the Polar S810 (left in this picture) was able to deliver reliable data. Eisner, M. (2015, private).

 Pictures 30 & 31 (Eisner, 2015): The final chest strap position turned out to be the conventional one. Strap around the chest, sensor to the front. During the first test runs the heart rate monitor was mounted on the athlete’s wrist. For the study however, it was positioned on the athlete’s left chest, just under his wetsuit, in order to hinder signal interruptions. Eisner, M. (2015, private).

95  Picture 32 & 33 (Eisner, 2014): The pictures above are examples for the footage recorded with the “Go Pro HD- Hero” camera. Even though the camera positioning allowed for a complete analysis of a surfer’s movements it did not hinder his performance. The picture show the surfer performing a floater and a top turn whilst recording data for the study at the right hand point break Derecha del Roque in the north of the island of Gran Canaria. Eisner, M. (2014, private).

96 VI.) Index of Charts:

 Chart I: Average Duration of Activity during 1h of Recreational Surfing

 Chart II: Average Duration of Activity BB vs. PB

 Chart III: Average Duration of Activity Beach Break vs. Point Break

 Chart IV: Average Heart Rate during 1 hour of Recreational Surfing

 Chart V: This chart shows the exercise intensity according to the athlete’s calculated max. heart rate (Schnabel et al., 2011, p. 223).

 Chart VI: Exercise Zones during 1 hour of Recreational Surfing

 Chart VII: Average HR Beach Break vs. Point Break

 Chart VIII: Exercise Zones Beach Break vs. Point Break

 Chart IX: Max. and min. HR Beach Break vs. Point Break