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Studying Classical Archaeology and Ancient History in Charlotte Scheffer

This article traces the background and gradual growth of the subject of Classical Archaeology and Ancient History in Sweden from the 17'" century to the present day. As a university subject it grew out of the study of the realia in connection with the classical languages and was separated as an independent subject as late as 1909. Between the 1920s and the 1970s, large-scale excavations dominated most work. At present, the topics are more varied, better use is being made of the possibilities of the dual nature of the evidence of texts and archaeological material and there is a growing awareness of a new set of problems.

Charlotte Scheffer, Oepart&nent of Classical A&chaeotogv and Ancient Histo&9&, Stoclholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden.

The study of classical archaeology and Palmyra and made excellent drawings of its ancient history as a university subject is of well-preserved ruins (Billig & Billig 1981; relatively recent date beginning with the Westholm 1985). creation of two chairs of Klassisk fornkun- The person who played the most impor- skap oclt anti I ens histot ia (Classical Archae- tant part in the revived interest in antiquity ology and Ancient History) in and Upp- that developed during the 18'" century was, sala in 1909 (Brunnsåker 1976:23-27),which, however, King Gustaf III (1746-92). Like of course, does not mean that important work other young men of his time, he went on a on classical antiquities was not done before slightly delayed, Grand Tottr to Italy in 1784- this time. A few examples will suffice. As 85, visiting and Pompeii (Olausson early as the 17r» century, a classically-minded 1998). With the help of Francesco Piranesi, queen, Christina (1626-89), assembled a the son of the great engraver, he started a significant royal collection of antiquities, new collection of antiquities, the old one foraging all over Europe in order to comple- having been sadly depleted by Queen ment the statues and objects brought to Christina's departure for Rome in 1654 and Sweden as spoils from the Thirty Years' War the great fire in 1697. The antiquities were (Callmer 1954; Leander Touati 1998:23f).To eventually, after the King's untimely death further the study of antiquity, she invited to at a masquerade, exhibited to the general Uppsala University the Strasburg professor public in the Royal Palace in the museum lohannes Schefferus (1621-79) (Brunnsåker that is still open today and known as Gustav 1976:20f).In the early 18'" century, an officer Ill:s Antiktnuseunt (Leander Touati 1998). of Carl XII, Cornelius Loos (1686-1738), During King Gustaf's reign, the first Swedish used the opportunity of the King's enforced excavation on classical soil took place, in the stay in Bender to investigate Egypt and the very Forum Romanum to which Swedish Near East; among other places, he visited archaeologists have since returned in the 20'"

Carrent S»edish Archaeotogy, Vot. 8, 20(ha 196 Charlotte Schefjer

tually dealt with the realia of the ancient world, the study of classical archaeology and ancient history was not at a level at all comparable to that of many other European countries. The Swedish Consul at Smyrna had at one point tried to interest the Swedes in star- ting an excavation in Pergamon, but, as the famous Swedish educationist, Julius Centerwall (1844-1923) expressed it, it was a good thing that this excavation never took place, not so much because of the expense as of the lack of a qualified director, classi- cal archaeology in Sweden being then an almost unknown science (Centerwall 1888:372f; Åker- ström 1973:8f). In the second half of the 19'" century, an enormous amount of new information was brought to light through new, large-scale ex- cavations based on a more scien- tific outlook. Several travellers from Sweden were inspired by the Fig. l. One ofthefirst books in the field ofclassical archaeology vastly increased archaeological and ancient history to be published in Sweden, at Uppsala in material and the new ways ofcon- l654. Note the Swedish coat of a"ms crowntng t enas sideringoidprobiemsthataccom- (Christina s?) tent. The bo ok by J. Schefferusis about the naval panied it. Contacts were estab- warfare of the anci ents. lished both with other European, mostly German, scholars and with century (Nylander 1989).The excavator was the foreign institutes especially in Athens, Carl Fredric Fredenheim (1748-1803), later and many young Swedish students were to be the first keeper of the Royal Museum encouraged to go to mainly German uni- (Leander Touati 1998:49-51). versities. One ofthe most important travellers Meanwhile, the closest contact with the was Einar Löfstedt (1831-89), Professor of classical world was maintained through the Greek at Uppsala, who visited Greece in classical languages. In Sweden, as in the rest 1876-77 and, on his return, lectured to of Europe, Latin was the language of the audiences which included two young students learned world, obligatory at all upper-school who were later to become the first two profes- levels until the early 20'" century and for most sors of Klassisk fornkunskap och antikens university studies beyond the middle of the historia at Uppsala, Sam Wide (1861-1918) century. Most scholarly work in Classical and Lennart Kjellberg (1857-1936). Wide, Languages was concentrated on philological energetic and with good contacts with several questions, and, although a few studies ac- members of the German Institute at Athens,

Current Swedish Archaeology, Vol. 8, 2000 Studying Classical Archaeology and Ancient History in Sweden 197 excavated with Dörpfeld on the west slope wrote to Oscar Montelius (quoted in Åström of the Acropolis, discussed in a letter to 1980:9), it is easier to find money for Centerwall the possibility of excavating in something crazy such as dancing the cancan Crete or on Thera, as we now know excellent in the nude on Norrbro in Stockholm or sites, or, as suggested to him by Dörpfeld, searching for Noah's Ark on Ararat from a rather the Agora of Athens or the more balloon than for a serious excavation (free insignificant sites of Kalaureia on Poros, translation from the Swedish). Midea, also, Aphidna in Attica or Midea in the Argolis. was later excavated by Swedish archae- He chose Kalaureia, which he excavated ologists. together with Kjellberg, and Aphidna (Call- The enthusiasm generated by individual mer 1953; Nordquist forthcoming), bearing scholars with an interest in classical antiquity a large part of the expense himself; as he combined with the enormous growth of knowledge produced by new excavations created a demand for studies of other aspects of classical antiquity than the purely philological. Also, the classical languages were losing importance. A reform in 1905, restricting the use of Latin in schools and, thus, lessening the necessity to educate a great number of schoolteachers, opened the way for the new subject. In 1909,the Swedish Parliament decided that the two associate professorships at Lund and Uppsala were to be transformed into chairs in Classical Archaeology and Ancient History (for a con- tribution to the debate, see Lundström 1898). The first two holders were Sam Wide (1861- 1918)and Martin P :son Nilsson (1874-1967), the famous historian ofGreek religion (Harrie 1934), who had been Wide's pupil during his time in Lund. A movable professorship, given to Axel Boethius (1889-1969)in Gothenburg in 1935 (Lindberg &, Nilsson 1996:I:164f), was made permanent, and a fourth chair with a slightly different title was established in Stockholm in 1948, paid for by a subscription in honour of the centenary of the birth of Viktor Rydberg, an 19'"-century writer with a profound classical knowledge. Among the contributors may be noted a well-known classical scholar and teacher in classical languages, Johan Bergman, whose radio lec- Fig. 2. A concoction ofancient —and new —frag- ture "Arvet från antiken" (The heritage from ments by Giovanni Piranesi (in his work Vasi, candelabri, cippi, sarcofagi, tripodi, lucerne ed Antiquity) was published for the benefit of ornamenti antichi, Rome 1778, Pl 91) bought by the subscription (Bergman 1928). Gösta Säf- King Gustaf III as an authentic antique and now lund (1903-) was appointed as the first holder exhibited in the Medelhavsmuseet in Stockholm. of the chair (Inbj udan 1948).

Current Swedish Archaeology, Vol. 8, 2000 1 98 Charlotte Scheffer

Åkerström (1902-91) (Åkerström 1973; Styrenius 1974; Wells forthcoming). The new subject created in 1909 was given the title of Klassisk fornkunskap och antikens historia (Classical Archaeology and Ancient History) and even at that time it was extremely large and wide-ranging (Wikander 1986; Bergquist k Gierow 1987:9-12). It included all aspects except the purely philological, spanned over an enormous period of time from the Palaeolithic to the end of Antiquity somewhere around A.D. 500, i.e. both prehistory and history in all its aspects, and covered an area including all the lands that had at one time or another been touched by the Mediterranean cultures. The width and breadth of the subject seem to have been fairly original, subjects abroad being usually studied in separate parts, such as archaeology, art history, history, etc. It goes Fig. 3. Martin P:son Nilsson, the first Professor without saying that many ofthese aspects still of Classical Archaeology and Ancient History at await treatment in scholarly work or in Lund, l909-39. From the festschrift published teaching, but the opportunities exist. The on his retirement in 1939. most obvious division of the subject was into two parts, studies concerned with either Of almost equal importance for the textual or material evidence. development of the subject was the decision At first, naturally enough, as everybody to open an archaeological institute in Rome. who worked on the new subject had studied Many had advocated the establishment of an classical languages as their main subject, institute at Athens, especially after the much early work was based on literary sour- excavations of Asine started in 1922, with ces, but soon there was an about-tum. It al- the support of the then Crown Prince, later most seems as ifthe wish to put some distance King Gustaf VI Adolf (1882-1973). From between the new subject and the classical 1898, however, Johan Bergman had given languages resulted in dissertations and other historical-archaeological summer courses in works being based almost exclusively on Rome, and in 1909, Wilhelm Lundström, archaeological sources. This trend was further Professor of Latin, had arranged for a course strengthened by the new excavations under- in Rome which was later discussed in a wider taken from the early 1920s at Asine (1922- context (Bergman 1901; Lundström 1910; 30), Dendra (1926-39),Berbati (1935-38)and Förslag 1913).As an outcome of the dis- Asea (1936-38) and in Messenia (1926-36) cussions and on the initiative of the Crown and (1927-31)(Styrenius 1974; Hägg Prince, an institute was inaugurated in Rome forthcoming; Åström et al. 1994).These were in 1926 (Boethius 1960; Östenberg 1976). the golden years of Swedish excavation in The first director was Axel Boethius (Hanell Greece and it is perhaps symptomatic that 1949). It was more than twenty years before almost all these sites have been taken up the institute in Athens became a reality in again by the Swedes. In 1954, the Swedish 1948. Its first permanent holder was Åke part of the material found during the Swedish

Current Swedish Archaeology, Vot. 8, 2000 Stttdiing Classicat Archaeotot9: and Ancient Historyin S@eden 199

Cyprus Expedition became the nucleus of a new museum, the Medelhavsmuseet (Muse- um of Ancient and Near Eastern Antiquities) (Vessberg 1961; Styrenius 1994). After the war, again with the support of King Gustaf VI Adolf, excavations started in Etruria, the second important area of Swedish field investigation, at San Giovenale (1956-63), Luni sul Mignone (1960-63) and Acquarossa (1966-75) (Östenberg 1976:84-93, 98-100). These excavations, and other smaller ones, encouraged generations of students to take up field archaeology and influenced the choice of subjects for much future work. It is not surprising that so many took the oppor- tunity of going abroad and obtaining material that could be used as a point of departure for their dissertation and the possibility of writing it as a participant in an important archae- ological project. Asine and Acquarossa have been the most successful projects in this respect. Of the permanent appointments at the four universities of Gothenburg, Lund, Stockholm and Uppsala, more than 50% are held at present by persons who have written dissertations or other important works based on material from Acquarossa or Asine. Fig. 4. The excavators of Asine, A. W Persson, The preponderance of archaeological and Professor of Classical Archaeology and Ancient art-historical subjects has not failed to attract History at Uppsala, 1924-51, and O. Frödin, a attention during the last few decades (Wikan- Nordic archaeologist. Drassing by CHJ:sen der 1984:91-97; Montgomery 1987:161, Cartsén. From Asine. De svenska utgrävningarna, in 1931 A. W. Persson. 165), especially since the study of the clas- published by sical languages has tended towards more philological questions and, in the case of character of the subject, which was therefore Latin, towards the later Latin that is perhaps re-titled Antikens kultur och samhällsliv more relevant for Sweden. I shall return to (Ancient Culture and Society) (Furumark the question of the subjects chosen for 1984:5),a title more in tune with the modern, dissertations shortly in dealing with the 102 anti-elitist and anti-historical society in spite dissertations written since 1909, but first the of the voices raised against the difficulty of reform of the universities in 1969 must be identifying the subject with its counterparts touched upon. It was intended to shorten the abroad and of understanding what the subject study time for doctorates and to make the actually was about at home (Lindberg & studies more suitable to possible future Nilsson 1996:II:110fl;in English, the old title occupations. The subject's title was changed; has therefore been retained. Before this time, words such as klassisk and fornkunskap were university credits in the classical languages considered to be antiquated and to emphasize were required; after the reform, only studies the allegedly exclusive and unprofitable at school level or none at all —were de-

C«rrent Ssvedish Archaeology Vot. 8, 2000 200 Charlotte Scheffer manded. The reform may now be said to have antiquity in general. failed in some respects, though maybe not in When looking at the subjects chosen for all. The study time was not shortened and dissertations during the ninety years between students were not better prepared for future 1909 and 1999, it therefore seems profitable professions. Previously most postgraduate to divide the dissertations into two parts, students had been prepared for a school those before 1970 and those from 1970 to career, but afterwards, with this possibility the present, i.e. a first period of 60 years and no longer open because of the lack of a second of only 30. A hundred and two languages, students tended to be mainly dissertations have been publicly defended by motivated by an interest in culture or members of seminars in Classical Archae-

Fig. 5. Swedish excavations in the Mediterranean area between 1788-1999 witlt the exception of Egypt and the Near East. 1. Karthago 1979-80. 2. San Simone 1986-89. 3. Acquarossa 1966-75, 1979, 1991. 4. Selvasecca 1965-71. 5. Luni sul Mignone 1960-63, 1989, 1992. 6. San Giovenale 1956-63, 1965, 1999. 7. Rom: 1788 (Forum Romanum, Basilica Julia), 1938-39, 1949, 1957, 1959, 1965, 1968- 69 (mainly minor, check-up excavati ons), 1983-85 (Scandinavian excavation of the Temple of Castor in the Forum Romanum), 1993, 1995, 1998 (San Loreneo in Luci na), 1996-99 (Prima Porta). 8. Nordic and Italian excavation at Ficana 1975-81. 9. Ardea 1929-35, 1952-53. 10. Nordic excavation at Nemi 1998- . 11.Aphidna 1894. 12. Kalaurei a 1894, 1997, 1999. 13. Berbati 1935-38, 1953, 1959, 1994-95, 1997. 14. Dendra-Midea 1926-27, 1937, 1939, 1960, 1962-63, 1983-91, 1994- . 15.Asine 1922, 1924, 1926, 1930, 1970-74, 1976-78, 1985, 1989-90. 16. Asea 1936-38, 1997. 17. The Swedish Messenia Expedition 1926-27, 1929, 1933-34, 1936, 1952. 18. Chania 1970-84, 1987, 1989-90. 19. Paradeisos 1975-76. 20. Larisa 1902, 1932-34. 21. Labraunda 1948-51, 1953, 1960, 1988-89. 22. Cyprus. Minor explorations by Gjerstad 1924, the Swedish Cyprus Expedition 1927-31, Sinda 1947-48, Kalopsida and Agios Jakovos 1959, Hala Sultan Tekke 1971- . To the excavations above may be added the following surveyst Northern Istria 1990-91, Acquarossa 1989, area of Luni 1987-88 and 1990, the archaeological-historical study of drover's trails in southet n Italy 1996, Berbati 1988-90 and 1999, Asea 1994-96, and the excavations of Pallantion and Tegea and the survey on Kephalonia undertaken by the Norwegians and Danes, respecti vely, under the cegis of the Swedish Institute. Map by the author partly based on map in I4ikander 1986.

Currenr Szvedish Archoeoiogy, Vol. 8, 2000 Studyi ng Classical Archaeotogy and Ancient Bistoiy i n Sw'eden 201

and art-historical subjects is a fact; about 30% of all dissertations can be said to be mainly based on litera- ry, epigraphical or numis- matic material. Of the 30 historical dissertations, 17 are from the first period and 13 from the second, and of the 13, five are from the 1990s.Though histori- cally-based dissertations have at no time formed a large part, the production seems steady enough and Fig. 6. Il re archeologo (the royal archaeologis t) Gustaf VI Adolf is even to some small etrcavating together with Roland Påfsson, the fotnner Custodian of extent increasing. Of the Antiquities, at Acquarossa in I972, sho& tlv before the kings ninetieth five dissertations from the bit Photo: D. na. thday Kuylenstier 1990s, one is based on Mycenaean material, three ology and Ancient History. About a dozen on Greek textual evidence and one on Roman others, which treated similar subjects but Imperial material. With the decreased num- were defended as, for instance, dissertations ber of Swedish excavations in the 1980s in history, history of art, history of religion, followed a changed pattern in dissertation Latin or Greek have not been included. The subjects, but it is also quite evident that the dissertations include 30 from Gothenburg, 29 students nowadays who actually go in for from Lund, 13 from Stockholm and 30 from classical languages do so more intensely and Uppsala. One doctor from Gothenburg, seven that some at least are becoming more and from Lund, two from Stockholm and sixteen more aware of the possibility of combining from Uppsala became professors in Sweden. the two parts of the subject. Thirty-four dissertations are from the first Dissertations based on material from the period which is twice as long as the second, prehistoric and historical periods (before and but the later period has produced 68, that is, after 700 B.C., respectively) are in a ratio of exactly twice as many. From this, it is obvious 2:3.The eastern half of the Mediterranean is that the influx of students was much greater preferred in the ratio of roughly 2: I, i f Magna during the second period. As this was accom- Graecia is counted as West. No special panied by a vast increase in the number of schools are easily observable, not even more undergraduates, about 10 or 15 times as many than a few followers of great professors such as in the 1960s, as well as in administrative as Martin P:son Nilsson or Einar Gjerstad duties, and did not lead to a corresponding (1897-1988). The fairly strong element of increase in teaching posts, the consequence Cypriote studies at Gothenburg must be due has been that most research is being done by to Paul Åström (1929- ), professor between postgraduate students and not by their 1969 and 1994 (Åström 1999); Gothenburg professors, and the production has decreased has relatively few historical dissertations, (Wikander & Wikander 1995: 197). Lund only one after 1969 and Uppsala c. 47% Among the dissertations of both periods, the in all. Both at Gothenburg and at Uppsala, suspected preponderance of archaeological the eastern half of the Mediterranean world

Curvent Swedish Archaeology, Vvt. tt, 2000 202 Charlotte Schelfer is much preferred. At Lund and Stockholm, permanent income may be accepted, on the the choice of areas is indifferent. It is probable general assumption that students who do not that these preferences mirror the interests of have to think about supporting themselves the professors. At Gothenburg and Uppsala, will be more dedicated and thus finish earlier. the professors have been mainly or ex- In this way, it is assumed that more students clusively interested in the eastern half of the will finish their dissertations in shorter times, Mediterranean world, whereas at Lund and the approved time limit being four years. Stockholm, the interest has been more varied. Since 1998 only two new postgraduate It is also noticeable that, once their disserta- students have been accepted in all the four tions had been defended, many of the new departments together. doctors turned to subjects in completely The need of knowledge of foreign lan- different fields. The subjects of dissertations guages, besides Greek and Latin, may be one may be chosen and are chosen freely and of the reasons for the long study times. individually at all the four departments. Besides English, and depending on the Given the archaeological bias, purely his- chosen field of research, it may be necessary torical works are few and philosophical works for the student to understand German, French, are non-existent. Remarkably enough, the Italian, Modern Greek or some other langu- new trends in archaeology, although dis- age, at least to some degree. The dissertations cussed among classical archaeologists, have are nowadays almost invariably written in left no wide, discernible influence in written English. All in all nearly three out of four work. Detailed, theoretical discussions are (71) were written in English, the rest being avoided, a trend which is, however, shared divided between German (20), French (6), with most European classical archaeologists. Swedish (3) and Italian (2). Most of the dis- Furthermore, of the 102 dissertations, sertations in German were, of course, written 58% were written by men and only 42% by in the early part of the century when contacts women. The first woman to defend her disser- with German classicists were close. tation was Birgitta Tamm (1930-92)of Stock- A further problem is the growth of new holm University, in 1963. She was followed evidence and the number of pages written by three more women doctors during the about it. That this is one of the reasons for 1960s. In the second period, however, the the longer study time is self-evident, when numbers changed: men wrote 43% of the dissertations and women 57%. As a consequence, women at present predominate, but not much, in both teaching and research positions, with 55% against the 45% of men. Among the 74 postgraduate students, the tendency is exactly the same, 55% against 45%. Twenty have their studies funded by their univer- sities (19) or a foundation (I). In order to come to terms with the still long study times, a new re- form was effected in 1998. Only Fig. 7. Photographic documentation by a Svvedish student students that are supported the by during the Scandinavian excavation in the Forum Ron&anum universities, a foundation or a in 1983. Photo: C. Gretnne.

Curren( Ssvedish Archaeotogy, Vot. tt, 2000 Stttdying Classical Archueology und Ancient Bistod in Ssveden 203 one considers the ages at which dissertations Swedish excavations in the Mediterranean have been defended. The oldest person so far countries is over, but excavation continues was Albert Berg von Linde (1897-1986)who on a smaller scale, together with other nations defended his thesis in Lund in 1979 at an or in the shape of surveys (cf. Medusa 1990:2; age of nearly 82. In the first period, only five 1996:2). Hopeful aspects, contrary to the defended their dissertations while still in their tendencies quoted above, are the new aware- twenties: in Uppsala, Erik Holmberg (1907- ness of the enormous possibilities of com- 97) at the age of 26 in 1933, Axel Boethius bining the two types of evidence between in 1918, Einar Gjerstad in 1926 and Gösta which there should be no difference of pur- Säflund in 1942, all at 29 years of age, and pose (Furumark 1984; cf. Andrén 1998, esp. in Lund, Paul Åström at the age of 28 in 1957. 1-25), the new fields of research, and the new In the second period, only one defended a problems less concerned with groups of dissertation at this early age: David Frankel, material and more with man's identity and in 1974 at the age of 29, one of a number of place in society, and, finally, the importance students of foreign nationalities invited by of the heritage from the classical past and Professor Åström to finish their studies in the questions of how it was —and is per- Sweden. A division of the subject has there- ceived by posterity. An added stimulus is the fore been discussed, chronologically into pre- growing interest in the historical past historic and historical periods, geographically observable in society in general. into areas such as East and West or according to type of evidence into history and archae- English revised by Neil Tomkinson. ology. While allowing depth, this would unfailingly make for too small and narrow ACKNOH'LEOGEMENTS departments with a great risk of inbreeding. I wish to thank all rny colleagues in Antikens The future of our subject, so glorious in kultur och samhällsliv, past and present, and the past, in spite of our small numbers and especially Brita Alroth, of Uppsala, Robin limited resources, is thus uncertain and Hägg, of Gothenbuig, andÖjtan Hikander, problematical. The period of large-scale, of Lund.

Cttrrettt Steedish ttrchaeologi:, Voh 8. 2000 204 Charlotte Scheffer

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