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Drevne Seobe I. Putokaz Kroz Antropološke Teme Emil Heršak [email protected] / [email protected] Mobitel: 098 1777-880

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Drevne Seobe I. Putokaz Kroz Antropološke Teme Emil Heršak Ehersak@Ffzg.Hr / Ehersak@Gmail.Com Mobitel: 098 1777-880 Drevne seobe I. Putokaz kroz antropološke teme Emil Heršak [email protected] / [email protected] mobitel: 098 1777-880 Antropogeneza Određivanje protagonista • Rod Homo pojavljuje se u prepoznatljivom obliku na prijelazu u pleistocensku epohu, koja je počela prije 2.500.000 godina. • Pleistocen bijaše vrijeme velikih klimatskih mijena – ledenih i međuledenih doba, koja su poticala evolucijski hod. • Međutim, prvi preci hominida vjerojatno su se odvojili od stabla njima najsrodnijih primata još prije 7.000.000–6.000.000 godina, možda potkraj srednjega miocena, ili na početku pliocena. • Tijekom srednjega miocena (otprilike 16.000.000–12.000.000 PD) različite vrste čovjekolikih majmuna (primjerice iz roda Dryopithecinae) nastanili su golem prostor od Afrike i Europe do Indije i Kine; na tu ekspanziju djelovala je nova konfiguracija kopna, točnije nastanak kopnene veze između Afrike i Euroazije, preko Arabijske ploče, prije 17 milijuna godina. Rasprostranjenost čovjekolikih majmuna u miocenu i pleistocenu • U srednjem miocenu pojavio se i Ramapitek, koji je jedno vrijeme izgledao kao dobar kandidat za prvog pretka hominida - i tada se pojavio i Gigantopitek, najveći majmun koji je ikada živio. • Gigantopitek je preživio do pleistocena, pa je moguće da su ga susreli (i lovili) rani hominidi (na području kriptozoologije, gigantopitek se često smatra pretkom bića poput jetija u Tibetu, alme u srednjoj Aziji, saskvača ili "bigfoota" u Sjevernoj Americi, itd.). Problem Ramapiteka Vrsta Ramapithecus pronađena je 1930-ih godina u Indiji, i nazvana prema Rami, jednog od avatara boga Višnua; srodna ili istovjetna vrsta Sivapithecus nazvana je po indijskom božanstvu Śivi; razlike između Ramapitheka i Šivapiteka vjerojatno odražavaju seksualni dimorfizam u istoj vrsti; Ramapitek je živio prije 14.000.000 do 8-7.000.000 godina u sjevernoj Indiji i Istočnoj Aziji. Antropolozi Elwyn LaVerne Simons (1930 – 2016) i David R. Pilbeam (1940–) smatrali su Ramapiteka prvim pretkom hominida. Ipak genetska istraživanja uklonili su mogućnost da se Ramapitek nalazio na ishodištu hominida: tj. potkraj 1960-ih Allan Wilson (1934–1991) i Vincent Sarich (1934–2012) s Kalifornijskoga sveučilišta u Berkeleyju ispitali su krvnu bjelančevinu majmuna i ljudi i utvrdili da se čovjek i njemu najsrodniji majmun, čimpanza, razlikuju samo u 2% krvne genetike; ta se podjela zbila tek prije 5 milijuna godina, a Ramapitek je, dakle, živio prerano da bi ga se moglo smatrati hominidom; godine 1977. nova je rekonstrukcija čeljusti Ramapiteka također opovrgla tezu o njegovoj hominidnosti. Ramapitek se danas obično smatra pretkom azijskih čovjekolikih majmuna, osobito orangutana. Azija ili Afrika • Danas u Africi žive većina čovjekolikih majmuna: gorila, čimpanza i bonobo (jedino su orangutan i gibon u Aziji); zato je Charles Darwin (1809–1883) zaključio da je nešto vjerojatnije da su i ljudi potekli iz Afrike; ipak smatrao je to "beskorisnom" spekulacijom. • Potkraj 19. i na početku 20. st. među europskim znanstvenicima prevladavalo je mišljenje da je Azija ishodište povijesti, i to sukladno filozofiji ex Oriente lux. • Premda su fosili pračovjeka bili otkriveni još 1854. u dolini Neander kod Düsseldorfa, smatralo se da je ljudska vrsta potekla iz Azije, ili iz "Lemurije". Hrvatski prijevod kartografskog prikaza Ernsta Haekela o raseljavanju ljudi iz "Lemurije" (1887). 2 • Pod tim utjecajima Eugène Dubois (1858–1940) pošao je na otočje Nizozemske Istočne Indije, između Azije i "ostataka Lemurije", gdje je 1891–1892. kod Trinila uz rijeku Solo na otoku Javi otkrio dio lubanje, zubi i kosti vrste čovjeka s vrlo arhaičnim crtama • Godine 1927. Davidson Black (1884–1934), na osnovi proučavanja gornjega kutnjaka nađenog još 1921., predstavio je svijetu pračovjeka iz spilje Zhoukoudian kod Beijinga – Sinanthropus pekiniensis; potkraj 1929. kineski arheolog Pei Wenzhong (1904–1982) iskopao je ključni dokaz – gotovo potpuni gornji dio lubanje. Hipoteza o Lemuriji Godine 1864. engleski orintolog Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913) tvrdio je da na Madagaskaru i na Maskarenskim otocima (Réunion, Mauricijus) postoje ostaci velikog kontinenta koji je nekada bio središtem roda lemura (stirps lemurum), pa je i predložio naziv "Lemurija" . Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), smatrao je da je "Lemurija… nedvojbeno legitimna i vrlo vjerojatna pretpostavka, te primjer načina kako proučavanje zemljopisnoga rasporeda životinja može nam omogućiti rekonstruiranje zemljopisa minuloga vijeka" (1876). Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) smjestio je na Lemuriji prastanište vrste koju je prozvao Pithecanthropus. Afričko podrijetlo Otkriće Australopiteka • Godine 1921. u mjestu Kabwe (nekada Broken Hill) bila je pronađena lubanja tzv. rodezijskog čovjeka; no bio je to napredniji tip hominida (danas se smatra da je riječ o H. erectus-u ili o arhaičnom H. sapiens-u. • No ključni je nalaz uslijedio 1924. kada je Raymond Dart (1893–1988) nabavio lubanju iz Taunga, na osnovi koje je predložio uvođenje novog taksonomskog roda majmuna-ljudi – Australopithecus africanus ("južni majmun afrički"). Dječak iz Taunga Raymond Arthur Dart, bio je australski anatom koji je preuzeo profesuru u Witwatersrandu u Južnoj Africi 1922. godine. Dvije godine poslije (1924) u posjed mu je dospijela lubanja "dječaka iz Taunga", koju je geolog Robert Burns Young (1874–1949) pronašao u uredu rudarske tvrtke "Northern Lime" u mjestu Taung na sjeveru Južne Afrike (činovnicima tvrtke dotad je služila kao uteg za papir). Prema tom primjerku Dart je iznio tezu o novom taksonomskom rodu majmuna-ljudi (Homo-simiadae), a za pronađeni primjer, ponudio je naziv Australopithecus africanus. "Dječak iz Taunga" živio je prije 2,3 milijuna godina i imao je oko tri godine kada je umro. Na osnovi ožiljaka na lubanji, moguće je da ga je u smrt odnijela neka velika ptica grabilica. • Robert Broom (1866–1951) u desetak godina rada po transvaalskim spiljama (Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai) iskopao i lubanje odraslih australopiteka, i dijelove zdjelice i kralježnice, koji su potvrđivali da je "južni majmun" hodao uspravno; utvrdio je da su postojale barem dvije vrste: jedna manja i gracilnija, druga upadljivo jača. Prva je odgovarala Dartovu tipu africanus. Drugu je Broom nazvao Paranthropus robustus. • Dodatne potvrde afričkoga podrijetla rezultirale su iz rada kenijsko-britanskog paleontologa Louisa Leakeya (1903–1972) i članova njegove obitelji. • Mary Leakey (1913–1996), druga i profesionalno ključna supruga Louisa, otkrila je u guduri Olduvai lubanju nalik na snažnije primjerke s juga Afrike, ali još robusniju: Zinjanthropus boisei. Homo habilis • 1960. Leakeyev prvi sin Jonathan sa suprugom Mary pronašao je u Olduvaiu donju čeljust i dva komada lubanje drukčijeg hominida (mladunca ili djeteta); do 1963. Leakeyjevi su iskopali dva slična primjerka po kojima se moglo zaključiti da je riječ o vrsti s nešto većim mozgom, manjim zubima i manje 3 isturenom čeljusti; u opisu fosila surađivali su Dartov asistent Phillip Vallentine Tobias (1925–2012) i primatolog John Russell Napier (1917–1987); nađeno je i grubo kameno oruđe. • Louis Leakey se uvjerio da je riječ o najstarijem predstavniku roda Homo, a ne o australopiteku; obavijestio je Darta, koji je na Leakeyjevu molbu za novu vrstu predložio ime Homo habilis. • U travnju 1964, u časopisu Nature, Leakey, Tobias i Napier predstavili su H. habilis-a znanstvenoj javnosti. • Međutim, sve do danas, prema Richardu Leakeyu (1944–) H. habilis ostaje problematična vrsta i vrlo "varijabilna". Pojednostavljenje taksonomije • Njemačko-američki evolucijski biolog Ernst Mayr (1904–2005) spojio je javanskog pitekantropa, pekinškog sinantropa i slične taxa fosilis u kategoriju Homo erectus; poslije je Francis Clark Howell (1925–2007) uveo opću shemu po kojoj se svi hominidi trebaju razvrstati ili u Australopithecinae ili u rod Homo. Tako su Broomov Paranthropus robustus i Leakeyjev Zinjanthropus boisei postali Australopithecus robustus i Australopithecus boisei • F. Clark Howell objavio je 1965. i knjigu Early Man (= Rani čovjek), u popularnoj znanstvenoj biblioteci Time-Life, koja je uvelike utjecala na shvaćanja o ljudskoj evoluciji; u knjizi se nalazila i glasovita ilustracija "Hod napretka" (engl. March of progess), koju je izradio slikar Rudolph Franz Zallinger (1919–1995). Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) • U studenom 1974. kod Hadara u Etiopiji, francusko-američka "afarska ekspedicija", koju su predvodili Yves Coppens (1934–), Maurice Taieb (1935–) i Donald Johanson (1943–), pronašla je ostatke kostura malene "Lucy", nazvane Australopithecus afarensis; "Lucy" je živjela prije 3,2 milijuna godina, no njezini su srodnici nastanjivali istok Afrike već prije 3,8 milijuna godina • Potvrda uspravnog hoda (Laetoli): 1976. u mjestu Laetoli (Olduvai) Mary Leakey otkrila je trag stopala dvonožnog hominida (zacijelo australopiteka) u sloju vulkanskog pepela istaloženog prije 3,6-3,75 milijuna godina. Ardipitek i stariji primjerci australopiteka • U prosincu 1992. Gen Suwa (1954–), član ekipe Tima Whitea, pronašao je u etiopijskoj pustinji Aramis, u Afarskoj regiji (70–80 km od Hadara), ostatke hominida, datiranog 4,4 milijuna godina u prošlost. U izvješću iz 1994. koristila se oznaka Australopithecus ramidus, prema riječi "korijen" iz afarskoga jezika, što je trebalo podsjećati na "korijen hominidnog stabla"; poslije se uvela nova rodovska odrednica Ardipithecus, tj. "zemni majmun". • 1995. Meave Leakey (1942–) i Alan Walker (1938–2017) objavili su otkriće australopiteka starog 4,2– 3,9 milijuna godina. Prozvali su ga Australopithecus
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