Author Index 791

Subject Index

Page numbers in bold show an entire chapter about that subject achievement see also assessment and testing program evaluation 756–76 and teacher evaluation 709–10, 712 reading 444, 449–52, 454–6 underachievement 168, 169–70 self-assessment 505, 570, 616, 619 acquisition–learning distinction 126, speaking 413–14, 429–32 128–30 standardized tests 450–1, 502–4, 533, action research 207, 590, 654–5, 694–5 534, 554, 611–15, 616, 617 activity theory 686–7 task-based testing 582, 585 adjunct models 212 test conditions 414 age of learner 465, 738, 761 test validity see validity of tests analytic syllabi 296, 383–5 vocabulary 550, 554–6 Anglo-Saxon bias see Western influence writing 501–7 aptitude-treatment research 738 attentional resources 239, 245, 303, 384, artificial grammar learning 128–9 396–7, 526, 682, 731, 732 “artificial” texts 317–18 audio, digital 365, 401, 407 aspect 86 audiolingualism 45 assessment and testing authenticity classroom assessment 449–50, 455, corpora 336 504–5, 615–17 data-driven learning 339 computer-assisted 365–6, 637–40 reading texts 454 diagnostic feedback 610–22, 639–40 of tasks 314, 316–17 dynamic assessment 535, 616, 686 textbooks 313–14, 315–18, 383, 387 effectiveness of instructionCOPYRIGHTED726–46 authoring MATERIAL tools 358–60 examiner effects 430, 504, 533 automatic processing 397, 419–20 grammar 532–5 automatization 126–7, 131, 240, 245, informal assessment 455 397, 442, 467, 523, 526–7, 731, 732, innovations 660, 669–71 734 listening 405–7 autonomy in language learning 208 needs analysis see needs analysis pragmatics 569–73 behaviorism 45 proficiency tests for heritage speakers bilingual education 161, 163–78 196–7 biliteracy 168, 171–2 792 Subject Index biocultural diversity and linguistic collocation 331 diversity 33 colloquial speech, corpora 334–5 “black box” 676, 677, 766 colonization 28 blogs 361, 628 Common European Framework of Bologna process 36–7 Reference (CEFR) 36, 38, 366, 431, borrowing 13–14 495, 502, 505, 621, 739 brain, role in language-learning 65–77 communicative approaches (BNC) 152, 336, Communicative Language Teaching 345, 545 (CLT) 44, 245–7, 297, 412, 426, 580, 659, 735 CANCODE corpus 334 computer-assisted language learning capacity, developing 527 (CALL) 352–3 category learning 148–9 and critical pedagogy 604 CHILDES corpus 336 and cultural variation 664–5 chunking 147, 387 grammar 525 classroom assessment as innovation 670 as diagnostic tool 615–17 Less Commonly Taught Languages of reading 449–50 (LCTLs) 245 of writing 504–5 pragmatics 561 classroom research 675–98, 743 teacher education 651 COBUILD corpus 328, 336–7, 338, 520 textbooks 313, 315, 321–3 code-switching 13–14, 17, 19–20, 238 communicative competence 15, 140, 194, cognate languages see transfer (cross- 245, 297 linguistic) competence–performance distinction cognitive theories 119–20 and assessment 618, 621 competencies, teacher 715–16 Cognition Hypothesis 304 complexity 739–40 of grammar 520 compliments 149 of teachers 663 comprehensible output see output cognitive-psychological processes production generally 119–32 comprehension 113–15, 131, 464 grading and sequencing tasks 303–5 computer-assisted language learning in learning to write 487–90 (CALL) of listening 395–7 and glossing 550–1 noticing 261, 305, 384, 526, 530, 567, for learning (generally) 351–66 631, 632, 679, 731–2, 734 teacher attitudes to 667 phonological awareness 167, 442, 469, for teaching and testing 619, 628–40 471, 473–4, 478 vocabulary 550–1, 552–3 in study abroad contexts 222–3 computer-mediated communication zone of proximal development (ZPD) (CMC) 360–2, 631–7, 685 499–500, 688–90, 729 concordances 328–9, 553 see also corpus collaborative working studies learner collaboration/peer learning connectionism/connectionist theories 47, 213, 361, 362, 387, 488, 493–4, 499, 119, 120, 396, 466–7 689–90 consciousness-raising 212–13 teachers 212, 668, 723 construct validity 405, 449, 587, 743 teachers and researchers 746 constructions (as basic unit of language using CALL 357–8, 637 representation) 141–3, 147–9, 520–1 colligation 331–2 contact, language 13–14, 18 Subject Index 793 content validity 502, 503, 572–3 decoding skills, reading as 464 content-based approaches delayed feedback 425 content and language integrated DiagnOsis 618–19, 627–8 learning (CLIL) 36, 735 diagnostic assessment Content Based Instruction (CBI) 210–11 of learners 610–22, 639–40 grammar instruction 525 of teachers 708 controlled processing 397, 419 DIALANG 619, 621, 639 conversation analysis (CA) 569, 588, 689, dictogloss 400, 488, 686, 736 691 “difficulty” of languages 235–7 corpus studies digital audio 365, 401, 407 using corpus in teaching digital video 365, 401, 406–7, 630 327–45 diglossia 11–12, 18–21 CANCODE 334 discourse analysis 416, 418, 677 CHILDES 336 discourse knowledge, and reading 443–4 COBUILD 238, 336–7, 338, 520 “domain loss” 37 corpus-based grammars 520 dual track approaches 195–6 frequency and sampling approaches DVD see digital video 151, 152 dynamic assessment 535, 616, 686 genre analysis 498 L3 acquisition 252 economics of language policy in EU 37 MICASE 343 education Specific Purpose programs 205–6, 215 as commodity 29–30 spoken corpora 416, 417 economics of 35 using computer-mediated history of 46–56 communication (CMC) 636 endangered languages 33–5, 172–3, 174 vocabulary knowledge 543–5 see also heritage language learning corrective feedback see feedback end-user needs in materials design 312 Coxhead’s Academic Word List 343 English creolization 19 in code-switching 14 critical pedagogy 500–1, 598–602, 604, English as a lingua franca (ELF) 15, 201 692 English for Specific Purposes 202, 274 critical period 72–5, 189 see also Language for Specific cross-linguistic similarities and importance Purposes (LSP) for learning 106–16, 236–7 and globalization 12, 18–21, 22–3, Cultures and Languages Across the 29–30, 31, 37 Curriculum (CLAC) 36 enrichment programs 164 curriculum design see also materials errors design; syllabi correcting see feedback feminist critical pedagogy 602 error types in interlanguages 379–80 Freire’s models of 598–602, 603 L3 acquisition 251 for reading 453–4 as signs of progress 101 Cutting Edge series (Cunningham and in sociocultural models 499, 500 Moor) 315, 316, 320, 322 study abroad contexts 223 estimation (from sample), language data-driven learning 339–40, 343 learning as 139–53 deaf learners 165–6 ethics, in writing assessment 506–7 declarative–procedural distinction 120–1, ethnicity 10, 692 126–7, 300–1, 421–2, 428, 523, 649, ethnographic sociolinguistics 14–16, 734–5, 746 690–3 794 Subject Index

European Common Framework 36, 38, negative feedback 374, 376, 377, 378, 366, 431, 495, 502, 505, 621, 739 380, 381, 384, 387, 524, 679, 681–2, 683 European Language Portfolio 619 and oral communication 425–6 , language policies 36–8 prompts 531, 682 evaluation recasts 384, 490, 531, 681–3, 689 diagnostic see diagnostic assessment reformulations 488 of effects of L2 instruction 726–46 self-correction 488, 632, 689 formative evaluation 615–17, 707–8, in sociocultural models 499, 500 757, 768 in task-based learning 581, 584, 585, of methodological principles 377–8 587 program evaluation 582, 756–76 via technology 355, 630, 631 summative evaluation 707, 708, 756–7, writing 489–90, 492–3 768 feminist critical pedagogy 601–2 examiner effects 430, 504, 533 figuratives 547–9 excellence, in teachers 710–12 fluency experimental instruction studies 741–2 assessment 745 explicit versus implicit learning frequency and sampling approaches cognitive processes 121–3, 125–6, 151–3 128–9 nativelike fluency 140, 151–3, 189, 190, form-focused instruction 736–7 191 frequency and sampling approaches reading 446–7 149 study abroad 220, 222, 223 grammar teaching 528–9, 531 vocabulary 553 heritage language learners 187, 188–9 focus on form listening 403 and computer-assisted language pragmatics 564, 566–8 learning 353 teaching methodologies 381, 683–4, grammar 525–6, 739 732–4, 743 task-based learning/teaching 581, 583, exploratory practice 695–6 584 extensive reading 445, 549–50 as teaching method 302, 373, 384–5, 387, 681, 683–4, 736–7, 743 face-to-face communication compared to writing 487–9, 490 computer-mediated communication focus on forms 632–5 history of 53 factor analysis 122 study abroad contexts 222 fast mappings 144 as teaching method 300, 381–6, 580, feedback 684, 737, 741 computer-assisted language learning formative assessment see also diagnostic (CALL) 355, 630, 631 assessment computer-mediated communication of learners 615–17 (CMC) 632 of programs 757, 768 corrective feedback 302, 374, 384, of teachers 707–8 681–2, 689, 732 form-focused instruction see focus on form delayed feedback 425 fossilization 96–8, 186, 380, 532, 535, 729 diagnostic feedback in assessment fragmentation 416–18, 420 610–22 frequency in usage-based language evaluating teachers 706–23 acquisition 143–51 explicitness 130 fronting 83 grammar 489–90, 493, 531–2 functionalism 466, 519–20, 677 Subject Index 795

Fundamental Difference Hypothesis idioms 140, 546–9 (FDH) 186–7 imaging studies of the brain 69–70, 71–5 imitation 687–8 gender, of learner 336, 601–2, 685, 691, immersion education 161–3, 170–8, 692–3 383–4, 386, 524, 678–9, 736 Generative Linguistics 519 immigrants 182–97 genocide, linguistic 34 imperatives 342 genres implicature, formulaic 564, 571 and corpora 333–4, 341, 342–3 implicit learning see explicit versus genre analysis and specific purposes implicit learning; focus on form instruction 205–6, 209, 213–14 indigenous languages genre-based writing instruction 496–8, heritage language learners 182–97 501 revitalization 35, 172–3, 174 globalization 12, 18–21, 22–3, 29–30, 31, individualized instruction 387, 530–1, 37 618, 713–14, 738 glosses 550–1 inductive learning 129, 528, 737 grading and sequencing tasks 303–5 “inert knowledge problem” 523, 526 grading tests 503–4, 534 inferencing 444–5 grammar informal assessment 455 corpus-driven grammars 337 informed teaching 711–12 grammaring 526–7 innatist view of grammar-translation method 45–6, 52 46–7 grammatical innovations 13 inner speech 687–8 grammatical syllabi 296–7 innovations in study abroad contexts 224, 225 659–71 teaching and testing 296–7, 518–35, 651 input-focused approaches and trends in teaching 651 grammar 524–5 input enhancement 525 handheld devices 365 input hypothesis 678, 683 head teachers/principals 668, 716 Less Commonly Taught Languages Headway series (Soars & Soars) 311, 315, (LCTLs) 245 316, 318, 320, 321 pragmatics 561–2 heritage language learning 182–97, 477, reading 472, 476–7 691 speaking 423–4 history, of language teaching 42–61 study abroad contexts 226–7 home languages, effect on achievement see task input 583 transfer (cross-linguistic) as teaching method 384, 387, 730–1, 737 homonymy 72 vocabulary 549–50 Hot Potatoes 354, 356, 357, 358–9, 365 inspections 717, 720 human rights, linguistic 30, 32–5 instruction, effects of 726–46 see also hybrid approaches 195–6, 212, 630, 776 assessment and testing Hypertext program 552–3 instructional experiments 684 intention to learn 711 IATEFL 29 interaction identity interaction analysis 677, 678–83, 690–3 heritage speakers 183 interaction hypothesis 679, 681 language use 15 study abroad contexts 226–7 specific purposes 206–9 Interchange series (Richards et al.) 311, study abroad contexts 228 315, 321–2 796 Subject Index interdependence hypothesis 166–7, 176, language rights 335 448 Language to go series (Crace and Wileman) interface, strong/weak hypotheses 126–7 315, 316, 317, 321 interlanguages 81–3, 98–101, 237–44, 253, language–brain research 65–77 378–80, 466 large-scale assessment 501–4, 506, 590, internalization of new language 687–8, 731 611–15, 617 International Corpus of English (ICE) learnability hypothesis 380, 524 332, 335 learner corpora 343–4 International Testing learners System (IELTS) 450, 507, 614 as centre of language development item learning 110–14 378 item–rule distinction 123–4 internal syllabus 378–81, 387 learner autonomy 255–6, 259, 660, 666, knowledge–use distinction 124 667 role and status (history of) 58–60 L1 influence on L2 learning management systems (LMS) 360 frequency and sampling approaches 88 Less Commonly Taught Languages interlanguages 81–3 (LCTLs) 234–47 pragmatics 565 letter–sound correspondences 441–2 reading 441–9 lexical bundles 546–9 transfer see transfer (cross-linguistic) lexicon writing 465–7, 471–2 lexical syllabi 299–300, 338 L2 as medium of instruction 10–11, lexical transfer 240, 253–4 16–17, 20, 52–3, 55–6, 185 see also vocabulary knowledge see vocabulary immersion education; study abroad knowledge research lingua francas L3 acquisition corpora for 335–6 generally 250–63 English 15, 201 cross-linguistic similarities 108, 109, Latin 43, 49 115–16 linguicism (linguistic hierachization) 28 language camps 221 linguistic diversity 32–5 language change 13–14 Linguistic Threshold hypothesis 448 Language Contact Profile (LCP) 226–7 listening language death 33 teaching and testing 395–408 Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) technology 630–1 generally 201–15 literals 547–9 and corpora 340–3 literature, educational focus on 29 needs analysis 274 logic models 759–65 language laboratories 327, 676 longitudinal studies 97, 222, 452, 492, language learning, history of 46–56 564, 565, 588, 636, 686, 689 language policies generally 26–38 maintenance, language 12, 16–17 see also and innovations 660, 661, 670 heritage language learning and L3 instruction 257–9 markedness theory 13–14, 93, 238–9, 251 language-in-education policies 10–11, materials design 16–17, 18, 21–3, 34–5 generally 311–24, 581–2 needs analysis on a national scale 273 innovations 665–6 social contexts 10–11, 16–17 pragmatics 568–9 task-based learning/teaching 590 tasks 583–5 Subject Index 797 meaning, negotiation for 227, 581, 632–6, morphological awareness 469–70, 477 679, 680–1 reading 443–4 meaning-focused instruction (MFI) see motivation communicative approaches; task- effectiveness of instruction 730 based learning/teaching listening comprehension 398 means analysis 206, 276 reading 447 medium of instruction see also immersion teacher evaluation 711 education; study abroad research multilingualism see also bilingual L2 as 10–11, 16–17, 20, 52–3, 55–6, 185 education monolingual instruction strategies individual 32, 34 175–6 societal 11–13, 32, 163–4 MEG (magnetoencephalography) studies multiple skills profiles 613 70, 71–2 “multi-syllabus” approach 320–1 memory 223, 395–7, 682, 731 see also multi-word units, learning 546–9 attentional resources mentoring 708 nativelike fluency 140, 151–3, 189, 190, messaging services (computer) 357, 361 191 metacognition native-speaker intuition 329–30 and L3 acquisition 254–5, 258, 259 native-speaker models in corpora 334–5 and listening comprehension 401–2, Natural Approach 383, 735 404 naturalistic language acquisition 98–101, and reading 444–5 728, 730 Metacognitive Awareness Listening nature versus nurture debate 47 Questionnaire (MALQ) 402 needs analysis metalinguistic awareness frequency and sampling approaches as cognitive process 122–3 140 and effectiveness of instruction 733 generally 269–87 and grammar teaching 529 materials design 312 and L3 acquisition 254–5 program evaluation 759, 766 and reading 468–70, 471–2, 474–5 radical language teaching 604 in study abroad contexts 224 specific purposes instruction 204–7 methodological principles 373–94 task-based learning/teaching 581, 589 MICASE corpus 343 and teaching methodologies 382, 383 Michigan English Language Assessment negation 86–8, 379 Battery (MELAB) 614 negative feedback see feedback minority languages negative transfer 112 and bilingual education 163–4, 165, negotiated syllabi 208, 295 173–4 negotiation for meaning 227, 581, 632–6, heritage language learners 182–97, 477, 679, 680–1 691 neurolinguistics 65–77, 396–7, 398 mixed-method approaches 195–6, 213, “New Key” 45 630, 776 non-cognate languages see Less Modern Language Association (MLA) 29 Commonly Taught Languages monolingual instruction strategies 175–6 (LCTLs); transfer (cross-linguistic) MOOs 351, 360 non-mainstream approaches to language morphology teaching 595–605 grapho-morphological relationships non-native speaker models for corpora 469 335–6 morpheme order 84–5 non-verbal cues (gesture etc.) 397, 398 798 Subject Index noticing 261, 305, 384, 526, 530, 567, 631, influence of closeness of typological 632, 679, 731–2, 734 match 241–2 notional-functional syllabi 297–8, 332 and neurolinguistics 69, 70–1 phonological awareness 167, 442, 469, observation techniques 277, 279, 615–16, 471, 473–4, 478 676, 677, 766 plagiarism 340 official languages 10–11 planning oral language see also listening language planning 10–11 face-to-face communication compared to program planning 759–62 computer-mediated communication tasks 425, 488–9, 584 632–5 policy, language see language policies spoken corpora 334–5 politics, language teaching and 26–38, spoken grammar 532–3 595–605 teaching and testing speaking 412–33 polysemy 71–2, 144 orthography portfolios grapho-morphological relationships learning portfolios 505, 619 469 teaching portfolios 719, 721–2 grapho-phonological relationships postmodernism 15 441–2, 469 practice, in learning 130–1, 152, 245 orthographic distance between practitioner research 693–7 languages 242–3, 472, 476, 478–9 pragmatics reading 464 cross-cultural communication 243–4 outcomes listening 398 of L2 instruction 726–46 pragmatic competence 636–7 program evaluation 756–76 sequential development 565–6, 568 teacher evaluation 709–10, 712 speaking 415–20 output hypothesis 678–9, 682–3 study abroad contexts 225–6 output production 424–6, 487–9, 526, teaching and testing 560–73 527, 551, 682, 683, 737 pre-listening 399, 402, 407 overgeneralization 94–6, 99 pre-reading 445, 453 Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) parameter setting 254 paradigm 321, 422, 523–4 parents evaluating teachers 716–18, pre-writing 491–2 720 principals/head teachers 668, 716 partial scoring 534 print, exposure to 445–6 pausing 414, 416, 418, 430, 432 prior knowledge, using 176, 397, 448, pedagogic procedures, as different to 468, 520–2 see also transfer (cross- methodological principles 376–7 linguistic) peer-to-peer working private speech 687–8 learner collaboration/peer learning procedural transfer 111–14 214, 361, 362, 387, 488, 493–4, 499, process approach to writing 490–4, 689–90 497 peer evaluation of teachers 718 process syllabi 209 performance reviews, teachers’ 716 processes of learners personalization see individualized automatic processing 397, 419–20 instruction controlled processing 397, 419 phonology generally 93–101, 119–32, 730–1 grapho-phonological relationships “processing instruction” 683 441–2, 469 processing models of listening 396–7 Subject Index 799

processing models of reading 444–5 rater variability 430, 504, 533 processing models of speech 419–20 reading process-product approach to research bilingual education 174–5 709, 756, 757 learning to read in new writing systems production-focused activities 424–6 463–81 professional development (teachers’) 707, teaching and testing 441–55 719, 721 and vocabulary 550–1, 552 proficiency “real” language in use (corpora) 329–30 assessment see assessment and testing recasts 384, 490, 531, 681–3, 689 cross-linguistic similarities and reciprocal teaching 445 importance for learning 115–16 reciprocity conditions 417–18 and effectiveness of instruction 738–9 recoding 242–3 and experimental research 741 reflective teaching 649, 721–2 of heritage learners 189–93, 196 reflexivity 686 Less Commonly Taught Languages reformulations 488 (LCTLs) 236, 238 register oral language 413–14, 421, 428, 430–3 and corpus usage 333–4 proficiency profiles 616–17 and writing instruction 496–8 proficiency threshold and study abroad relative clauses 90–3 220, 221–2, 229 religion, effect on language eduction 48, reading 449 51–3 testing vocabulary 554–5 repair moves 632, 633 program evaluation 756–76 repetition 144–5 prompts 531, 682 representation–processing distinction 120 pronunciation 423–4 research techniques prosody action research 207, 590, 654–5, 694–5 semantic 333 aptitude-treatment research 738 speech segmentation 399–400 classroom research 675–98, 743 prototypes 148–9 longitudinal studies 97, 222, 452, 492, psycholinguistics 564, 565, 588, 636, 686, 689 cognitive-psychological processes observation 277, 279, 615–16, 676, 677, 119–32 766 cross-linguistic similarities and practitioner research 693–7 importance for learning 106–16, process-product approach to research 236–7 709, 756, 757 frequency and sampling approaches qualitative research 282, 284 139–53 quantitative program evaluation input-focused approaches see input- 768–72 focused approaches stimulated recall 491, 681, 686 neurolinguistics 65–77 systematic observation techniques 676, sequences and processes 81–101 677 pushed output 487–9, 682, 683 think-aloud protocols 255, 475, 491, 678, 744 qualitative research 282, 284 restructuring 95–6 quantitative program evaluation 768–72 rights analysis 207–8 rote learning 44 racism 692 radical language teaching 475, 595–605 sampling (statistical), language learning as Rapid Automatic Naming 446 139–53 800 Subject Index scaffolding 209, 214, 403, 499, 584, 689 societal multilingualism 11–13, 32 scripts see also orthography sociocultural models see also pragmatics and computers 366 computer-mediated communication influence of closeness of typological (CMC) 636–7 match 242–3 sociocultural classroom research learning to read in new writing systems 684–90, 692 463–81 study abroad contexts 227, 228 segmentation teaching 648 speech segmentation 468, 469, 473–4 writing instruction 498–501 word segmentation 399–400, 469, zone of proximal development (ZPD) 473–4, 478 499–500, 688–90, 729 self-assessment sociopolitics learners’ 505, 570, 616, 619 context of bilingual education 163–4 teachers’ 719, 721–2 Less Commonly Taught Languages self-correction 488, 632, 633, 689 (LCTLs) 234–5 semantics radical language teaching 595–605 abstract meanings 338 writing instruction 501 radical awareness 475 speaking semantic preference 332 spoken corpora 334–5 semantic processing 683 spoken grammar 532–3 semantic prosody 333 teaching and testing 412–33 semantics in corpora 332–3 specific purpose programs 201–15 sequential development speech acts 225, 226, 418, 560, 567–8, effectiveness of instruction 729 677 language learning 83–93, 98–101 stakeholders in language teaching pragmatics 565–6, 568 programs 758–9 syllabus design 295, 298–9, 302, 426–8, standardized tests 530 diagnostic feedback 611–15, 616, 617 task-based teaching 303–5, 426–8, 581 grammar 533, 534 teaching methodologies 303–5, 378, reading 450–1 380, 426–8, 581 vocabulary 554 Silent Reading 445 writing 502–4 Silent Way 43, 373, 382 statistical sampling, language learning as similarities, cross-linguistic 106–16, 139–53 236–7 stimulated recall 491, 681, 686 simplification 94, 112 Structural Conformity Hypothesis (SCH) “sink or swim” programs 165 239 situated learning 497 see also pragmatics structural syllabi 298–9, 302 social constructionism 203 Student Evaluation of Teaching (SET) social dimensions of language teaching 718–19, 723 grammar testing 535 study abroad (SA) research 218–30, 730 listening 397–8 submersion education see immersion reading 448 education sociolinguistic factors in study abroad subtractive approaches 11, 30, 34, 319 contexts 225 summative evaluation 707, 708, 756–7, sociolinguistics 10–23, 690–3 768 sociolinguistics versus sociology of syllabi language distinction 9 corpora 337–8 speaking 416 grammar teaching 529–30 Subject Index 801

needs analysis 275 teaching methodologies negotiated syllabi 208, 295 communicative approaches see notional-functional syllabi 297–8, communicative approaches 332 effectiveness of (generally) 708–14, reading 453–4 744–6 speaking 426–8 and evaluation 714–15 structural syllabi 298–9, 302 grammar 523–6 syllabus design 294–306 history of 46–56 text-based syllabi, for specific purposes for Less Commonly Taught Languages instruction 209–10 244–7 textbook syllabus structure 320–3 listening 398–405 symbolic competence 246 methodological principles 373–94 syntactic priming 526 pragmatics 563–9 syntax see grammar reading 452–4, 480 synthetic syllabi 275, 295–6, 301, 381–5 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) system learning 111–14 see task-based learning/teaching teaching cycles 427 target tasks 295, 301 vocabulary 549–53 task-based learning/teaching 300 writing 490–501 authenticity of tasks 314, 316–17 team teaching approaches 211, 668 computer assessment tools 638 technical vocabulary 545–6 computer-assisted language learning technology (CALL) 356 assessing pragmatics 571–2 computer-mediated communication assessing reading 455 (CMC) 634 assessing writing 505–6 context of setting 664–5 computer assisted teaching and testing grammar 299 214–15, 492–3, 628–40 listening 403, 406 computer-assisted language learning motivation 730 (CALL) see computer-assisted pragmatics 568–9 language learning speaking 424–6, 429–30 computer-mediated communication target tasks 295, 301 (CMC) see computer-mediated task repetition 427 communication task syllabi 301–3 digital audio 365, 401, 407 teacher attitudes to 666 digital video 365, 401, 406–7, 630 as teaching method 228, 354, 358, 376, materials using technology 351–66 386, 578–91, 661, 735 see also corpus studies teachability hypothesis 380 specific purposes instruction 214–15 teachers teaching writing 492–3 diagnostic competence 615–16 text support in computer applications evaluating teachers 706–23 630–1 innovations 659–71 temporality, expression of 85–6, 87 language teacher education 647–55 TESOL 29, 690 materials creation 354, 357–8 Test of English as a native/non-native speakers 58 (TOEFL) 450–1, 503, 613–14, 638 needs analysis 287 testing and assessment practitioner research 693–7 classroom assessment 449–50, 455, role in computer-mediated 504–5, 615–17 communication 635 computer-assisted 365–6, 637–40 802 Subject Index testing and assessment (cont’d) transitional bilingual education 161, diagnostic feedback 610–22, 639–40 168 dynamic assessment 535, 616, 686 type frequency 143, 145–7 effectiveness of instruction 726–46 typological distance of L1 and L2 examiner effects 430, 504, 533 110, 236–44, 251–3, 256–9, 521–2, grammar 532–5 532 informal assessment 455 innovations 660, 669–71 underachievement 168, 169–70 listening 405–7 unit structures in textbooks 321–3 needs analysis see needs analysis Universal Grammar 44, 47, 82, 186, 238, pragmatics 569–73 254 proficiency tests for heritage speakers universals, reading 467–8 196–7 usage-based language acquisition 142–53, program evaluation 756–76 520, 527 see also Language for Specific reading 444, 449–52, 454–6 Purposes self-assessment 505, 570, 616, 619 U-shaped behavior 95–6 speaking 413–14, 429–32 standardized tests 450–1, 502–4, 533, validity of tests 534, 554, 611–15, 616, 617 computer assessments 639 task-based testing 582, 585 construct validity 405, 449, 587, 743 test conditions 414 content validity 502, 503, 572–3 test validity see validity of tests value-added interventions 775 vocabulary 550, 554–6 varieties of languages writing 501–7 corpora 335 text support in computer applications language variation 13–14 630–1 local variation used for assessment text-based syllabi, for specific purposes purposes 506–7, 535 instruction 209–10 video, digital 365, 401, 406–7, 630 textbooks vocabulary knowledge generally 311–24 reading 443 history of 54–5 teaching and testing 543–56 theory/practice distinction in teacher technical vocabulary 545–6 education 650–4 technological approaches 630–1, 632, think-aloud protocols 255, 475, 491, 678, 633 744 time-pressure conditions on speech washback effect 429, 502 417–18 WebQuests 362 token frequency 143–5, 148–50 Western influence, pervasiveness of 29, transcripts, appraising 413–14 313, 322–3, 494, 590, 602 transfer (cross-linguistic) wikies 361, 628 generally 106–16, 379 word frequency 330, 338 grammatical 522, 532 word knowledge see vocabulary immersion education 167, 169–70, 176 knowledge inaccurate transfer 259 word order, sequential development interference (negative transfer) 112 89–90 L3 acquisition 251–4, 259 Word Pilot 344 Less Commonly Taught Languages word recognition 442, 446, 473–4 (LCTLs) 237–44 word segmentation 399–400, 469, 473–4, reading 448, 465–7, 471–3 478 Subject Index 803 writing word recognition 442 bilingual education 174–5 writing centers 492 effect of writing systems on learning to read 463–81 zero relations (lack of similarities between influence of closeness of typological L1 and L2) 109 match 242–3 zone of proximal development (ZPD) teaching and testing 486–507 499–500, 688–90, 729