Author Index 791 Subject Index Page numbers in bold show an entire chapter about that subject achievement see also assessment and testing program evaluation 756–76 and teacher evaluation 709–10, 712 reading 444, 449–52, 454–6 underachievement 168, 169–70 self-assessment 505, 570, 616, 619 acquisition–learning distinction 126, speaking 413–14, 429–32 128–30 standardized tests 450–1, 502–4, 533, action research 207, 590, 654–5, 694–5 534, 554, 611–15, 616, 617 activity theory 686–7 task-based testing 582, 585 adjunct models 212 test conditions 414 age of learner 465, 738, 761 test validity see validity of tests analytic syllabi 296, 383–5 vocabulary 550, 554–6 Anglo-Saxon bias see Western influence writing 501–7 aptitude-treatment research 738 attentional resources 239, 245, 303, 384, artificial grammar learning 128–9 396–7, 526, 682, 731, 732 “artificial” texts 317–18 audio, digital 365, 401, 407 aspect 86 audiolingualism 45 assessment and testing authenticity classroom assessment 449–50, 455, corpora 336 504–5, 615–17 data-driven learning 339 computer-assisted 365–6, 637–40 reading texts 454 diagnostic feedback 610–22, 639–40 of tasks 314, 316–17 dynamic assessment 535, 616, 686 textbooks 313–14, 315–18, 383, 387 effectiveness of instructionCOPYRIGHTED726–46 authoring MATERIAL tools 358–60 examiner effects 430, 504, 533 automatic processing 397, 419–20 grammar 532–5 automatization 126–7, 131, 240, 245, informal assessment 455 397, 442, 467, 523, 526–7, 731, 732, innovations 660, 669–71 734 listening 405–7 autonomy in language learning 208 needs analysis see needs analysis pragmatics 569–73 behaviorism 45 proficiency tests for heritage speakers bilingual education 161, 163–78 196–7 biliteracy 168, 171–2 792 Subject Index biocultural diversity and linguistic collocation 331 diversity 33 colloquial speech, corpora 334–5 “black box” 676, 677, 766 colonization 28 blogs 361, 628 Common European Framework of Bologna process 36–7 Reference (CEFR) 36, 38, 366, 431, borrowing 13–14 495, 502, 505, 621, 739 brain, role in language-learning 65–77 communicative approaches British National Corpus (BNC) 152, 336, Communicative Language Teaching 345, 545 (CLT) 44, 245–7, 297, 412, 426, 580, 659, 735 CANCODE corpus 334 computer-assisted language learning capacity, developing 527 (CALL) 352–3 category learning 148–9 and critical pedagogy 604 CHILDES corpus 336 and cultural variation 664–5 chunking 147, 387 grammar 525 classroom assessment as innovation 670 as diagnostic tool 615–17 Less Commonly Taught Languages of reading 449–50 (LCTLs) 245 of writing 504–5 pragmatics 561 classroom research 675–98, 743 teacher education 651 COBUILD corpus 328, 336–7, 338, 520 textbooks 313, 315, 321–3 code-switching 13–14, 17, 19–20, 238 communicative competence 15, 140, 194, cognate languages see transfer (cross- 245, 297 linguistic) competence–performance distinction cognitive theories 119–20 and assessment 618, 621 competencies, teacher 715–16 Cognition Hypothesis 304 complexity 739–40 of grammar 520 compliments 149 of teachers 663 comprehensible output see output cognitive-psychological processes production generally 119–32 comprehension 113–15, 131, 464 grading and sequencing tasks 303–5 computer-assisted language learning in learning to write 487–90 (CALL) of listening 395–7 and glossing 550–1 noticing 261, 305, 384, 526, 530, 567, for learning (generally) 351–66 631, 632, 679, 731–2, 734 teacher attitudes to 667 phonological awareness 167, 442, 469, for teaching and testing 619, 628–40 471, 473–4, 478 vocabulary 550–1, 552–3 in study abroad contexts 222–3 computer-mediated communication zone of proximal development (ZPD) (CMC) 360–2, 631–7, 685 499–500, 688–90, 729 concordances 328–9, 553 see also corpus collaborative working studies learner collaboration/peer learning connectionism/connectionist theories 47, 213, 361, 362, 387, 488, 493–4, 499, 119, 120, 396, 466–7 689–90 consciousness-raising 212–13 teachers 212, 668, 723 construct validity 405, 449, 587, 743 teachers and researchers 746 constructions (as basic unit of language using CALL 357–8, 637 representation) 141–3, 147–9, 520–1 colligation 331–2 contact, language 13–14, 18 Subject Index 793 content validity 502, 503, 572–3 decoding skills, reading as 464 content-based approaches delayed feedback 425 content and language integrated DiagnOsis 618–19, 627–8 learning (CLIL) 36, 735 diagnostic assessment Content Based Instruction (CBI) 210–11 of learners 610–22, 639–40 grammar instruction 525 of teachers 708 controlled processing 397, 419 DIALANG 619, 621, 639 conversation analysis (CA) 569, 588, 689, dictogloss 400, 488, 686, 736 691 “difficulty” of languages 235–7 corpus studies digital audio 365, 401, 407 using corpus linguistics in teaching digital video 365, 401, 406–7, 630 327–45 diglossia 11–12, 18–21 CANCODE 334 discourse analysis 416, 418, 677 CHILDES 336 discourse knowledge, and reading 443–4 COBUILD 238, 336–7, 338, 520 “domain loss” 37 corpus-based grammars 520 dual track approaches 195–6 frequency and sampling approaches DVD see digital video 151, 152 dynamic assessment 535, 616, 686 genre analysis 498 L3 acquisition 252 economics of language policy in EU 37 MICASE 343 education Specific Purpose programs 205–6, 215 as commodity 29–30 spoken corpora 416, 417 economics of 35 using computer-mediated history of 46–56 communication (CMC) 636 endangered languages 33–5, 172–3, 174 vocabulary knowledge 543–5 see also heritage language learning corrective feedback see feedback end-user needs in materials design 312 Coxhead’s Academic Word List 343 English creolization 19 in code-switching 14 critical pedagogy 500–1, 598–602, 604, English as a lingua franca (ELF) 15, 201 692 English for Specific Purposes 202, 274 critical period 72–5, 189 see also Language for Specific cross-linguistic similarities and importance Purposes (LSP) for learning 106–16, 236–7 and globalization 12, 18–21, 22–3, Cultures and Languages Across the 29–30, 31, 37 Curriculum (CLAC) 36 enrichment programs 164 curriculum design see also materials errors design; syllabi correcting see feedback feminist critical pedagogy 602 error types in interlanguages 379–80 Freire’s models of 598–602, 603 L3 acquisition 251 for reading 453–4 as signs of progress 101 Cutting Edge series (Cunningham and in sociocultural models 499, 500 Moor) 315, 316, 320, 322 study abroad contexts 223 estimation (from sample), language data-driven learning 339–40, 343 learning as 139–53 deaf learners 165–6 ethics, in writing assessment 506–7 declarative–procedural distinction 120–1, ethnicity 10, 692 126–7, 300–1, 421–2, 428, 523, 649, ethnographic sociolinguistics 14–16, 734–5, 746 690–3 794 Subject Index European Common Framework 36, 38, negative feedback 374, 376, 377, 378, 366, 431, 495, 502, 505, 621, 739 380, 381, 384, 387, 524, 679, 681–2, 683 European Language Portfolio 619 and oral communication 425–6 European Union, language policies 36–8 prompts 531, 682 evaluation recasts 384, 490, 531, 681–3, 689 diagnostic see diagnostic assessment reformulations 488 of effects of L2 instruction 726–46 self-correction 488, 632, 689 formative evaluation 615–17, 707–8, in sociocultural models 499, 500 757, 768 in task-based learning 581, 584, 585, of methodological principles 377–8 587 program evaluation 582, 756–76 via technology 355, 630, 631 summative evaluation 707, 708, 756–7, writing 489–90, 492–3 768 feminist critical pedagogy 601–2 examiner effects 430, 504, 533 figuratives 547–9 excellence, in teachers 710–12 fluency experimental instruction studies 741–2 assessment 745 explicit versus implicit learning frequency and sampling approaches cognitive processes 121–3, 125–6, 151–3 128–9 nativelike fluency 140, 151–3, 189, 190, form-focused instruction 736–7 191 frequency and sampling approaches reading 446–7 149 study abroad 220, 222, 223 grammar teaching 528–9, 531 vocabulary 553 heritage language learners 187, 188–9 focus on form listening 403 and computer-assisted language pragmatics 564, 566–8 learning 353 teaching methodologies 381, 683–4, grammar 525–6, 739 732–4, 743 task-based learning/teaching 581, 583, exploratory practice 695–6 584 extensive reading 445, 549–50 as teaching method 302, 373, 384–5, 387, 681, 683–4, 736–7, 743 face-to-face communication compared to writing 487–9, 490 computer-mediated communication focus on forms 632–5 history of 53 factor analysis 122 study abroad contexts 222 fast mappings 144 as teaching method 300, 381–6, 580, feedback 684, 737, 741 computer-assisted language learning formative assessment see also diagnostic (CALL) 355, 630, 631 assessment computer-mediated communication of learners 615–17 (CMC) 632 of programs 757, 768 corrective feedback 302, 374, 384, of teachers 707–8 681–2, 689, 732 form-focused instruction see focus on form delayed feedback 425 fossilization 96–8, 186, 380, 532, 535, 729 diagnostic feedback in assessment fragmentation 416–18, 420 610–22 frequency in usage-based language evaluating teachers 706–23 acquisition 143–51 explicitness 130 fronting 83 grammar 489–90, 493, 531–2 functionalism 466, 519–20, 677 Subject Index 795 Fundamental Difference Hypothesis idioms 140, 546–9 (FDH) 186–7 imaging studies of the brain 69–70, 71–5 imitation 687–8 gender, of learner 336, 601–2, 685, 691, immersion education 161–3, 170–8, 692–3 383–4, 386, 524, 678–9, 736 Generative Linguistics 519 immigrants 182–97 genocide, linguistic 34 imperatives 342 genres implicature, formulaic 564, 571 and corpora 333–4, 341, 342–3 implicit learning see explicit versus genre analysis and specific purposes implicit learning; focus on